CHAPTER ONE

NATURE AND SCOPE OF MARKETING RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

When research is used for decision-making, it means we are using the methods of science
to the art of management. Every organization operates under some degree of uncertainty.
This uncertainty cannot be eliminated completely, although it can be minimized with the
help of research methodology. Research is particularly important in the decision making
process of various business organizations to choose the best line of action (in the light of
growing competition and increasing uncertainty). For Example to understand the
expectations of customers or to understand behaviors of employees is one of the
challenging tasks for management in the era of global competition, which can be solved/
managed efficiently by research methodology.

TERM RESEARCH

• The term ‘Research’ consists of two words:

Research = Re + Search

• ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out something, the following is
the process:

The research is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again and again from
different dimensions and collects the data and on the basis of data he draws some
conclusions.

Research in common context refers to a search for knowledge. It can also be defined as a
scientific and systematic search for gaining information and knowledge on a specific topic
or phenomena.

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1.1 Definitions of Research:

1. Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new

knowledge”.
2. Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from known to
unknown. It is actually a voyage to discovery.
3. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning
of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new
facts in any branch of knowledge.”
4. According to Clifford Woody “Research comprises of defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis”.

In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and
the formulation of a theory is also research.

On evaluating these definitions we can conclude that-Research refers to the systematic

method consisting of

 Enunciating the problem,

 Formulating a hypothesis,
 Collecting the fact or data,
 Analyzing the facts and
 Reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions towards the concerned
problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

4. Desire to be of service to society;

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5. Desire to get respectability.

1.2 SIGNIFICANCE (ROLE) OF RESEARCH

Research has its importance in each and every field because it inculcates scientific and
inductive thinking and promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and
organization. In modern times, the role of research, in business and for government has
increased manifold.

The following points bring out the significance of research:

1. It provides the basis for nearly all government policies in economic system. For
example, formulation of government budget, problem of working condition, trade
union, distribution problem, problems of small scale and large scale industries etc.
involve research for their solution.
2. It helps in solving various operations and planning problems of industry. For
example, market research may be used to study the structure of market, in order to
decide the size of the market, policies of purchase, sales and production, demand
of the product in the market etc.
3. It helps the students who are doing master’s degree and Ph.D. to attain a high
position in society and a good carrier.
4. It provides source of livelihood to professionals in research methodology.
5. It provides outlet for new ideas and insight to philosophers and thinkers, and help
them to achieve their self-esteem need.
6. It helps in generalizations of new theory, for analyst and intellectuals.
7. It helps the social scientists in studying social relationship and solving social
problems.

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:

Following are the characteristics of research;

Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.

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 Research requires expertise.
Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories
that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.
Research demands accurate observation and description.
Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous
analysis.
Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.
Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate
the procedures employed the data collected and the conclusions reached.
Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
Research sometimes requires courage.

1.4 Marketing Research:

Peter Chisnall1 points out that although the term ‘market research’ is now largely used as
a synonym for ‘marketing research’ there was originally a distinct difference between the
scopes of the activities they covered. Some confusion has been caused by the term ‘market
research’ being rather freely used to describe the full range of activities properly covered
by marketing research. Chisnall notes, however, that market or marketing research is
essentially about the disciplined collection and evaluation of specific data in order to help
suppliers understand their customer needs better. Moreover, since decision-making
necessarily involves some element of risk, the collection and evaluation of such data
should be used to reduce and control, to some degree, the parameters of risk surrounding
particular marketing proposals.

American Marketing Association defined marketing research as the function that links the
consumer, customer and public to the marketer through information – information used to
identify and define marketing opportunities and problems; generate, refine, and evaluate
marketing actions; monitor marketing performance; and improve understanding of
marketing as a process. Marketing research specifies the information required to address
these issues; designs the method for collecting information; manages and implements the

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data-collection process; analyzes the results; and communicates the findings and their
implications.

Any definition of marketing research has to take account of the changing role of research
in modern marketing. Marketing research connects the consumer, the customer and the
public to the marketer through the medium of information.

This information is used to distinguish and define marketing opportunities and threats or
problems. It is also used to create, improve and assess marketing actions and to monitor
marketing performance. It also helps to improve understanding of marketing as a process.
Marketing research identifies the information required to address these issues.

It comprises methods for collecting data, analysis of the data collected and its
interpretation, and communication of the findings and their implications. It takes account
of past experience, the present situation and the likely future so that marketing executives
can make sound decisions. This definition of marketing research underlines the role of
research in all phases of marketing, assisting and guiding the marketing efforts of the
organisation. Marketing research involves more than studies of specific problems or
specific situations, for it prevents problems arising in the first place. There is a need for
marketing research to be at the centre of decision-making. It is a fact-finding and
forecasting function that is used by all phases of marketing and even by other functional
aspects of an organization.

1.5 Types of Research

Despite the difficulty of establishing an entirely satisfactory classification system, it is
helpful to classify marketing research project on the basis of fundamental objectives of the
research. Consideration of the different types, their applicability, their strengths and their
weaknesses will help the student to select the type best suited to a specific problem.

I. On the basis of the outcome of the research: Whether the research tries to solve a
particular problem or makes a general contribution to the knowledge, research can be

a) Fundamental Research:

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Fundamental research is also called academic or basic or pure research. Such research is
aimed at investigating or search for new principles and laws. It is mainly concerned with
generalization and formulation of a theory. Fundamental research is organized only for the
attainment of knowledge and truth. With change of time and space, it is necessary to make
a change in the fundamental principles in every branch of science; thus, this type of
research also verifies the old established theories, principles and laws.

In general, fundamental research is concerned with the theoretical aspect of science. In

other words it studies the laws of nature, without or regardless of the immediate
application of its findings.
 E.g. The relationship between crime and economic status is an example of
pure (academic) research.
 Darwin Theory of Evolution

b) Applied research

A research aimed at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, a group
or industry (business organization). The results of such research would be used by
either individuals or groups of decision-makers or even by policy makers. While pure
research discovers principles and laws, applied research discovers their application in
solving some social, economic or any other problems.

II. On the basis of the purpose (The reason why a research is conducted) it can be-

a) Exploratory research (Pilot Survey)

It is also called preliminary research. As its name implied, such research is aimed at
discovering, identifying and formulating a research problem and hypothesis. When
there are few or no studies that can be referred such research is needed.

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b) Descriptive Research

The main purpose of such research is description of the state of nature or affairs, as it
exists at present. The main characteristic of such research is that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.

c). Analytic research

Analytical research on the other hand, goes beyond simple description of the state of
nature. When a researcher encounters an issue that is already known and have a
description of it, you may begin to ask “why” things are the way they are.

Analytical research uses facts or information already available, and analyzes them to make
a critical evaluation of the material. Not only describe the characteristics, but also it
analyzes and explains why and how it happened or is happening.

E.g.,

o How can we reduce the numbers of complaints made by customers?

o How can we expand the range of our services?
o How can we improve the delivery times of our products?

d) Predictive research

Such research goes beyond explaining why and how things happened. It predicts (forecast)
the possible (probability of happening similar situation in other places. It tries to explain
about the probability of happening similar thing in the future.

E.g.,

. What type of packaging will improve the sales of our products?

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III. On the basis of the process of research: That is, on the basis of data used in the
research process research can be

a) Qualitative research:

Such research is applicable for phenomenon that cannot be expressed in terms of quantity.
Things related to quality and kind. Research designed to find out how people feel or what
they think about a particular subject or institution is an example of such research.

b) Quantitative research

It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable for phenomenon

that can be expressed in term of quantity.

IV. On the basis of the environment in which the research is carried out research can
be

a) Field research

It is a research carried out in the field. Such research is common in social science,
agricultural science, history and archeology.

b) Laboratory research

It is a research carried out in the laboratory. These are commonly experimental research.

Such researches are common in medical science, agriculture and in general in natural
sciences.

V. On the basis of the time required to complete the research, research can be

a) One -time research (Cross- sectional) research; It is a research limited to a single

time period.
 A cross-sectional data set consists of a sample of individuals, households,
firms, cities, states, countries, or a variety of other units, taken at a given point
in time.

b) Longitudinal ( panel ) research

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Such research is also called on-going research. It is a research carried out over several
time periods.
 A panel data (or longitudinal data) set consists of a time series for each cross-
sectional member in the data set.
 As an example, suppose we have wage, education, and employment history for
a set of individuals followed over a ten-year period.
c) Time Series research
 A time series data set consists of observations on a variable or several
variables over time.
 Examples of time series data include stock prices, gross domestic product,
annual homicide rates, and automobile sales figures.
 Because past events can influence future events and lags in behaviour are
prevalent in the social sciences, time is an important dimension in a time series
data set.

1.6 QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps
to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it
certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole
whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion
which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.

3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or

more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for
external validity to research results.

4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified

by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

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2.0 STAGES IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research. These actions or steps are;

I. Formulating the Research Problem

II. Extensive Literature Survey
III.Developing the Research Hypothesis

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 IV. Preparing the Research Design
V. Determining the sample Design
VI. Collecting the Research Data
VII. Execution of the Project
VIII. Analysis of Data
IX. Hypothesis Testing
X. Generalization and Interpretation
XI. Preparing of the Report or Presentation of the result

Formulation of Research Problem: At the very outset, the researcher must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like to inquire into
and then research problem should be formulated.
Extensive Literature Survey: Once the problem is formulated the researcher should
undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the
abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the
first place to go to academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
books etc. must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
Development of Working Hypothesis: After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis
is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences. It’s very important or it provides the focal point for research.
Preparing the Research Design: After framing hypothesis we have to prepare a
research design i.e. we have to state the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of
research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with optimum
effort, time and expenditure. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the
research purpose.
Determining Sample Design: A sample design is a definite plan determined before
any data is actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. in census
inquiry we involve a great deal of time, money and energy so it it not possible in
practice under many circumstances. Sample designs can be either probability or non-
probability. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being

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 included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researchers to
determine this probability.
Collecting the Data: There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which
differ considerably in context of cost, time and other resources at the disposal of the
researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey.
In case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways;
 By observation,
 Through personal interview,
 Through telephonic interviews,
 By mailing of questionnaires or
 Through schedules.
Execution of the Project: Execution of project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to
be collected would be adequate and dependable .A careful watch should be kept for
unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey realistic as much as possible.
Analysis of Data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to
raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inference. Analysis
work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages;
coefficients etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process
of analysis, relationships of differences supporting or conflicting with original or new
hypothesis should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity
data can be said to indicate any conclusions.
Hypothesis Testing: After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test
the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis
or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which is to be answered by
applying various tests like ‘t’ test, ’F’ test etc. F test have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose .Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated.
Generalizations and Interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization i.e. to build a
theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at

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 certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might
seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
Preparation of the Report or the Thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the
report of what has been done by him. The layout of the report should be as follows;
the preliminary pages, the main text and end matter. The preliminary pages carry title,
acknowledgements and forward and then index. The main text of the report should
have introduction, review of literature and methodology.

CHAPTER- FOUR

Defining the problem and the research objectives

Contents
4.0 Aims and Objectives

4.1 Introduction

4.2 What is Research Problem?

4. 3 Sources of Research problem

4.4 Steps in Formulating a Research Problem

4.5 Consideration in formulating a Research Problem

4. 6 Criteria of a Good Research Problem

4.1 Introduction

Research forms a cycle; it starts with a problem and ends with a solution to the problem
and

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a possible implication for future research. Perhaps the most important step in the research
process is selecting and developing the problem for research. A problem well stated is a
problem half solved. Many students, far along in their research, find that their research
problems are too long, indefinite, trivial or not really researchable. These and many other
hazards are likely to stem from poorly selected and stated problems. A researcher must
find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to research. Like a
medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the symptoms (presented to him or observed
by him) concerning a problem before he can diagnose correctly. To define a problem
correctly, a researcher must know: what a problem is?

4.2 What is Research Problem?

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in

the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution.
Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution
for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be
attained optimally in the context o f a given environment. It is the determination of a
problem area within a certain context involving the, who, what, where, when and the why
of the problem situation.

Elements of a research problem: the elements of research problems are

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. This answers the question ‘why’ why
is there an investigation, inquiry to study.
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the question what.
3. The place/local where the research is to be conducted. This answers the question
where? Where the study to be conducted?
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This answers
the question when.
5. Population/universe from whom the data are to be collected. Answers the question
who or from whom.
Examples of research problems: to determine the performance of Micro and small scale
enterprises in Amhara region during the year 1995-2002 E. C.

 Aim or purpose-to determine the status/performance

 Subject matter-MSE

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  Place- Amhara region
 Period-period 1995-2002
 Respondents-implied
4. 3 Sources of Research Problem

In conventional sense, a problem is a set of conditions that need discussion, a solution or

information. A research problem, in contrast with a conventional problem, implies the
possibility of empirical investigation, i.e. data collection and analysis. A good research
problem should be one that is socially and scientifically important to investigation.
Research problem may arise from the following sources:

Personal Experience of Practical Situation- one’s day to day experience and observation
of the sounding real phenomena may suggest the need for a research to provide solution to
previously existing unresolved issue, or to unravel or manage a new situation. There are a
lot of such issues in our surrounding environment, that need solution, and/or that enhances
our knowledge and/or help to develop new theories, if researched.

Previous Research and Related Literature – reading research articles and journals,
books, magazines and other research outputs and literature bodies on the area of interest
gives the researcher an insight into various issues that could be studied. From such
reading, one may also identify research gaps which appear to justify additional research.
Moreover, deductions from existing theories may also suggest the need for a research to
unravel or mange a new situation.

Current Social and Political Issues- Contemporary debates, concerns or movements may
lead to a research. Changes are inevitable in the social, economic, political, cultural …etc.
life of a society. Such changes might be accompanied by new phenomena of life which
might create problem to a society at least until they are adopted. Hence, the need to know
the impact or influence and the implication of such changes for the life of different
sections of a society could be an important research problem that justify further research
endeavor in the area.

From Discussions with Peoples – peoples can make discussions with their friends,
students, neighbors, workers of different organizations, and with different members of the
society, of course on various socioeconomic, political, and other issues related to their life.
Listening at such discussions can give us an important insight to many important research
problems.

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Personal Motivation – an individual research may develop an interest to know certain
phenomena or events from different perspectives and/or in detail. This could give the
researcher, an insight to a number of research problems and/or questions, whose solution
or answer trigger research endeavors.

Lack of Information – Policy-makers, in order to formulate policy in various issues; and

decision– makers, in order to make various decisions; obviously need sufficient and
relevant information for their respective purposes. However, if there is no sufficient and/or
relevant information available at hand, then, this problem necessitates research endeavor
that could come up with the necessary information before dealing with the purpose at
hand.

4.4 Steps in Formulating a Research Problem

There are several steps to follow in formulating a Research problem

1. Identify broad fields of study. In which area are you most interested? E.g. Management,
Logistics, Accounting, Economics or Marketing

2. Dissect the broad area into sub-areas, E.g. HRM, Motivation, and Leadership

3. Select the sub-areas which you are most interested within the subject by considering
your knowledge, time, budget…etc

4. Raise research questions in questionnaire or interview guides.

5. Formulate research objectives: Research objectives are drive from research questions.
Research objectives and research questions are the same except the way they are written.

- Research questions are written in the form questions.

- Research objectives are written in the form of affirmative statement by using action-
oriented words, such as “to examine, “to ascertain”, “to measure”, “to investigate” etc.

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6. Assess objectives- evaluating the objectives in the light of the time, budget, technical
and professional expertise about the subject and other related resources.

7. Double check- go back and make sure that you have sufficient interest, time, resource
and expertise, if you are happy, then you jumps to next step.

Example: steps in formulating of a research problem

Step 1: identify Alcoholism

Step 2: dissect

 Profile of alcoholism
 The cause of alcoholism
 The process of becoming alcoholism
 The effect of alcoholism on a family
 Community attitude towards alcoholism
Step 3: select the effect of alcoholism

Step 4: raise question

1. What is the impact of alcoholism on family?

2. How does it affect the various aspects of children’s?

3. What are the effects on the family finance?

Step 5: formulate objective

Main objectives

To find out the effect of alcoholism on a family

Specific objectives

 To ascertain the impact of alcoholism on maternal relation.

 To determine the ways in which alcoholism affect the children life.
 To measure the effect of alcoholism
Step 6: assess the objective in the light of -The work involved, the time available, the
finance resource, Your and research advisor technical expertise in that area

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Step 7: double checking

1. That you are interest

2. That you agree with objective
3. That you have adequate resource
4. That you have the technical expertise to undertake the study

4.5 Consideration in formulating a Research Problem

There are a number of aspects to be considered in formulating a research problem/topic.

 Interest- sufficient interest must be achieved internally by the researcher to proceed.

 Magnitude - narrow the topic down in to manageable, clear and specific problem.
 Measurement Concepts- to reduce confusion among the response, every respondent
must
be clear with questions and measurement concepts to achieve the problem’s objective.
 Level of expertise- the level of knowledge is required to carry out the research work.
 Availability of data- you should have to determine whether you will get sufficient
data or
not.
 Availability of resource- time frame and budget and human resource.
 Ethical consideration (adverse effects)- the objective of the research is to solve the
problem.
 Relevance- either to fill a research gap or its importance for policy formulation.
4.6 Criteria of a Good Research Problem

A number of criteria in the form of conditions might be listed for guidance in the selection
of a topic.

I. Novelty-or-Originality: - It should be sufficiently original so that it does not

involve
objectionable duplication. Originality is the basic credit point of any research. Ignorance
of
prior studies may lead a student to spend time on a problem already investigated by some
other worker. Moreover the study should employ the most recent data.

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II. Interesting: - The problem should be interesting for the investigator himself. If s/he
is
not interested in it, s/he will not be able to face and overcome the obstacles which come at
every step in research. S/he should have a strong inherent motivation for it. His/her
interest
should be purely intellectual and should not be there only for a reward, material benefit,
and
advancement in position, increased authority and so.

III. Importance: - It should be significant enough and involve an important principle

or
practice. If it is not worthwhile, it neither adds to knowledge nor leads to any
improvements
in the current practices.

IV. Feasibility or Amenability: - The next question to be asked is whether research

into
the problem would be feasible. S/he should possess the required competence, knowledge
and understanding. S/He should be skillful enough to develop, administer and interpret the
necessary data- gathering devise and procedures.

V. Availability of Data: - The research work should ensure the availability of valid
and
reliable data gathering devices and procedures.

VI. Experience and creativity: - Good research problems stem from a clear
understanding
of the theoretical, empirical and practical aspects of the subject derived from personal
experience and from a thorough review of the literature. Conversely, lack of familiarity,
with the subject is almost sure to result in a poor choice.

VII .Courage and confidence: - Will I have the courage and confidence to purse the
study
inspire of the difficulties and social hazards that may be involved? Will I be able to work
aggressively when data are difficult to gather and when others are reluctant to cooperate?

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 CHAPTER FIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
Contents
4.0 Learning objectives
4.1 Meaning of research design
4.2 The significant of research design
4.3 Important concepts relating to research design
4.4 Features of a good research design
4.5 Types of research design
4.1 Meaning of Research Design

• A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study that is used as a guide in
collecting and analyzing the data.

• Actually it is a map that is usually developed to guide the research.

• “Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collection and analyzing the needed information.” .

• “Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to

obtain answers to research questions.

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The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the
preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research
design”. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning
an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. In fact, the research design is
the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for
the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline of
what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to
the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the desing decisions happen to be in respect of:

(i) What is the study about?

(ii) Why is the study being made?

(iii) Where will the study be carried out?

(iv) What type of data is required?

(v) Where can the required data be found?

(vi) What periods of time will the study include?

(vii) What will be the sample design?

(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?

(ix) How will the data be analysed?

(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

Thus we can say that a research design is the arrangement of condition for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to generalize the findings of the sample on the
population.

4.2 The Significant of Research Design

Research designs are used for the following purposes;

(i) To facilitate the smooth sailing : Research design is needed because it facilitates the
smooth scaling of the various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as
possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.

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(ii) To collect the relevant data and technique: Research design stands for advance
planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques
to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the
availability of staff, time and money. Poor preparation of research design upset the entire
project.

(iii)To provide blue print for plans: Research design is needed due to the fact that it
allows for the smooth working of many research operations. It is like blue print which we
need in advance to plan the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and
techniques to be used in its analysis for preparation of research project. Just as for better
economical and attractive construction of a house need a blue print and a map of that,
similarly we needs a blue print .

(iv) To provide an overview to other experts: A research design provides an overview of

all the research process and with the help of the design we can take the help and views of
experts design for the smooth flow of operation of research of that field .The design helps
the investigator to organize his ideas, which helps to recognize and fix his faults.

(v) To provide a direction: A research design provides a proper or particular direction to

the other executives and others who are helping us into the process. The researcher studies
available, literature and learns about new alternative approaches.

The main purpose of a research design is to enable the researcher to answer research
questions as validly, objectively, accurately and economically as possible. In more specific
terms, a research design sets up the framework for adequate tests of relationships among
variables. In a sense, it indicates what observations to make, how to make them, and how
to analyze the data obtained from observations. Moreover, a design specifies what type of
statistical analysis to use and can even suggest the possible conclusions to be drawn from
the analysis. Any research plan is deliberately and specifically conceived and executed to
bring empirical evidence to bear on the research problem.

4.3Important Concepts Relating to Research Design:

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the
various concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.
1. Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different
quantitative

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values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all
examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the
basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take
on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous
variables’.* But all variables are not continuous. If they can only be expressed in integer
values, they are non-continuous variables or in statistical language ‘discrete variables’.**
Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of children is an example of
non-continuous variable. If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other
variable, it is termed as a dependent variable ( is a variable that is predicted or
explained ), and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an
independent variable ( is the variable that is expected to influence the dependent
variable.) For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent
variable and age is an independent variable. Further, if in addition to being dependent
upon age, height also depends upon the individual’s sex, then height is a dependent
variable and age and sex are independent variables.

2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the
study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose
the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s
gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an
independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence
may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose
of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable.

4.4 Characteristics of Good Research Design

Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported
to be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields maximum
information and provides an opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is
considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. A good research design
possesses the following characteristics;

(i) Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and
scoring of the responses. The research design should permit the measuring instruments
which are fairly objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must

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precisely give the same report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be
judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to different
individuals by more than one independent observer. This ensures the objectivity of the
collected data which shall be capable of analysis and interpretation.

(ii) Reliability: It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For example,

if a respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the same
response to that item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the
same item, the consistency will be lost. So the researcher should frame the items in a
questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.

(iii) Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures
what it is expected to measure. For example, an intelligence test conducted for measuring
the IQ should measure only the intelligence and nothing else and the questionnaire shall be
framed accordingly.

(iv) Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be
utilized for drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample
is drawn. Thus a research design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided
he has taken due care in defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate
statistical analysis etc. while preparing the research design. Thus a good research design is
one which is methodologically prepared and should ensure that generalization is possible.
For ensuring the generalization we should confirm that our research problem has the
following characteristics

a)The problem is clearly formulated.

b) The population is clearly defined.

c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used to form an appropriate

sample.

d) Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out.

e) The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.

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(v) Adequate Information: The most important requirement of good research design is
that it should provide adequate information so that the research problem can be analyzed
on a wide perspective. An ideal design should take into account important factors like;

i) Identifying the exact research problem to be studied

(ii) The objective of the research

(iii) The process of obtaining information

(iv) The availability of adequate and skilled manpower and

(v) The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying research.

4 .5Types of Research Design

Research designs are classified in to three major categories: exploratory, descriptive, and
causal.
The choice of the most appropriate design depends largely upon the objective of the
research.

1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research

studies are also termed as formulate research studies. The main purpose of such studies is
that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working
hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on
the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such
studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of
a problem under study. In built flexibility in research design is needed because the
research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise
meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research
procedure for gathering relevant data.

2. Research design in case of descriptive research studies: Descriptive research studies

are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular
individual, or of a group, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of
facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of
descriptive research studies. Most of the social research comes under this category.
Descriptive research sets out to describe and to interpret what is. It looks at individuals,

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groups, institutions, methods and materials in order to describe, compare, contrast,
classify, analyse and interpret the entities and the events that constitute the various fields
of inquiry. It aims to describe the state of affairs as it exists.

For example, when we wish to know:-

 How many customers that a specific bank have,

 What services they buy and in what frequency,

 Which advertisement of service they recall, an

 What their attitudes are towards the bank and its competitors, we turn to descriptive
research, which provides answers to questions such as who, what, where, when, and how,
as they are related to the research problem. Typically, answers to these questions, are
found
in secondary data or by conducting surveys. Managers or/and decision makers often need
answers to these basic questions before they can formulate and implement any business

3. Research design in case of Causal Research: seeks to find cause and effect
relationships between variables. Causality may be thought of as understanding a
phenomenon in terms of conditional statements of the form “if x, then y”. These “if-then”
statements become our way of manipulating variables of interest. For example, if I spend
more on advertising, then sales will rise. Likewise, marketing managers are always trying
to determine what will cause a change in consumer satisfaction, a gain in market share, or
an increase sale strategies.

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 CHAPTER SIX AND SEVEN
QUALITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Learning objectives
after you study this chapter, you will be able to explain:

 What qualitative research is?

 What quantitative research is?
 the difference between qualitative and quantitative research approach

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is non-statistical and is typically unstructured or semi-structured in
nature. This data isn’t necessarily measured using hard numbers used to develop graphs
and charts. Instead, it is categorized based on properties, attributes, labels, and other
identifiers. Qualitative research is a process of inquiry with the goal of understanding a
social or human problem from multiple perspectives; conducted in a natural setting with a
goal of building a complex and holistic picture of the phenomenon of interest.

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Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or
experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that
are not well understood. Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended
questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts
and theories.
Qualitative data collection (How to get qualitative data).

There are many methods you can use to conduct qualitative research that will get you
richly detailed information on your topic of interest.

 Depth Interviews; the term depth interview has historically meant a relatively in
structured one-on-one interview. The interviewer is thoroughly trained in the skill
of probing and eliciting detailed answers to each question. Sometimes
psychologists are used a depth interviews.

 Focus groups. In-person or online conversation with small groups of people to

listen to their views on a product or topic. Today a focus group consists of 8 to 12
participants led by a moderator in an in depth discussion on one particular topic or
concept. The goal of focus group research is to learn and understand what people
have to say and why. The emphasis is on getting people talking at length and in
detail about the subject at hand. The intent is to find out how they feel about a
product, concept, idea, or organization, how it fits into their lives, and their
emotional involvement with it.

 Observational research. Observing people during the course of their habitual

routines to understand how they interact with a product.

 Documentation, where external and internal documents, such as memos,

electronic mails, annual reports, financial statements, newspaper articles,
websites, may be used as independent data sources or for corroboration of other
forms of evidence.
What is quantitative research?

Quantitative research is the systematic and scientific investigation of quantitative

properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is
to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural

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phenomena. Quantitative research is an inquiry into an identified problem, based on
testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analyzed using
statistical techniques; the goal is to determine whether the predictive generalizations of a
theory hold true

 Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or

confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to
establish generalizable facts about a topic.
 Common quantitative methods surveys (self-administered questionnaire) with
closed-ended questions and checklist.
 Quantitative data is statistical and is typically structured in nature – meaning it is more
rigid and defined. This type of data is measured using numbers and values, which
makes it a more suitable candidate for data analysis.

CHAPTER EIGHT

Measurements in Research
8.1 Definition of Measurements
Measurement may be defined as the process of assigning numbers to objects or
observations, the level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the
numbers are assigned. In technical terms, measurement is a process of mapping aspects
of a domain onto other aspects of a range according to some rule of correspondence. It is
easy to assign numbers in respect of characteristics of some objects, but it is relatively
difficult in respect of others. For instance, measuring things like social conformity,
intelligence, or marital adjustment is very difficult and requires much closer attention than
measuring physical weight, biological age or a person’s financial assets. In other words,

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the quantitative characteristics like weight, height etc., can be measured directly with some
standard unit of measurement, but it is not that easy to measure properties like motivation
to succeed, ability to stand stress and the like
8.2 Levels of Measurement
The levels of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
a) Nominal Scale
(b) Ordinal Scale
(c) Interval Scale
(d) Ratio Scale

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A. Nominal Scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning numbers symbols or letters to
events in order to label them.
These numbers are just convenient labels for the particular class of events and as such have no
quantitative value.
Thus the nominal scale simply allows the categorization of responses into a number of mutually
exclusive categories. We cannot do much with the numbers involved. For example, ‘one cannot
usefully average the numbers on the back of a group of football players and come up with a
meaningful value. Neither can one usefully compare the numbers assigned to one group with the
numbers assigned to another. The typical applications of nominal scale is in classification of
responses by a social class, like or dislike, yes or no, male or female and so on. The counting of
members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation when a nominal scale is
employed. Accordingly, we are restricted to use mode as the measure of central tendency. There
is no generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales. Chi--square test is the most
common test of statistical significance of association and for the measures of correlation we
calculate the contingency coefficient.
Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance
relationship and has no arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes differences between
units by assigning them to categories. In spite their limitations, nominal scales are very useful
and widely used in surveys when data are being classified by major sub-groups of the population.
Typical Statistics: Descriptive: Frequencies in each category, Percentages in each category,
mode & Cross tabulation. For Analyzing: Chi-Square test.
B. Ordinal Scale:
Allows the respondents to rank some alternatives by some common characteristics. It simply
places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms of
some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research relating to
qualitative phenomena. For example, a group of consumers may rank the three brands of
toothpaste on the basis of the perceived taste. Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items
from highest to lowest. Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the real differences
between adjacent ranks may not be equal. All that can be said is that one person is higher or
lower on the scale than another, but more precise comparisons cannot be made. Thus, the use of
an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’.
However, the magnitude of difference in ranks cannot be determined. The real difference
between ranks 1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference between ranks 5 and 6. Since the
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numbers of this scale have only a rank meaning, the appropriate measure of central tendency is
the positional average i.e. median. A measure of dispersion can be based on the percentiles or
quartiles of the distribution. Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods. Statistical
significance is tested through the use of non-parametric methods.
Numerical Operation: Rank ordering, For Describing: Median, Mode and Percentile.
For Analyzing: Rank order correlation, Sign test, Multi-dimensional scaling.
C. Interval Scale :
In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been
established as a basis for making the units equal. Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero point
with numbers placed at equally appearing intervals. It Measures strength of the equality of
differences between ranks. Interval scale takes care of the limitations of the nominal and the
ordinal scales. Interval scale also incorporates the concept of equality of interval and so provides
more powerful measurement than ordinal scales. A number of mathematical and statistical
operations in including addition, subtractions and computations of the mean can be performed on
the interval-scaled data. Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency, while standard
deviation is the most widely used measure of dispersion. Correlation is studied by the product
moment correlation coefficient.
The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of an absolute or true zero of
measurement. That is it does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a
characteristic. For example; how important is price to you while buying furniture?
Numerical Operation: Intervals between numbers, For Describing: Mean, Standard
Deviation, Variance.
For Analyzing: Correlation analysis, discriminate analysis, ANOVA and multi dimensional
scaling.
D. Ratio Scale :
We can conceive of an absolute zero of length or that of time. For example, the zero point on a
centimetre scale indicates the complete absence of length or height. But an absolute Zero of
temperature is theoretically unobtainable. Ratio scale has an absolute or true zero of
measurements. It represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical dimensions
such as weight, height, distance etc. come under this category. In general, all statistical
techniques are applicable with ratio scales and all mathematical operations that one can carry out
with real numbers can also be carried out with ratio scale values. Multiplication and division can

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only be used with the ratio scale, but not with other scales. Geometric and harmonic means can
be used as measures of central tendency and coefficients of variation may also be calculated.
Ratio scale measurements are the most powerful measurement discussed so far as they possess
all the properties of the measurement scales which we have discussed. Ratios of the numbers on
these scales have meaningful interpretation. They possess an unambiguous starting point.
The number of minor traffic-rule violations and the number of incorrect letters in a page of type
script represent scores on ratio scales. Both these scales have absolute zeros and as such all
minor traffic violations and all typing errors can be assumed to be equal in significance. With
ratio scales involved one can make statements like “Dawit’s” typing performance was twice as
good as that of “Reetu.” The ratio involved does have significance and facilitates a kind of
comparison which is not possible in case of an interval scale.
Numerical Operation: Actual Quantities, for Describing: Geometric Mean, Coefficient of
variation.
For Analyzing: Correlation analysis, discriminate analysis, ANOVA and multi dimensional
scaling.

Some Commonly Used Scales:

a. Graphic rating scales: Present respondent with a graphic continuum typical anchored by
two extremes. Example

b. Itemized rating scales: The itemized rating scale also known as numerical scale, presents a

series of statements from which a respondent selects one as best reflecting his evaluation.

These statements are ordered progressively in terms of more or less of some property. The

33
 respondents are required to select the specified statement that best describes the object

being rated. Example

c. Rank-order scales: Itemized and graphic scales are noncomparative because the respondent
makes a judgment without reference to another object, concept, or person. Rank-order scales,
on the other hand, are comparative because the respondent is asked to judge one item against
another. Rank order scaling is commonly used to measure preferences for brands as well as
attributes. In rank order scaling, respondents are presented with several objects
simultaneously and asked to rank them according to some criterion. Ranks are obtained by
asking the respondents to assign a rank of 1 to the most preferred brand, 2 to the second most
preferred and so on until a rank n is assigned to the least preferred brand.
d. Q-sorting scales: Basically a sophisticated form of rank ordering. A set of objects – verbal
statements, slogans, product features, potential customers services, and so forth – is given to
an individual to sort into piles according to specific rating categories. example

e. Paired comparison scales: respondent picks one of two objects from a set based upon some
stated criteria.
f. Likert scales: A series of statements that express either a favorable or an unfavorable
attitude toward the concept under study. An extremely popular means for measuring

attitudes. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or

disagree with statements. • Response alternatives: “strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”,

“disagree”, and “strongly disagree”.

g. Semantic differential scales: The researcher selects dichotomous pairs of words or phrases
that could be used to describe the concept. Respondents then rate the concept on a scale. The
mean of these responses for each pair of adjectives is computed and plotted as a “profile” or
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 image. The semantic differential consists of identification of a company, product, brand, job,
or other concept followed by a series of seven-point bipolar rating scales. The subject makes
repeated judgments of the concept under investigation on each of the scales related to
measuring attitudes. The scoring of the semantic differential can be illustrated by using the
scale bounded by the anchors "modern" and "old-fashioned."
Extremely modern,
Very modern,
Slightly modern,
Both modern and old fashioned,
Slightly old-fashioned,
Very old-fashioned, and extremely old-fashioned.
A weight is assigned to each position on the rating scale.
h. Stapel scales: Modified semantic differential. Can measure both the direction and intensity
of attitudes simultaneously.

A Staple Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image

Department
Store Name
+3
+2
+1
Wide Selection
-1
-2
-3
Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store accurately. The more

accurately you think the work describes the store, the larger the plus number you should

choose. Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the store accurately. The

less accurately you think the word describes the store, the large the minus number you should
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choose, therefore, you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are very

accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very inaccurate.

CHAPTER NINE

Designing a Questionnaire

Contents
9.0 Learning objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Types of Questionnaires
9.3 The Questionnaire Development Process

9.1 Introduction

Data may be obtained by either observing or asking for them, and forms are needed for field use
in both observation and interviewing. All three media for communicating with respondents –
personal, telephone, and mail – rely on data collection forms known as a questionnaire.

A questionnaire is a set of question designed to generate the data necessary for accomplishing
the objectives of the research project. It is a formalized schedule for collecting information from
respondents.

A questionnaire provides standardization and uniformity in the data gathering process. It

standardizes the wording and sequencing of the questions.

The accuracy and relevancy of the data gathered depend heavily on the questionnaire. In this
stage of research too, the decision makers should be consulted. They would cooperate, for people
tend to believe that they have some expertise in the art of questionnaire writing.

The questionnaire (sometimes referred to as an interview schedule or survey instrument) plays a

critical role in the data collection process. An elaborate sampling plan well-trained interviewers

36
proper statistical analysis techniques, and good editing and coding accomplish nothing if the
questionnaire is poorly designed. Improper design can lead to incomplete information, inaccurate
data, and of course higher costs. The questionnaire and the interviewer are the production line of
marketing research. It is here that the product, be it good or bad, is created. The questionnaire is
the workers’ (Interviewers’) tool that creates the basic product (respondent information).

A questionnaire is simply a formalized schedule to obtain and record specified and relevant
information with tolerable accuracy and completeness. In other words, it directs the questioning

Questionnaire also should be designed to facilitate interviewers’ administering them.

Questionnaire design also should anticipate the requirement of efficient data processing.

9.2 Types of Questionnaires

The content of the question is only one important aspect in the construction of survey
questionnaires. The researcher must also consider the structure of the question and the format of
the response categories accompanying the question. The two major types of question structures
include: (1) open ended questions, and (2) Closed-ended questions.

1.Open Ended Questions

An open ended question, known also as “free answer” or “free response”, calls for a response of
more than a few words. The topic is established for the respondent, who is left to structure a
reply as he or she sees fit. The respondent has considerable freedom in phrasing an answer,
which may be lengthy and detailed, and in his or her own words .

Open-ended questions are most likely to be used in the early stages of the study, when the
unrestricted responses they attract are of value in giving researchers a general map of the area of
survey. This can lead to the identification of significant aspect of affecting the subject under
survey, so that later stages of research can be designed to cover these factors.

In order to build up good will with the respondent, it is often advantageous to start a survey
questionnaire with an open question. This will allow the respondent considerable latitude in
forming a reply. A typical question might be: what do you like to do in your spare time? Most
people like to talk about their hobbies and spare-time interests, and will not be reluctant to tell an
interviewer something about these activities. In doing so, they are more likely to form a
favorable attitude towards the interviewer, and be more willing to answer the remainder of the
question.
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 Open questions are interesting because of the spontaneity and individual flavor of the replies, but
questionnaire designs should not use them indiscriminately.

The personal interview can be of two type - structured and unstructured

i. Structured interview: Personal interview method of data collection is usually carried out in
a structured and pre-planed way.

Structural interview involves the use of a set of predetermined questions and has highly
standardized technique of recording. It is not pssible for interviewer to change even the
sequences of the questions. The recording formats also are standardized.
ii. Unstructured interview: Such interview is characterized by a flexibility of questions to
questioning. It does not follow a system of pre-determined question and standardize
techniques of recording information. The researcher is allowed much greater freedom to, if it
is needed, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions. Interviewer
can change the sequences of question and he has also freedom in recording the response to
include some aspects and exclude the other. Unstructured interview is much more difficult
and time consuming than that of the structured one.

It also demands deep knowledge and greater skill on the part of interviewer. This approach is
used in exploratory research where as the structured interview is used in descriptive research.
Because it is more economical, provide a safe basis for generalization and requiring relatively
lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.

In unstructured interviews where informal methods of enquiry are customary, open questions
predominate. Skilled interviewers are responsible for phrasing questions in a style suitable for
their particular audience, and also, of course, in agreement with the objectives of the survey.

Interviewers should be briefed as to the extent to which they can probe for further information, to
expand or clarify some statement in the open answer.

2. Close-Ended Questions

Questions in a questionnaire can be either open-ended or closed-ended. In a closed-ended

question, respondents are offered a set of answers from which they are asked to choose the one

38
that most closely represents their views. An example of closed-ended questions looks like the
following

“All groups can live in harmony in this country without changing the system in anyway”
strongly agree ____ Disagree _____ Agree ____ strongly disagree_____

Closed question call for responses which are strictly limited. They are easy to ask and quick to be
answered. They require no writing by either respondent or interviewer, and their analysis is
straight forward. Closed question may be:

1. Simple alternative questions:

These have only the choices of response. For example: Yes/No, Good/Bad Respondents are
divided into the sub-groups or categories affecting certain basic characteristics of the sample
populations. Quantification is simple. These simple questions, sometimes referred to as
dichotomous, are useful as filter questions, separating users from non-users, e.g. did you buy
product X last week?

2. Multi-choice Questions:

These are an extension of simple alternative questions. Respondents are able to choose form a
range of possible answers, which are designed to reflect different shades of opinion or variations
in use of a product.

Careful pilot work is necessary in order to ensure that the alternatives offered in multi-choice
questions provide sufficient scope for respondents to make valid answers. Alternatives must be
mutually exclusive, so that respondents are able to differentiate between them without difficulty.

Closed questions could lead to bias by ‘forcing’ respondents to choose between certain
alternatives, but provided the piloting stage has been thorough the risk can be minimized. There
is some evidence that respondents of low socio-economic status and education appear to prefer
closed questions to open questions, since they can then answer questions which they do not fully
understand without revealing their lack of understanding to interviewers. Survey planers should,
therefore, take note of this potential source of bias, and design questionnaires which are likely to
result in valid respondent’s degree of knowledge about the subject of the survey and the extent to
which this can be established before formal interviewing takes place.

39
The major drawback is that they may introduce bias, either by forcing the respondent to choose
from given alternatives or by making the respondent select alternatives that might not have
otherwise occurred to him or her. The appropriateness of either open-ended or closed-ended
questions depends upon a number of some factors. Some years ago, Paul Lazarsfeld suggested
the use of the following consideration to determine appropriateness.

1. The objective of the questionnaire

Closed-ended questions are suitable when the researcher’s objective is to lead the respondent to
express agreement or disagreement with an explicit point of view. When the researcher wishes to
learn about the process by which the respondent arrived at a particular point of view, an open
ended question is likely to be more appropriate.

2. The respondent’s level of information about the topic in question

Open-ended questions provide opportunities for the interviewer to ascertain lack of information
on the part of the respondent, whereas closed-ended questions do not obviously, it is futile to
raise questions that are beyond the experiences of respondents.

3. The extent to which the topic has been thought through by the respondent

The open-ended question is preferable in situations where the respondents have not yet
crystallized their opinions. The use of a closed-ended questions in such situations involves a risk
that in accepting one of the alternatives offered, the respondent may make a choice that is quite
different from an opinion that would have otherwise been expressed had he or she gone through
the process of recall and evaluation of past experience

4. The ease with which the content of the answer can be communicated by the
respondent or the extent to which the respondent is motivated to communicate on
the topic.

The closed-ended question requires less motivation to communicate on the part of the
respondent, and the response itself is usually less revealing (and hence less threatening) than in
the case of the open-ended question. The researcher who uses close-ended questions tends to
encounter less frequent refusal to respond.

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9.3 The Questionnaire Development Process

Designing a questionnaire involves a logical series of steps. The steps may vary slightly from
researcher to researcher, but all researchers tend to follow the some general sequence committees
and line of authority can complicate the questionnaire design process. It is often wise to clear
each step of the design process with the individual who has the ultimate project authority. The
design process itself, such as question wording and format, can raise additional issues of
unanswered question. This, in turn can send the researcher back to step one a clearer delineation
of information sought.

The steps involved in questionnaire development are as illustrated below:

1. Determine survey objectives, resources and constraints

2. Determine Data collection method(s)

3. Determine question response format

4. Decide question wording

5. Establish questionnaire flow and layout

6. Evaluate the questionnaire and layout

7. Obtain appraisal from all relevant parties

8. Pretest and Revise

9. Prepare final copy

10. Implementation

1. Determine survey objectives, Resources and constraints

The research process often begins when a marketing manager, brand manager, or new product
development specialist has a need for decision making information that is not available. some
firms it is the responsibility of the manager to evaluate all secondary sources to make certain that
the needed information has not already been gathered. In other companies, the manager leaves all
research activities, primary and secondary, to the research department. Survey objectives – the
decision-making information sought – should be spelled out as clearly and precisely as possible.
If this step is completed thoroughly, the rest of the process will follow more smoothly and
efficiently.
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The initial stage is the time to make sure that other projects are not tagged onto the study
objectives. It is also the point weight budget constraints versus information needs. If for example,
a consumer needs to be showing several package style and logos, a personal interview is
mandatory. Give a limited budget is probably means that a mall intercept study is dictated. A
mall intercept interview should almost always be kept to 15 minutes or less. Thus, the brand
manager is quite limited in the quantity of data that can be gathered.

2. Determine Data Collection Method(s)

There are variety of ways on which data can be gathered, such as in person, telephone, mail etc.
Each method will have an impact on questionnaire design. In fact, an in-person questionnaire in a
mall will have constraints not found in an in-home interview. A mall, interview, for example,
faces the time limitation. A telephone interview often requires a rich verbal description of
concept to make certain the respondent understands the idea being discussed. In contrast, in a
personal interview an interviewer can show the respondent a picture or demonstrate the concept

3. Determine Question Response Format

Once the data collection method has been determined the actual questionnaire design process
begins. The first phase on the process concerns itself with the types of questions to be used in the
survey. Three major types of question-response formats are used in marketing research: open
ended, close-ended, and scale-response questions.

Open-Ended Questions

Open-ended questions are those to which respondents can reply in their own words. In other
words, the researcher does not limit the response choices.

Often open-ended question require “probes” from the interviewer. A probe is encouragement
from the interviewer for the respondent to elaborate or continue the discussion. The interviewer
may say, “Is there any thing else?” Or “Would you elaborate on that?”

Closed-Ended Questions

A closed-ended question is one that requires the respondent to make a selection from a list of
responses. Interviewer and coder bias are removed because the interviewer is simply checking a
box, circling a category, recording a number, or punching a key.

42
Reading response alterative may log a person’s memory and provide a more realistic response.
Also, because the option of expounding on a topic is not given to a respondent, there is no bias
toward the articulate. Finally, the coding and data-entry process is greatly simplified.

There is a difference between a preceded open-ended question and a closed-ended question. An

open-ended question allows the respondent to answer in a freewheeling format. The interviewer
simply checks the point on the preceded answer as they are given. In contrast, the closed-ended
question requires alternatives to be read or show to the respondent.

Traditionally, marketing researchers have separated the two item response option from the many
item type. A two-choice question is called dichotomous. And the many item types is often called
multiple-choice or multi-chotomous. With the dichotomous closed ended questions, the response
categories are sometimes implicit. For instance, how would you respond to the following
question: “Did you buy gasoline for your automobile in the last week?” Obviously, the implicit
options are “Yes” or No.

The simplest form of a closed-ended question is the dichotomous choice. A few examples are:

1. Do you think that inflation will be greater or less than last year?

Agree 1

Disagree 2

Note that the respondent is limited to the fixed alternatives. It is easy to administer and usually
evokes rapid response. Many times a neutral or “no opinion/don’t know” option is added to
dichotomous questions to take care of those situations.

Some examples of multiple-choice questions follow:

Please look at this card and tell me the letter that indicates the age group you belong to:
A. Under 17 1

B. 17 – 24 years 2

C. 25 – 34 years 3

D. 35 – 49 years 4

E. 50 – 64 years 5

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 F. 56 and over 6

Scaled-response questions are multiple choice questions with the choices designed
to capture intensity. Consider the following two question forms

1. Now that you have used the product, would you say that you would buy it or not?
- Yes, would buy it
- No, would not buy it

2. Now that you have used the product, would you say that you would …
- Definitely buy it

- Probably buy it

- Might or might not buy it

– Probably would not buy it

- Definitely would not buy it

The first question fails to capture intensity. It determines the direction (yes versus no), but it
cannot compare to the second one for completeness or sensitivity or response. The latter is
ordinal in nature.

4. Decide Question Wording

Once the marketing researcher has decided on the specific types of question and the response
formats, the next task is the actual writing of the question. The wording of specific questions
always requires a significant time investment for the marketing researcher. It is a skill developed
over time and subject to constant improvement. Four guidelines are useful to bear in mind during
the wording and sequencing of each question.

a) The wording must be clear

b) Select words so as to avoid biasing respondent

c) Consider the ability of the respondent to answer the question and

d) Consider the willingness of the respondent to answer the question.

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5. Establish Questionnaire flow and Layout

After the questions have been properly formulated the next step is to sequence them and develop
a layout for the questionnaire. Questionnaires are not constructed haphazardly. There is a logic to
the positioning of each section of the questionnaire experience marketing researcher are well
aware that questionnaire development is the key to obtaining interviewer – interviewee report.
The greater the rapport, the more likely the interviewer will obtain a completed interview. Also,
the respondent’s answers will probably be more carefully thought out and detailed. Researcher
wisdom has developed the following general guidelines concerning questionnaire flow.

a) Use the screener question to identify qualified respondents

b) Begin with a question that sparks a respondent interest

c) Ask general question first

d) Ask questions that require work in the middle of the questionnaire

e) Insert prompters at strategic points

6. Evaluate the questionnaire and layout

Once a rough draft of the questionnaire has been designed, the marketing researcher must take a
step back and critically evaluate it. This phase may seem redundant, given all the careful thought
that went into each question. But recall the crucial role played by the questionnaire. At this point
in the questionnaire development, the following items should be considered: (1) Is the question
necessary? (2) Is the survey too long? (3) Will the question provide the answer to the survey
objectives?

(a) Is the Question Necessary?

Perhaps the most important criterion for this phase of questionnaire development is judging
the need for a given question .Every question must serve a purpose. Either it must be a
screener; an interest generator, a required transition, or directly and explicitly related to the
stated objectives of this particular survey. Any question that fails at least one of these criteria
should be omitted.

(b) Is the Questionnaire too long?

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 At this point the researcher should role play the questionnaire with volunteers acting as
respondents. Any questionnaire to be administered in a mall or over the telephone that
averages longer than 20 minutes should be cut.

(c) Will the questions provide the desired information to accomplish the research
objectives?
The researcher must make certain that a sufficient number and types of questions are
contained within the questionnaire to meet the decision-making needs of management. A
suggested procedure is to carefully review the written objectives for the research project.
Next, the researcher should go down the questionnaire and write each question number next
to the objective that a particular question will help accomplish.

The objective of a good questionnaire layout is to make the tasks of the interviewer
and respondent as clear, logical, and simple as possible.

7. Obtain Approval from all relevant parties

At this point in the questionnaire design process, the first draft of the questionnaire has been
completed. Copies of it should be distributed to all parties that have direct authority over the
project. Practically speaking, managers may step in at any time in the design process with new
information, requests, or concerns requiring revisions. It is still important to get final approval of
the first draft, even if managers have already intersected in the development process.

8. Pretest and Revise

A pretest is done by the best interviewers who will ultimately be working on the job and
administered to target respondents for the study. They are told to look for misinterpretation, by
respondents, poor skip patterns additional alternatives, for preceded and closed-ended questions,
and general respondent reaction to the interview . After completion of the pretest, any necessary
changes should be made. Approval should then be re obtained before going into the field. If the
pretest resulted in extensive design and question alternations, a second pretest would be in order,

9. Prepare Final Copy

Even the final copy phase does not allow the researcher to relax. Precise typing instructions,
spacing, numbering, and proceeding must be set up, monitored, and proofread. In some instances
the questionnaire may be reduced to save space, or it may be specially folded and stapled.

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Duplication may require typesetting, although this instance is rare. In general the quality of
copying and a paper used is a function of who will see the questionnaire .

10. Implementation

The completed questionnaire is the basis for obtaining the desired decision-making information
from the market place. A series of forms and procedures must also be issued with the
questionnaire to make certain that the data are gathered correctly, efficiently, and at a reasonable
cost. Depending on the data collection method, procedures include supervisor’s instructions,
interviewer instructions, screeners, call record sheets and visual aid.

CHAPTER – TEN

DETERMINING THE SAMPLE PLAN AND SIZE

10.1INTRODUCTION
all items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or a ‘population’. A complete enumeration
of all items in the population is known as a census inquiry. In such an inquiry, when all items are
covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. This type of inquiry,
however, involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Therefore, when the field of inquiry is
large, this method becomes difficult to adopt because of the resources involved. At times, this
method is beyond the reach of ordinary researchers. Government, in very rare cases, is the only
institution which can get the complete enumeration carried out. For example, population census
in our country is carried out once in a decade. Undertaking a census survey, many a times, is not
possible. Sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only a part
of total population, technically called samples. The process of selecting samples is called
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sampling technique. In sampling, however, the samples selected should be as representative of
the total population as possible in order to produce a miniature cross-section. A researcher must
prepare a sample design for his study i.e. he must plan how a sample should be selected and of
what size such a sample would be. Sample design is determined before data are collected.

10.1 Some Fundamental Definitions

Before going to details and uses of sampling it is appropriate to be familiar with some basic
definitions concerning sampling

 Population: Is the theoretically specified aggregation of survey elements from which the
survey sample is actually selected.
 Sampling Frame: Is the list of elements from which the sample is draw
 Sample: A subset or some part of a larger population
 Sample design: Is a definite plan for obtaining a sample frame
 Sampling: Is the process of using a small number or part of a larger population to make
conclusion about the whole population.

9.2 Sample Size Determination

A researcher is worried about sample size because of the fact that sample size (number of
elements in sample) and precision of the study are directly related. The larger the sample size the
higher is the accuracy. The sample size determination is purely statistical activity, which needs
statistical knowledge. There are a number of sample size determination methods.

. Budgetary approach is another way to determine the sample size. Under this approach the
sample size is determined by the available fund for the proposed study.
E.g., if cost of surveying of one individual or unit is 30 birr and if the total available fund for
survey is say 1800 birr , the sample size then will be determined as, Sample size (n) = Total
budget of survey / Cost of unit survey, accordingly, the sample size will be 60 units (1800 / 30 =
60 units).

.Traditional inferences: This is based on precision rate and confidence level. To estimate
sample
48
size using this approach we need to have information about the estimated variance of the
population, the magnitude of acceptable error and the confidence interval.

The Level of Precision

The level of precision, sometimes called sampling error, is the range in which the true value of
the population is estimated to be.

The Confidence Level

In a normal distribution, approximately 95% of the sample values are within two standard
deviations of the true population value (e.g., mean). In other words, this means that, if a 95%
confidence level is selected, 95 out of 100 samples will have the true population value within the
range of precision specified earlier. There is always a chance that the sample you obtain does not
represent the true population value. This risk is reduced for 99% confidence levels and increased
for 90% (or lower) confidence levels.

9.3 Formula for Calculating a Sample

For populations that are large, Cochran developed the Equation to yield a representative sample

for proportions. For proportion no = Z2 p. q /e2 Which is valid where no is the sample size,

Z2 is the abscissa of the normal curve that cuts off an area at the tails (1 - equals the desired
confidence level, e.g., 95%)1, e is the desired level of precision, p is the estimated proportion of

an attribute that is present in the population, and q is 1- p. The value for Z is found in statistical
tables which contain the area under the normal curve. To illustrate, suppose we wish to evaluate
a state-wide Extension program in which farmers were encouraged to adopt a new practice.
Assume there is a large population but that we do not know the variability in the proportion that
will adopt the practice; therefore, assume p=.5 (maximum variability). Furthermore, suppose we
desire a 95% confidence level and ±5% precision. The resulting sample size is demonstrated in
Equation as:

49
 To find out the sample size when the population is known and a total population is 343.

9.4 Sampling Methods

Sampling techniques are basically of two types namely, probability sampling and non-probability
sampling.
I. Probability Sampling

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All probability samples are based on chance selection procedures. Chance selection eliminates
the bias inherent in the non-probability sampling procedure, because this process is random. The
procedure of randomization should not be thought as unplanned or unscientific. It is rather the
basis of all probability sampling technique.
Probability sampling is the most preferred type of sampling because of the following
characteristics:
 The sample units are not selected based on the desecration of the researcher
 Each unit of the population has some known probability of entering the sample
 The processes of sampling are automatic in one or more steps of selection of units in the
sample.
There are number of probability sampling some of them are discussed below :
A. Simple Random Sampling
B. Systematic Sampling
C. Stratified Sampling
D. Cluster Sampling
E. Multi-Stage Sampling
A. Simple Random Sampling:
It is the basic sampling method in every statistical computation. Each element in the population
has an equal chance of being included in the sample. It is drawn by a random procedure from a
sample frame. Drawing names from a hat is a typical simple random sampling technique.

The sampling process is simple because it requires only one stage of sample selection.
Selecting random sample is made in such a way that, each element in the sample frame is
assigned a number. Then each number is written on separate pieces of paper, properly mixed and
one is selected. If say the sample size is 45, then the selection procedure is repeated 45 times.
When the population is consists of a large number of elements table of random digits or
computer generated random numbers are utilized.
B. Systematic Sampling:
Systematic sampling involves only a slight difference from simple random sampling. The
mechanics of taking a systematic sample are rather simple. If the population contains N ordered
elements, and sample size of n is required or desired to select, then we find the ratio of these two
numbers, i.e., N/n to obtain the sampling interval.

51
E.g., Say the population size N= 600 and the desired sample size is 60 (n = 60), then the
sample interval will be 600/60 = 10
Random number at the 10 interval will be selected, i.e., if the researcher starts from the
fourth element then 4th, 14th, 24th etc, elements will be selected.
Systematic sampling assumes that the population elements are ordered in the same fashion (like
names in the telephone directory). Some types of ordering, such as an alphabetic listing, will
usually be uncorrelated with the characteristics (say income family size) to be investigated. If the
arrangement of the elements of the sample is itself random with regard to the characteristics
under study, systematic sampling will tend to give result close to those provided by simple
random sampling. We say close for the reason that, in systematic sampling all elements of the
population do not have the same or equal chance of being included. Systematic sampling may
increase representative-ness when items are ordered with
regard to the characteristics of interest.
 E.g., if the population of customer group are ordered by decreasing order of
purchase volume, a systematic sample will be sure to contain some high-volume and
some low-volume customers.
The problem of periodicity occurs if a list has a systematic pattern, that is, if the list is not
random in character (like cyclical or seasonal pattern).
 E.g., consider collecting retail store- sale volume, if the researcher is to choose a
sampling interval of seven days, his choice of day can result in sampling that would
not reflect day-off- the week variation in sale.

C. Stratified Sampling:
This method of sampling is a mixture of deliberate and random sampling technique. If
population from which the sample to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling technique is used in order to obtain a representative sample. Under this
technique, the population is divided into various classes or sub-population, which is individually
more homogeneous than the total population. The different subpopulations are called strata. Then
certain items (elements) are selected from the classes by the random sampling technique.
Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get more
precise estimate for each stratum. By estimating more accurately each of the component parts of
population (sub population), we get a better estimate of the whole population. In other words the
population will be broken into different strata based on one or more characteristics say,
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frequency of purchase of a product or types of customers (credit card versus non-credit card), or
the industry. Thus, we will have strata of customers, strata of industry etc.
 Suppose a researcher wishes to collect information regarding income expenditure of the
male population of, say Dessie Town. First we shall split the whole male population in
the town into various strata on the basis of, say special professions like:
 Class of service giving people
 Business men
 Shop keepers
From these different groups the researcher will select elements using random sample
technique.
Generally, the procedure in Stratified sampling can be summarized as follow:
1. The entire population is first divided into a set of strata(sub-population groups), using
some external sources, such as census data
2. Within each stratum a separate random sample is selected
3. From each separate sample, some statistics (mean) is computed and properly weighted to
form an overall estimated mean for the whole population
4. Sample variances are also computed within each separate stratum and appropriately
weighted to yield a combined estimate for the whole population.
D. Cluster sampling:
This technique will sample economically while retaining the characteristics of a probability
sampling. In cluster sampling the primary sampling unit is no more the individual elements in the
population rather it is say manufacturing unit, city or block of city, etc.
After randomly selecting the primary sample unit (city, part of city), we survey or interview all
families or elements in that selected primary sample unit. The area sample is the commonly used
type of cluster sampling.

 E.g., suppose we want to estimate the proportion of machine-parts in an inventory, which

are defective. Assume that there are about 20000 machine parts in the inventory. They are
stored in 400 cases of each containing 50 parts each. Now using a cluster sampling, we
would consider the 400 cases as clusters. From this cluster we randomly select say n
cases and examine all the machine-parts in each randomly selected case.

53
 Cluster sampling clearly will reduce costs by concentrating survey in selected cluster. But it is
less precise than random sampling. Cluster sampling is used only because of the economic
advantage it possesses.
E. Multi-stage sampling:
Items are selected in different stage at random. Multi stage sampling is a further improvement
over cluster sampling.
 E.g., If we wish to estimate say yield per hectare of a given crop say coffee in South Wollo
zone. We begin by random selection of say 5 districts in the first instance. Of these 5
districts, 10 villages per district will be chosen in the same manner. In final stage we will
select again randomly 5 farms from every village. Thus, we shall examine per hectare
yield in a total of 250 farms all over that region.

There are two advantages of this sampling technique. It is easier to administer than most
sampling technique. A large number of units can be sampled for a given cost because of
sequential clustering, whereas this is not possible in most sample design.
Multi-stage sampling is relatively convenient, less time consuming and less expensive method of
sampling. However, an element of sampling bias gets introduced because of unequal size of
some of the selected subsample. This method is recommended only when it would be practical to
draw a sample with a simple random sampling technique.

II. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Non-probability sampling technique does not give equal chance that each element of the
population will be included in the sample. Units are selected at the discretion of the researcher.
Such samples derive their control from the judgment of the researcher. Some of the
disadvantages of non-probability sampling are of the following:

54
  No confidence can be placed in the data obtained from such samples; they don't represent
the large population. Therefore, the result obtained may not be generalized for the entire
population.
 Non-probability sampling depends exclusively onun controlled factors and researcher's
insight, and there is no statistical method to determine the margin of the sampling errors.
 Sometimes such samples are based on an absolute frame,which does not adequately cover
the population.
The advantages of non-probability sampling on the other hand is that it is much less complicated,
less expensive, and a researcher may take the advantage of the available respondents without the
statistical complexity of the probability sampling. Moreover it is very convenient in the situation
when the sample to be selected is very small and the researcher wants to get some idea of the
population characteristics
Non-probability sampling can be adequate if the researcher has no desire to generalize his
findings beyond the sample, or if the study is merely a trial run for larger study (in preliminary
research).
There are number of non-probability sampling.
A. Quota Sampling
B. Judgment sampling
C. Snowball sampling
D. Convenience sampling
A. Quota sampling:
Under this sampling approach, the interviewers are simply given quotas to be full-filled from the
different strata (groups).
 E.g., an interviewer in a particular city may be assigned say 100 interviews. He will
assign this to different subgroups (say 50 for male respondents and 50 for female
respondents).
Even though quota sampling is not probabilistic, the researcher must take precaution to keep
from biasing selection and makes sure that the sample is as representative and generalize-able as
possible.
B. Judgment (Purposive or deliberate) sampling :

55
In this approach, the investigator has complete freedom in choosing his sample according to his
wishes and desire. The experienced individual (researcher) select the sample based upon his
judgment about some appropriate characteristics required from the sample members
The intent is to select elements that are believed to be typical or representative of the population
in such a way that error of judgment in the selection will cancel each other out. The researcher
selects a sample to serve a specific purpose, even if this makes a sample less than fully
representative.
The Consumers Price Index (CPI) is based on a judgment sampling. That is, based on
prices of basket of goods and services purchased by average households.
The key assumption underling in this type of sampling is that, with sound judgment of expertise
and an appropriate strategy, one can carefully and consciously choose the element to be included
in the sample. Its advantage is its low cost, convenient to use, less time consuming, and as good
as probability sampling.
However, its value depends on entirely on the expert judgment of the researcher.
Weakness of this approach is that without an objective basis for making the judgment or without
an external check, there is no way to know whether the so-called typical cases are, in-fact,
typical and its value is entirely depends on the judgment of the researcher.
C. Snowball Sampling:
It is also known as Multiplicity sampling. The term snowball comes from the analogy of the
snowball, beginning small but becomes bigger and bigger as it rolls downhill. Snowball
sampling is popular among scholars conducting observational research and in community study.
The major purpose of snowball sampling is to estimate characteristics that are rare in the total
population. First initial respondents are selected randomly but additional respondent are then
obtained from referrals or by other information provided by the initial respondent.
 E.g., consider a researcher use telephone to obtain referral. Random telephone calls are
made; the respondents (answering the call) are asked if they know someone else who
meets the studies respondent qualification. Like “whether they know the someone who
survived the September eleven terrorist attack in New York “ SAY, A researcher wants to
study the impact of the September Eleven Terrorist attack on the social life and life style
of the survivals.
Major advantages of this type sampling are that it substantially increases the probability of
finding the desired characteristic in the population and lower sampling variance and cost.
D. Convenience Sampling :
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This is a "hit or miss" procedure of study. No planned effort is made to collect information. The
researcher comes across certain people and things and has transaction with them then he tries to
make generalization about the whole population. This sampling technique is not scientific and
has no value as a research technique. However, as it is characterized by "hit or miss" method
sometimes hits are secured. In general, the availability and willingness to respond are the major
factors in selecting the respondents.
Commonly such a sample is taken to test ideas or even to gain ideas about a subject of interest.

Chapter Eleven
Data preparation and analysis
The goal of any research is to provide information out of raw data. The raw data after
collection has to be processed and analyzed in line with the outline (plan) laid down for the
purpose at the time of developing the research plan. The compiled data must be classified,
processed, analyzed and interpreted carefully before their complete meanings and implications
can be understood.

Data Processing

Data processing involves the transformation of the raw data in to some processed form to
facilitate analysis.

A careful and systematic processing will highlight the important characteristics of the data,
facilitates comparisons and render it suitable for further statistical analysis and interpretations.
Data processing which includes editing, coding, classification and tabulation is an intermediate
stage between the collection of data and their analysis and interpretation.

A. Editing: is a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omission
(extreme values) and to correct those when possible.
57
 It involves a careful scrutiny of completed questionnaires or schedules
 It is done to assure that the data are:
o Accurate
o Consistent with other data gathered
o Uniformly entered
o As complete as possible
o And has been well organized to facilitate coding and tabulation.
Editing can be either field editing or central editing
Field editing: consist of reviewing of the reporting forms by the investigator for completing
what has been written in abbreviation and/ or in illegible form at a time of recording the
respondent’s response. This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the interview
or observation.
Central Editing: it will take place at the research office. Its objective is to correct errors such as
entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in month.
B. Coding: refers to the process of assigning numerical or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put in to a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be
appropriate to the research problem under consideration. There must be a class of every data
items. They must be mutually exclusive (a specific answer can be placed in one and only one
cell in a given category set).
C. Classification: Most research studies in a large volume of raw data, which must be reduced
in to homogenous group. This means to classify the raw data or arranging data in groups or
classes on the basis of common characteristics.
Data classification implies the processes of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of
common characteristics. Data having common characteristics placed in one class and in this way
the entire data get divided in to a number of groups or classes.
Data according to attributes: Data are classified on the basis of common characteristics, which
can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc) or numerical (such as weight, age,
height, income, expenditure, etc). Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon,
which cannot be measured quantitatively: only their presence or absence in an individual item
can be noticed. Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics
of attributes and their classification is said to be classification according to attributes.
Classification according to Class interval: unlike descriptive characteristics the numerical
characteristics refer to quantitative phenomena, which can be measured through some statistical
58
unit. Data relating to income, production, age, weighted, come under category. Such data are
known as statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class interval. For example,
individuals whose incomes, say, are within 1001-1500 birr can form one group, those whose
incomes within 500-1500 birr can form another group and so on. In this way the entire data may
be divided in to a number of groups or classes or what are usually called class interval. Each
class-interval, thus, has an upper as well as lower limit, which is known as class limit. The
difference between the two-class limits is known as class magnitude. The number of items that
fall in a given class is known as the frequency of the given class.
D. Tabulation

Tabulation involves the orderly and systematic presentation of numerical data in a form designed
to elucidate the problem under consideration.

Objectives of Tabulation:

Tabulation is a process, which helps, in understanding complex numerical facts. The purpose of
table is to summaries a mass of numerical information and to present it in the simplest possible
and consistent with the purpose for which it is to be used. Tabulation has the following
objectives:

 To clarify the objectives of investigation

 To clarify the characteristics of data
 To present facts in the minimum of space
 To facilitate statistical process
7.2 Data Analysis
Data analysis is further transformation of the processed data to look for patterns and relations
among data groups. By analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures along
with searching for patterns or relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis particularly
in case of survey or experimental data involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of
the population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences. Analysis can be categorized as:
 Descriptive Analysis
 Inferential (Statistical) Analysis

59
60
Descriptive Analysis

Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable. Analysis begins for most
projects with some form of descriptive analysis to reduce the data in to a summary format.
Descriptive analysis refers to the transformation of raw data in to a form that will make them
easy to understand and interpret.

The most common forms of describing the processed data are:

 Tabulation
 Percentage
 Measurers of central tendency
 Measures of dispersion

Tabulation: refers to the orderly arrangements of data in a table or other summary format. It
presents responses or the observations on a question-by-question or item-by item basis and
provides the most basic form of information. It tells the researcher how frequently each response
occurs.

Need for Tabulation

 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum
 It facilitates the process of comparison
 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omission
 It provides basis for various statistical computation

Percentage: whether the data are tabulated by computer or by hand, it is useful to have
percentages and cumulative percentage. Table containing percentage and frequency distribution
is easier to interpret. Percentages are useful for comparing the trend over time or among
categories.

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Measures of Central Tendency: describing the central tendency of the distribution with mean,
median, or mode is another basic form of descriptive analysis.

These measures are most useful when the purpose is to identify typical values of a variable or the
most common characteristics of a group. Measures of central tendency are also known as
statistical average. Mean, median, and mode are most popular averages.

The most commonly used measure of central tendency is the mean. To compute the mean, you
add up all the numbers and divide by how many numbers there are. It's not the average nor a
halfway point, but a kind of center that balances high numbers with low numbers. For this
reason, its most often reported along with some simple measure of dispersion, such as the range,
which is expressed as the lowest and highest number.

The median is the number that falls in the middle of a range of numbers. It's not the average; it's
the halfway point. There are always just as many numbers above the median as below it. In cases
where there is an even set of numbers, you average the two middle numbers. The median is best
suited for data that are ordinal, or ranked. It is also useful when you have extremely low or high
scores.

The mode is the most frequently occurring number in a list of numbers. It's the closest thing to
what people mean when they say something is average or typical. The mode doesn't even have to
be a number. It will be a category when the data are nominal or qualitative. The mode is useful
when you have a highly skewed set of numbers, mostly low or mostly high. You can also have
two modes (bimodal distribution) when one group of scores are mostly low and the other group
is mostly high, with few in the middle.
Measure of Dispersion: is a measurement how the value of an item scattered around the truth-
value of the average. Average value fails to give any idea about the dispersion of the values of
an item or a variable around the truth-value of the average. After identifying the typical value of
a variable the researcher can measure how the value of an item is scattered around the true value
of the mean. It is a measurement of how far is the value of the variable from the average value.
It measures the variation of the value of an item.

Important measures of dispersion are:

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 Range: measures the difference between the maximum and the minimum value of the
observed variable.
 Mean Deviation: it is the average dispersion of an observation around the mean value. E
(Xi-X)/n
 Variance: it is mean square deviation. It measures the sample variability.
 Standard deviation: the square root of variance.

Inferential analysis
Most researchers wish to go beyond the simple tabulation of frequency distribution and
calculation averages and/or dispersion. They frequently conduct and seek to determine the
relationship between variables and test statistical significance.
When the population is consisting of more than one variable it is possible to measure the
relationship between them.

a. Correlation
The most commonly used relational statistic is correlation and it's a measure of the strength of
some relationship between two variables, not causality. Interpretation of a correlation coefficient
does not even allow the slightest hint of causality. The most a researcher can say is that the
variables share something in common; that is, are related in some way. The more two things
have something in common, the more strongly they are related. There can also be negative
relations, but the important quality of correlation coefficients is not their sign, but their absolute
value. A correlation of -.58 is stronger than a correlation of .43, even though with the former, the
relationship is negative. The following table lists the interpretations for various correlation
coefficients:

.8 to 1.0 Very strong

.6 to .8 Strong

.4 to .6 Moderate

.2 to .4 Weak

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 .0 to .2 Very weak

Pearson's correlation coefficient, or small r, represents the degree of linear association between
any two variables. Unlike regression, correlation doesn't care which variable is the independent
one or the dependent one, therefore, you cannot infer causality. Correlations are also dimension-
free, but they require a good deal of variability or randomness in your outcome measures. A
correlation coefficient always ranges from negative one (-1) to one (1), so a negative correlation
coefficient of -0.65 indicates that "65% of the time, when one variable is low, the other variable
is high" and it's up to you, the researcher to guess which one is usually initially low. A positive
correlation coefficient of 0.65 indicates, "65% of the time, when one variable exerts a positive
influence, the other variable also exerts a positive influence". Researchers often report the names
of the variables in such sentences, rather than just saying "one variable". A correlation
coefficient at zero, or close to zero, indicates no linear relationship.

The most frequently used correlation coefficient in data analysis is the Pearson product moment
correlation. It is symbolized by the small letter r, and is fairly easy to compute from raw scores
using the following formula:

b. Regression
Regression is the closest thing to estimating causality in data analysis, and that's because it
predicts how much the numbers "fit" a projected straight line. The most common form of
regression, however, is linear regression, and the least squares method to find an equation that
best fits a line representing what is called the regression of y on x. Instead of finding the perfect
number, however, one is interested in finding the perfect line, such that there is one and only one

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line (represented by equation) that perfectly represents, or fits the data, regardless of how
scattered the data points. The slope of the line (equation) provides information about predicted
directionality, and the estimated coefficients (or beta weights) for x and y (independent and
dependent variables) indicates the power of the relationship.

Yi= Bo + B1Zi
Yi= Outcomes score for the nth unit (dependent variable)
B0= coefficient for the intercept
B1= Coefficient for slope
Zi= independent variable
Statistical Analysis

This requires choosing the appropriate statistical techniques. The choice of the method of
statistical analysis depends on:

1. The type of questions to be asked: i.e., is it to measure central tendency, relationship

between the variables, or category differences.
2. The number of variables:
 Univariate data analysis: When a researcher generalizes from a sample about
one variable
 Bivariate data analysis: When the desire is to explain the relationship between
two variables at a time
 Multivariate data analysis: Is the simultaneous investigation of more than two
variables.

CHAPTER - TWELVE

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 SELECTED APPLICATION OF MARKETING RESEARCH

12. 0 Areas of Marketing Research

The area of marketing decisions is wide. It covers product design, pricing, distribution and
promotion. It acknowledges the fact that there are many variables affecting marketing activities
which cannot be controlled by suppliers to a market. These environmental variables, such as the
demographic structure of the population, economic conditions, legal restrictions competitions’
activities .

Market research enables producers of goods and services to design and deliver this products
according to the informed preferences of the final causes and so reduces the risk of costly
production mistakes being made through poor market intelligence.

Product Research

This is concerned with the design, development, and testing of new products, the improvement
of existing products, and the forecasting of likely trends in consumers’ preferences related to
styling product performance quality of materials, etc.

Comparative testing with competitive products should be undertaken to assess realistically the
values of comparative goods, particularly as perceived by customers. Included in these
evaluations will be pricing studies. Strength and weaknesses need to be objectively identified
across specific attributes such as quality, shelf life, ease of handling, pack acceptability, etc. The
essence of handling, pack acceptability, etc. the essence of marketing research is objectivity, so
any attempt to judge enquires should be strongly resisted.

Sales Research

Sales research involves a thorough examination of the selling activities of the company. This is
usually made by sales outlets and/or sales territories, and preferably analyzed so that direct
comparisons can be made either published data referring to the particular industry and its
products. The effectiveness of the sales force should be examined. The distribution of territories,
method of operations system of remuneration, field supervision and training, all require careful
analysis and assessment.

Customers Research

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 This covers investigations in to buying behavior – studying the social, economic, and
psychological influences affecting purchase decisions whether these are taken at the consumer
level, the trade distributional level or in the industrial field.

Consumer research, as far as retail products are concerned, includes consumer surveys to study
the opinion and behavior of ultimate users of the products. This may involve national enquires
using formal questionnaires with a sample carefully selected to be representative of the total
population in that consumer class. It may also cover a series of “depth influences” to analyze the
motivation of people in certain buying situations.

Pricing Research

All businesses have to make decisions about the pricing of their goods and services. Pricing is
one of the critical actors affecting business success. It is also one of the variables in the
‘marketing mix’. The fundamental inputs into a business deal, that have been termed the four Ps
(Product, Price, Place, and promotion). These inputs are necessarily interrelated and an effective
blend is at the heart of successful marketing.

Pricing can be used effectively to position a product relative to competitors’ offerings. This
suggests that some reliable information should be collected about competitive products
specifically related to market segments. Price is an indicator of quality as well as an economic
fact. Products should be analyzed for the benefits which they offer buyers, and ideally, these
should have been developed from objective knowledge of the expectations of certain types of
buyers or users.

Promotion Research

This is concerned with testing and evaluating the effectiveness of the various methods used in
promoting a companies product. These activities include exhibitions, public relations campaigns,
merchandising aids such as show cards and point of sales stands consumer and trade advertising,
special promotional offers; etc. The variety of media available in most developed communities –
television press and magazine, radio, poster, exhibition, etc.

CHAPTER - THIRTEEN

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 Presentation and Reporting of research findings

Research reporting is the oral or written presentation of evidence and the findings in such a way
that it is readily understood and assessed by the reader and enables him to verify the validity of
the conclusions. Research report writing is the culmination of the research investigation. It is at
the stage of reporting that the researcher assembles the findings of the study, draws conclusions
and evaluates his own findings. Report writing is the end product of research activity. It is highly
skilled work; it is an interesting, fascinating, challenging, gruelling and sometimes even
exasperating experience. Writing a research report is a technical activity that demands all the
skills and patience of the researcher.

After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing. Interpretation has to be done carefully so that misleading
conclusion will not be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research will not be violated.
Lay out of the Research Report
o Preliminary section o The lat section/part
o The main text
1. The preliminary section
This section contains:
A. The title page- it contains the following information:
 Title of the sturdy
 Name of institution to which the report is will be submitted
 Name of candidate
 Degree for which the report will be submitted
 Date of submission of the report
B. Acknowledgment- this is a section that recognizes individuals and institutions to which
you are indebted for providing credible assistance in due course of your study. Keep this
part as brief and simple as possible.
C. Table of contents: include list of classification of the research report with their
corresponding page numbers for easy references
D. List of Tables and Figures: when you have figures and tables in your report, you need a
separate page for list of tittles to tables and figures along with their corresponding page
numbers

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2. The Main Text Section
The main body of the research consists of five chapters namely:
 Introduction --------------------------------------------------Chapter One
 Review of the related literature----------------------------Chapter Two
 The research design and methodology--------------------Chapter Three
 Presentation, Analysis and interpretation of data--------Chapter Four
 Summary, Conclusions & Recommendations---------- Chapter Five
3. The End part

Acknowledging sources and bibliographical ways using the works of other writer in the course of
your is a normal procedure of research undertaking. In doing so, you are required to give
appropriate acknowledgment that shows what you have borrowed as ideas. To do otherwise is
plagiarism- taking some one idea as your own without acknowledging.
Plagiarism – is the act of using another person’s ideas in your writing without acknowledging the
source.
Citing Sources
The usual style of acknowledging your source of is keeping brief citation in the text that refers to
an alphabetical list of works that appear at the end of your research.
Example: “Quality and standard are in fact relative matter, relative to the particular time and
place and particular learners and their circumstances (Coombs, 1985:102). The citations
(Combos, 1985:107) tell you that Coombs is the name of author, 1985 is the year of publication,
and 107 is page number from which the indicated information has been derived.
Bibliographical Usage
A bibliography is a list of all the works referred in due course of investigation in alphabetical
order. The basic styles for documenting major sources in a bibliography are the following:
Books: When the name of the author is indicated, basic entries are authors’ name, year , title of
the book, and publication information-, place of publication and publisher.
Example:
Johnson, D. (1994). Research Method in Education Management.
London: Long man Group Uk ltd.
Books with a single author

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 1. Author’s name: reverse the author’s name and add comma (,) after the last name. For
instance the name of the author in the author in the example above appears on title page
as Dephen Johnson. Omit titles, affiliations and degrees that come before after names
such as Dr., PHD, MA, and Professor.
2. Title of the book:
 State the full title of the book including sub titles
 If the book has sub-title, put a colon (:) directly after the main title.
 Place a period and year of publication before entire title
 Underline or bold the whole title.
3. Publication Information
 Write the year of publication in bracket, city, of publication and publisher in that order
 Use dot between the year of publication and book title, use colon between the city and
publisher
 If several cities are listed in the book, use only the first.
Example: Kuthari, C.R. (1994). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques.
Bombey: Johripunbliser
Books with two Authors
Example: Coomb and Sunder Girma (1994)
Coomb, P. and S.Girma (1994).
Citing a book with three or more authors
When a book is written by more than three authors you will come only the first author and others
or et al. Gorton, R. and Others or
Gorton, R. etal (1988). Harvard book of School Management.Phoenix: Oryd Press
Journals
The entry for an article in a journal has three major divisions. These are: Author name, title of
the article in quotation marks, and publication information.
Example:
Rosner, B. (1991) “Women in Management.” Harvard Business Review. Vol. 69, No. 3 (Pp.
152-165)
News Papers
The citation includes:
 The name of the author and year of publication

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  The title of the article in quotation mark
 The name of the news paper underlined
 Page number of the news paper
Example
Abebe Asfaw(Sept, 1994) “attacking unemployment in Ethiopia” The Ethiopia Herald. (Pp. 3-5)
Unpublished sources
Essential entries are the following:
 The name of the writer
 The title of unpublished work under quotation
 Description about the sources
Example: Sakala, C. (1993). “Maturity Care Policy in the United States: Toward a more Rational
and Effective Society.” Unpublished Dissertation Boston University.

Government publication
If the information sources are published by government ministries/Agencies, cite as an author
government agency that issued it.

Example: Ministry of Education (1993).Basic Education Statistics. Addis Ababa: Educational

Management and information system

General Points to Note in Bibliography

 When the authors name is not indicated alphabetize the book by its title. Ignore articles
(a, an or the) for the order of alphabetization
 When the same name (a person or an institution) is referred to more than once in your
bibliography, give the name in the first entry only. Then, in place of the names use bars
 If several works by the same author appear in bibliography, they must be alphabetized
among themselves in bibliography; they must be alphabetized among themselves by title.
 When the same author produces two or more publications in a year alphabetize by
assigning sequential letters (a,b,c,…) next to their year of publications
Example: (1973a, 1973b)

If the bibliography is long (more than 25 entries), references can be grouped according to their
category usually in three parts:

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o Books
o Periodicals- Journals
o News Papers and Unpublished
Material

72
N.B:b
 When the author is an Ethiopian take the name as written on title pages Ethiopian names
cannot be converted.
 When materials in Amharic are used, place on the last line of bibliography page.

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