FLUID MECHANICS

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

1

Fluid Mechanics is a physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in motion,
and with applications and devices in engineering using fluids. Fluid mechanics can be subdivided
into two major areas, fluid statics, which deals with fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, concerned
with fluids in motion.

For the purpose of the application of fluid mechanics to design it is convenient to consider
two kinds of fluids: compressible and incompressible. These characteristics are determined by the
molecular spacing and arrangement, or phase, of the substance. In general, changes in density
are negligible for compressible flows but are not negligible for incompressible flows.

Fluids are substances capable of flowing, having particles which easily move and change
their relative position without a separation of the mass. Fluids offer practically no resistance to
change form. They readily conform to the shape of the solid body with which they come in
contact.

Fluids may be divided into liquids and gases. The principal differences between them are:

1. A liquid has a free surface, and a given mass of a liquid occupies only a given volume
in a container, whereas a gas does not have a free surface, and a given mass occupies
all portions of any container regardless of its size.

2. Liquids are practically incompressible and usually may be so considered without

introducing appreciable error. On the other hand, gases are compressible and usually
must be so treated.

The theory and the problems of this subject deal mainly with fluids which may be
considered incompressible.

The distinctions between a solid and a fluid should be noted here:

1. A solid is deformed by a shearing stress, the amount of unit deformation up to a certain

point being proportional to the unit stress; a fluid is also deformed by a shearing stress
but at a time rate of deformation which is proportional to the stress.

2. If the elastic limit is not exceeded, the application of a given unit shearing stress to a
solid produces a certain unit deformation which is independent of the time of
application of the force, and when the stress is removed the solid returns to its original
form. On the other hand, if a given shearing stress is applied to a fluid, deformation
continues to take place at a uniform rate with time, and when the stress is removed the
fluid does not, through forces contained within it, return to its original form.

Vapors are gases at temperatures below their critical temperatures and are compressible,
but their temperature-pressure-volume relationships cannot be expressed by simple
mathematical equations like the ideal gas law. Vapor properties are usually tabulated, as, for
example, in steam and refrigeration tables.

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FLUID MECHANICS

CHAPTER 01 2

COMMON PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Mass Density, ρ
The density of a fluid is its mass per unit volume.

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅, 𝑴
𝝆=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆, 𝑽

Specific Volume, Vs
Specific volume, Vs, is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid.

𝟏
𝑽𝒔 =
𝝆
Unit Weight or Specific Weight, ϒ

Specific weight or unit weight, ϒ, is the weight of a unit volume of a fluid.

𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅, 𝑾
𝜸=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆, 𝑽

𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈

Specific weight of some common fluids

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Specific Gravity, s/SG/sp.gr./GS

Specific gravity is a dimensionless ratio of a fluid’s

density to some standard reference density. For liquids and
solids, the reference density is water at 4 degrees Celsius (39.2
degrees F).

𝝆𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑺𝑮 =
𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

In gases, the standard reference to calculate the specific gravity is the density of air.

𝝆𝒈𝒂𝒔
𝑺𝑮 =
𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓

Viscosity (Absolute or Dynamic viscosity), μ (MU)

The property of a fluid which determines the amount

of its resistance to shearing forces. A perfect fluid would
have no viscosity. There is no perfect fluid, but gases show
less variation in viscosity than liquids. Water is one of the least
viscous of all liquids, whereas glycerin, heavy oil, and
molasses are liquids having comparatively high viscosities.
The viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing
temperature, whereas the viscosity of gases increases with
increasing temperature.

The behaviour of a fluid in laminar flow between two parallel plates

when the upper plate moves with a constant velocity.

𝝉
𝝁=
𝒅𝑽
𝒅𝒚

Where:

Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear stress are called
Newtonian fluids after Sir Isaac Newton, who expressed it first in 1687. Non-Newtonian fluids are
classified as dilatants, pseudoplastics, and ideal plastics. Most common fluids such as water, air,
gasoline, and oils are Newtonian fluids. Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian
fluids. A common viscosity unit is poise, which is equivalent to 0.1 Pa - s (or centipoise, which is

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one-hundredth of a poise). The viscosity of water at 20°C is 1 centipoise, and thus the unit
4
centipoise serves as a useful reference.

The dynamic viscosity of a certain liquid is determined by a viscometer using the following
formula:

Where:
μ = Dynamic (Absolute) viscosity
T = applied torque
L = Length of Cylinder
R = Radius of the inner cylinder
ń = Angular velocity (in revolutions per second)
l = gap between the two cylinders

Cross-sectional area of a viscometer.

Kinematic Viscosity, ν (NU)

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, μ, to its mass density, ρ.
Two common units of kinematic viscosity are m2/s and stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s).

𝝁
𝒗=
𝝆

Surface Tension, σ (sigma)

The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the
intermolecular cohesive forces, and is known as surface tension. Surface tension is the reason that
insects are able to sit on water and a needle is able to float on it. Surface tension also causes
bubbles and droplets to take on spherical shape, since any other shape would have more surface
area per unit volume.

Some consequences of surface tension.

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Pressure inside a Droplet of liquid:

𝟒𝝈
𝒑=
𝒅

Where:

σ = surface tension in N/m

d = diameter of the droplet in m
p = gage pressure in Pascals

Capillarity

Capillarity (Capillary action) is the name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin bore
tube. The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the
relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of
the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion >cohesion) and fall in tubes they
do not wet (cohesion >adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8
inch (9.5 mm) in diameter.

d d
θ
h h
θ

capillary rise capillary depression

𝟒𝝈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒉=
𝜸𝒅

For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle θ is zero degrees. Hence the
formula becomes

𝟒𝝈
𝒉=
𝜸𝒅
where:
h = capillary rise or depression in m
ϒ = unit weight in N/m3
d = diameter of the tube in m
σ = surface tension in Pa

Compressibility, β

Compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the fractional change

in the volume of a fluid per unit in pressure in a constant temperature process.

∆𝑽
− 𝟏
𝜷= 𝑽 =
∆𝒑 𝑬𝑩

or

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𝒅𝑽 6
𝜷=− 𝑽
𝒅𝒑

where:
ΔV = change in volume
V = original volume
Δp = change in pressure
dV/V = change in volume (usually in percent)

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, EB

The bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It is the
ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume.

𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∆𝒑
𝑬𝑩 = =
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∆𝑽
𝑽

or

∆𝒑
𝑬𝑩 = −
𝒅𝑽
𝑽

Properties of Water

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CHAPTER 02 7

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FORCES

UNIT PRESSURE OR PRESSURE, P

Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid or gas on a body or surface, with the
force acting at right angles to the surface uniformly in all directions.

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭
𝒑=
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂, 𝑨

PASCAL’S LAW

Pascal’s law, introduced by French Mathematician Blaise Pascal, states that, “any two
points at the same elevation in a continuous mass of the same static fluid will be at the same
pressure”.

Gage Pressure (Relative Pressure)

Gage pressures are pressures above or below the atmosphere and can be measured by
pressure gauges or manometers.

Pressure Gages

Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any one point on earth’s surface from the weight
of the air above it.
Under normal conditions at sea level:
Patm = 2166 lb/ft2
= 14.7 psi
= 29.9 in. Hg
= 760 mm Hg
= 101.325 kPa

The simplest practical application of the hydrostatic formula is the barometer (figure
below), which measures atmospheric pressure. A tube is filled with mercury and inverted while
submerged in a reservoir. This causes a near vacuum in the closed upper end because mercury
has an extremely small vapour pressure at room temperatures (0.16 Pa at 20°C). Since
atmospheric pressure forces a mercury column to rise at a distance h into the tube, the upper
mercury surface is at zero pressure.

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A barometer measures local absolute atmospheric pressure: (a) the height of a mercury column is proportional to
Patm; (b) a modern portable barometer.

Absolute Pressure

The intensity of pressure measured above absolute zero is called absolute pressure.
Obviously, a negative absolute pressure is impossible.

Pabs = pgage + patm

NOTE: Unless otherwise specified in the problem, the term pressure signifies gage pressure.

Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid

The difference in pressure between any two points in a

1 homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to the product of the unit
h weight of the fluid and the vertical distance between the
points.
2
2  1  h

h The pressure at any point below the free surface of a liquid

equals the product of the unit weight of the liquid and the
depth of the point.

  h
We state the following conclusions about a hydrostatic condition:

Pressure in a continuously distributed uniform static varies only with vertical distance and is
independent of the shape of the container. The pressure is the same at all points on a given
horizontal plane in the fluid. The pressure increases with depth in the fluid.

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Pressure below layers of different liquids

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Air, pressure = p

h1
pbottom   h  p   1h1   2 h2   3 h3  p
liquid 1

h2 liquid 2

h3
liquid 3
pbottom

Pressure Head

Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of homogeneous liquid of unit weight ϒ that will
produce an intensity of pressure p.

𝒑
𝒉=
𝜸

To convert pressure head of liquid A to liquid B

𝑺𝑮𝑨 𝝆𝑨 𝜸𝑨
𝒉𝑩 = 𝒉𝑨 or 𝒉𝑩 = 𝒉𝑨 or 𝒉𝑩 = 𝒉𝑨
𝑺𝑮𝑩 𝝆𝑩 𝜸𝑩

To convert pressure head of any liquid to water, just multiply its height by its specific gravity

hwater = hliquid x SGliquid

Manometer

A manometer is a tube, usually bent in a form of a U, containing a liquid of known

specific gravity, the surface of which moves proportionally to changes of pressure. It is used to
measure pressure.

Types of Manometer

Open Type – has an atmospheric surface in one leg and is capable of measuring gage
pressures.

Differential Type – without an atmospheric surface and capable of

measuring only differences in pressure.

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Piezometer – The simplest form of open manometer. It is a tube

10
tapped into a wall of a container or conduit for the purpose of
measuring pressure. The fluid in the container or conduit rises in this
tube to form a free surface.

Steps in solving manometer problems:

1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter, of which the heads are to
be expressed, (water is most advisable).
2. Starting from an end point, number in order the interface of different fluids.
3. Identify points of equal pressure (taking into account that for a homogeneous fluid at
rest, the pressure along the same horizontal plane are equal). Label these points with the
same number.
4. Proceed from level to level, adding (if going down) or subtracting (if going up) pressure
heads as the elevation decreases or increases, respectively with due regard for the
specific gravity of the fluids.

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

In engineering designs where a liquid is contained by surfaces, such as a dam, the side of a
ship, a water tank, or a levee, it is necessary to calculate the forces and their locations due to
the liquid on the various surfaces. The liquid is most often water, but it could also be oil or some
other liquid.

Consider the general surface shown below. The liquid acts on the plane area shown as a
section of the wall; a top view gives additional detail of the geometry. The force on the plane
surface is due to the pressure p=γh acting over the area, i.e.,

where 𝑦̅ is the distance to the centroid of the plane area; the centroid is identified as the point
C. The above equation can also be expressed as

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Total Pressure on Plane Surface

The total hydrostatic pressure on any plane surface is equal to the product of the area of
the surface and the unit pressure at its center of gravity.

Center of Pressure on Plane Surfaces

Any plane surface subjected to hydrostatic pressure is acted upon by an infinite number
of parallel forces the magnitudes of which vary with the depth, below the free surface, of the
various infinitesimal areas on which the respective forces act. These parallel forces may be
replaced by a single resultant force P or F. The point on the surface at which this resultant force
acts is called the center of pressure. If the total hydrostatic pressure on any surface were
applied at the center of pressure the same effect would be produced on the surface, consider
as a free body, as is produced by the distributed pressure.

The position of the horizontal line containing the center of pressure of a plane surface
subjected to hydrostatic pressure may be determined by taking moments of all the forces
acting on the surface about some horizontal axis in its plane.

Let us assume that the force acts at some point called the center of pressure, located by
the point (xp, yp). To determine where the force acts, we must recognize that the sum of the
moments of all the infinitesimal forces must equal the moment of the resultant force, i.e.,

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where Ix is the second moment* of the area about the x-axis. The parallel-axis transfer theorem
states that

where 𝐼 ̅ is the moment of the area about its centroidal axis. So, the expression to solve the
location of the center of pressure, yp, is

Total Pressure on Curved Surface

C
Fx  pcg A
D
Fy   VABCD
Py

FR  Fx  Fy
2 2
P
B
Fy
tan  
θ Fx
cg
Px

A
where

Fx = total force acting on the vertical projection of the

curved surface.

Fy = weight of the imaginary or real fluid directly above

the curved surface.

Note: For cylindrical and spherical surfaces, the total

force F always passes through the center of the
circle defined by its surface.

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ANALYSIS OF DAMS
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A dam is a structure built across a stream for the purpose of:

1. impound water during rainy season

2. increase the head for development of water power

3. to control flow for flood protection

4. to divert the flow into another stream or watershed

` Forces acting on Dams:

1. Hydrostatic Force, P
2. Weight of the Dam, W = ΣW
h 3. Hydrostatic Uplift, U
W1 4. Vertical Reaction of Foundation, Ry = ΣFv
P 5. Horizontal Reaction of Foundation, Rx = ΣFh
toe W2 heel 6. Soil pressure on the foundation, p

max=
ϒh OM = Overturning Moment
U
(moment that tends to overturn the dam about the toe)
Forces acting on Dams
RM = Restoring Moment / Righting Moment

(moment that tends to resist the overturning moment)

Factor of Safety against Overturning, FSo

RM
FSo 
OM

Factor of Safety against Sliding, FSs

h
 Ry
FSs 
Rx
toe
Rx
e

Ry
Maximum and Minimum soil pressure at the heel/toe, p
B

Ry  6e 
p 1 
B  B

RM  OM B
where: x and x  e
Ry 2

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CHAPTER 03 14

BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION

BUOYANCY Archimedes’ Principle – (1) Any body immersed in a fluid is

acted upon by an unbalanced upward force
called the buoyant force, which is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced. (2) A floating
body displaces its own weight in the fluid in
which it floats.

BF   F VD

For homogeneous body floating on a homogeneous

liquid, the volume displaced is:

 body SGbody
VD  Vbody  Vbody
BF  liquid SGliquid
BF

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STATICAL STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES

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A floating body is acted upon by two opposing forces. These are, the body’s
weight W (acting at its center of gravity) and its buoyant force BF (acting at the center
of buoyancy that is located at the center of gravity of the displaced liquid).

When these forces are collinear shown in figure (a), it floats in an upright position.
However, when the body tilts due to wind and wave action, the center of buoyancy
shifts to its new position as shown in figure (b) and the two forces, which are no longer
collinear, produces a couple. The body will not overturn if this couple makes the body
rotate towards its original position as shown in figure (b), and will overturn if the situation is
as shown in figure (c)

The point of intersection between the axis of the body and the line of action of
the buoyant force is called the metacenter. The distance from the metacenter (M) to
the center of gravity (G) of the body is called the metacentric height (MG). It can be
seen that a body is stable if M is above G as shown in figure (b), and unstable if M is
below G as shown in figure (c). If M coincides with G, the body is said to be just stable.

ELEMENTS OF A FLOATING BODY

W = weight of the body

BF = Buoyant force (always equal to W for a floating body)
G = center of gravity of the floating body
Bo = center of buoyancy in the upright position (centroid of the displaced liquid)
Bo’ = center of buoyancy in the tilted position
VD = volume displaced
M = metacenter, the point of intersection between the line of action of the buoyant
force and the axis of the body
c = center of gravity of the wedges (immersion and emersion)
s = horizontal distance between the cg’s of the wedges
v = volume of the wedge immersion
θ = angle of tilting
MBo = distance from M to Bo
GBo = distance from G to Bo
MG = metacentric height, distance from M to G

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Righting Moment and Overturning Moment

RM or OM = W(x) = W(MGsinθ)

Metacentric height, MG = MBo + GBo

Use (-) if G is above Bo

Use (+) if G is below Bo
Note: M is always above Bo

Value of MBo

The stability of the body depends on the amount of the righting moment which in
turn dependent on the metacentric height MG. When the body tilts, the center of
buoyancy shifts to a new position. This shifting also causes the wedge to shift to a new
position. The moment due to the shifting of the buoyant force is must equal to moment to
wedge shift.

𝑣𝑠
𝑀𝐵𝑜 =
𝑉𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Initial Value of MBo
For small values of θ, (θ≈0 or θ=0)

𝐼
𝑀𝐵𝑜 =
𝑉𝐷
Note: This formula can be applied to any section

For Rectangular Section

𝐵2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
𝑀𝐵𝑜 = (1 + )
12𝐷 2

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CHAPTER 04 17

LINEAR RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM OF LIQUID MASSES

Horizontal Motion

θ a
tan  
motion g

Inclined Motion

ax
tan  
g  ay
θ
motion a x  a cos 
α a y  a sin 

Use (+) if the acceleration is upward and (-) if downwards

Vertical Motion

 a
p   h1  
h  g
p
motion Use (+) for upward motion and (-) for downward motion.

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CHAPTER 05 18

ROTATION OF VESSELS: RADIAL ACCELERATION

w
r

 2 x2
x h y
2g
y
θ dy  2 x
paraboloid of tan   
revolution dx g

1
Volume of Paraboloid V   r2 h
2

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