CE 412 - Fluid Mechanics

Non-newtonian
FLUID MECHANICS Fluids in which shear stress is not directly proportional
• a physical science dealing with action of fluids to shear rate.
at rest or in motion.
• can be subdivided into two major areas, fluid PRESSURE, p
statics (deals with fluids at rest) and fluid Pressure is the (compression) force exerted by a fluid
dynamics (deals with fluids in motion) per unit area.

HYDRAULICS MASS DENSITY, ρ (RHO)

• deals with applications and devices in The density of a fluid is its mass per unit volume
engineering devices involving liquids, usually ρ = mass of fluid, M
water and oil volume, V
• deals with such problems as the flow of fluids Units:
through pipes or in open channels, the design of English: slugs/ft3 Note: ρslugs = ρlbm/g
3
storage dams, pumps, and water turbines, and Metric: gram/cm
with other devices for the control or use of SI: kg/m3
liquids, such as nozzles, valves, jets and flow For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the
meters specific gas constant and ideal gas law:
ρ = p/RT
Types of Fluid
where: p = absolute pressure of gas in Pa
• TYPES OF FLUIDS R = gas constant Joule/kg-°K
• IDEAL
• REAL For Air:
• NEWTONIAN R = 287 J/kg-°K
• NON-NEWTONIAN R = 1716 lb-ft/slug-°R
• PSEUDOPLASTIC Approximate Room-Temperature Densities Of Common
• DILATANT Fluid
• BINGHAM
Ideal Fluids SPECIFIC VOLUME, VS
• assumed to have no viscosity The volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid
(hence no resistance to shear) Vs = 1/ρ
• incompressible
• have uniform velocity when flowing UNIT WEIGHT OR SPECIFIC WEIGHT, γ
• no friction between moving layers of fluid The weight of a unit volume of a fluid
• no eddy currents or turbulence γ = weight of fluid, W
Real Fluids Volume, V
• exhibit infinite viscosities γ = ρg
• non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing Units:
• compressible English: lb/ft3
• experience friction and turbulence in flow Metric: dyne/cm3
SI: N/m3 or kN/m3
Newtonian
Fluids in which shear stress is directly proportional to
rate of deformation.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY, s Surface Tension
A dimensionless ratio of a fluid’s density to some ● Molecular attraction forces in liquids:
standard reference density (For liquids and solids, the – Cohesion: enables liquid to resist tensile stress
reference density is water at 4°C or 39.2°F) – Adhesion: enables liquid to adhere to another body
s = ρliquid/ρwater ● Liquid-fluid interfaces:
– Liquid-gas interface: free surface
In gases, the standard reference to calculate the specific – Liquid-liquid (immiscible) interface
gravity is the density of air
s = ρgas/ρair CAPILLARITY (Capillary Action)
The name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin-
For water at 4°C: bore tube.
γ = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 9.81 kN/m3
ρ = 1.94 slugs/f3 = 1000 kg/m3 Formula:
s=1 h = 4σcosθ
γd
VISCOSITY For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which angle θ is 0°. Hence the formula becomes
is being deformed by either shear stress or tensile h = 4σ
stress. γd
where:
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, v (NU) h = capillary rise or depression in m
The ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, μ, to its γ = unit weight in N/m3
mass density, ρ d = diameter of the tube in m
v=μ σ = surface tension in Pa
ρ
where: COMPRESSIBILITY, ß
μ = absolute viscosity in Pa-sec The fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit
ρ = density in kg/m3 change in pressure in a constant-temperature process
∆V
SURFACE TENSION, σ (SIGMA) ß=V = 1
The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free ∆p EB
surface of a fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesive Or
forces, and is known as surface tension. ß = dV/V
p = 4σ dp
d where:
where: ∆V = change in volume
σ = surface tension in N/m V = original volume
d = diameter of droplet in m ∆p = change in pressure
p = gage pressure in Pa dV/V = change in volume (usually in percent)

Surface tension is responsible for the curved BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, EB

shapes of liquid drops and liquid sheets as in this • Expresses the compressibility of the fluid
example • It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to
the corresponding volume change per unit
volume
∆p The vaporization and condensation at constant
EB = ∆V = stress temperature are equilibrium processes.
V strain The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free
Or molecules is known as the vapor pressure or saturation
EB = dp pressure.
dV/V
Liquids near their boiling point or that vaporizes easily
PRESSURE DISTURBANCES are said to be volatile liquids.
Imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or
celerity of pressure of pressure waves (also known as Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased
acoustical or sonic velocity) is expressed as to the point that the vapor pressure is equal to the local
c = √(EB/ρ) = √ (1/ßρ) ambient pressure.

PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS

For any ideal gas experiencing any process:
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
When temperature is held constant:
P1V1 = P2V2 (Boyle’s Law)
When temperature is held constant (isothermal
condition):
V1/T1 = V2/T2 (Charles’ Law)
For adiabatic or isontropic conditions (no heat
exchange):
P1V1k = P2V2k
or
(V1/V2)k = p2/p1
and
T2/T1 = (p2/p1)(k-1)/k
where:
p1 = initial absolute pressure of gas
p2 = final absolute pressure of gas
V1 = initial volume of gas
V2 = final volume of gas
T1 = initial absolute temperature of gas in °K
(°K=°C+273)
T2 = final absolute temperature of gas in °K
k = ratio of the specific heat at constant
pressure to the specific heat at constant
volume
= also known as adiabatic exponent

VAPOR PRESSURE
Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the
molecules to escape the liquid surface. Molecules of the
vapor also condense back into the liquid.