Bulletin 1-I

C v1 , F L1

Fpv

(p F )

Cv1= Cv 2

Fpv

(p F )
L 1

L2

pm ax (1) = F

p1

pmax (2) =F

C v 2 ,F L 2

FL1 > FL 2

pv
pvc

p2I
p2II

p2III
p2IV

HANDBOOK
FOR CONTROL
VALVE SIZING

* PARCOL

HANDBOOK
FOR CONTROL
VALVE SIZING
CONTENTS
NOMENCLATURE
VALVE SIZING AND SELECTION
1

PROCESS DATA

VALVE SPECIFICATION

FLOW COEFFICIENT
3.1 KV coefficient
3.2 Cv coefficient
3.3 Standard test conditions

SIZING EQUATIONS
4.1 Sizing equations for incompressible fluids (turbulent flow)
4.2 Sizing equations for compressible fluids
(turbulent flow)
4.3 Sizing equations for two-phase fluids
4.4 Sizing equations for non turbulent flow

PARAMETERS OF SIZING EQUATIONS

5.1 Recovery factor FL
5.2 Coefficient of incipient cavitation xFZ and
coefficient of constant cavitation Kc
5.3 Piping geometry factor Fp
5.4 Combined liquid pressure recovery factor and piping geometry factor of a control valve with attached fittings FLP
5.5 Liquid critical pressure ratio factor FF
5.6 Expansion factor Y
5.7 Pressure differential ratio factor xT
5.8 Pressure differential ratio factor for a
valve with attached fittings xTP
5.9 Reynolds number factor FR

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* PARCOL
Symbols

Description

Units (note)

Cd

Specific flow coefficient = Cv/ d2

various

Cv

Flow coefficient

U.S. gallons/min

Nominal valve size

mm

Internal diameter of piping

mm

Fd

Valve style modifier

dimensionless

FF

Liquid critical pressure ratio factor

dimensionless

FL

dimensionless

FP

Liquid pressure recovery factor for a control valve without attached

fittings
Combined liquid pressure recovery factor and piping geometry factor
of a control valve with attached fittings
Piping geometry factor

dimensionless

FR

Reynolds number factor

dimensionless

Specific heat ratio factor = /1.4

dimensionless

KB1 and KB2

dimensionless

Kc

Bernoulli coefficients for inlet and outlet of a valve with attached

reducers
Coefficient of constant cavitation

dimensionless

Kv

Flow coefficient

m 3/h

K1 and K2

Upstream and downstream resistance coefficients

dimensionless

Molecular mass of the flowing fluid

kg/kmole

pc

Absolute thermodynamic critical pressure

bar

pv

Absolute vapour pressure of the liquid at inlet temperature

bar

pvc

Vena contracta absolute pressure

bar

p1

Inlet absolute pressure measured at upstream pressure tap

bar

p2

Outlet absolute pressure measured at downstream pressure tap

bar

Pressure differential between upstream and downstream pressures

bar

p max

bar

qm

Maximum allowable pressure differential for control valve sizing

purposes for incompressible fluids
Mass flow rate

kg/h

qv

Volumetric flow rate

m 3/h

qm(max)

Maximum mass flow rate in choked condition

kg/h

qv(max)

Maximum volumetric flow rate in choked condition

m 3/h

Rev

Valve Reynolds number

dimensionless

T1

Inlet absolute temperature

Average fluid velocity

m/s

FLP

dimensionless

Note - Unless otherwise specified

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* PARCOL
Symbols

Description

Units

Specific volume

m 3/kg

Ratio of pressure differential to inlet absolute pressure

dimensionless

xcr

Ratio of pressure differential to inlet absolute pressure in critical

conditions ( p/p1)cr

dimensionless

xFZ

Coefficient of incipient cavitation

dimensionless

xT

dimensionless

xTP

Pressure differential ratio factor in choked flow condition for a valve

without attached fittings
Value of x T for valve/fitting assembly

Expansion factor

dimensionless

Compressibility factor - ratio of ideal to actual inlet specific mass

dimensionless

Specific heat ratio

dimensionless

Specific mass of water at 15.5C i.e. 999 kg/m 3

kg/m 3

1
r

Specific mass of fluid at p1 and T1

kg/m 3
Ratio of specific mass of fluid in upstream condition to specific mass of dimensionless
water at 15.5C (1/ - for liquids is indicated as /)

Kinematic viscosity ( = /)

Centistoke = 10 -6 m 2/s

Dynamic viscosity

Centipoise = 10 -3 Pa s

-3-

dimensionless

* PARCOL
SIZING AND SELECTION OF CONTROL
VALVES

On the ground of the above data it is possible to

finalise the detailed specification of the valve
(data sheet), i.e. to select:

The correct sizing and selection of a control valve

must be based on the full knowledge of the process.

- VALVE SPECIFICATION

- valve rating
- body and valve type
- body size, after having calculated the maximum flow coefficient Cv with the appropriate
sizing equations
- type of trim
- materials trim of different trim parts
- leakage class
- inherent flow characteristic
- packing type
- type and size of actuator
- accessories

- PROCESS DATA
The following data should at least be known:
a - Type of fluid and its chemical-physical and
thermodynamic characteristics, such as pressure p, temperature T, vapour pressure
pv, thermodynamic critical pressure pc,
specific mass , kinematic viscosity or
dynamic viscosity , specific heat at constant pressure Cp, specific heat at constant
volume Cv , specific heat ratio , molecular mass M, compressibility factor Z, ratio
of vapour to its liquid, presence of solid particles, inflammability, toxicity.

- FLOW COEFFICIENT

3.1 - FLOW COEFFICIENT Kv

b - Maximum operating range of flow rate related

to pressure and temperature of fluid at valve
inlet and to p across the valve.

The flow coefficient Kv, is the standard flow rate

which flows through a valve at a given opening,
i.e. referred to the following conditions:

c - Operating conditions (nor mal, max., min.

etc.).

- static pressure drop (p(Kv) ) across the valve

of 1 bar (105 Pa)
- flowing fluid: water at a temperature from 5 to
40 C
- volumetric flow rate in m3 /h

d - Ratio of pressure differential available across

the valve to total head loss along the
process line at various operating conditions.
e - Operational data, such as:

The value of Kv can be determined from tests

using the following formula:

- maximum differential pressure with closed

valve
- stroking time
- plug position in case of supply failure
- maximum allowable leakage of valve in
closed position
- fire resistance
- max. outwards leakage
- noise limitations

K v = qv

p( Kv )

(1)

where:
p(Kv) is the static pressure drop of 105 Pa
p is the static pressure drop from upstream to
downstream in Pa
is the specific mass of fluid in kg/m3
o is the specific mass of water in kg/m3

f - Interface information, such as:

The equation (1) is valid at standard conditions

(see point 3.3).

sizing of downstream safety valves

accessibility of the valve
materials and type of piping connections
overall dimensions, including the necessary
space for disassembling and maintenance
- design pressure and temperature
- available supplies and their characteristics

3.2 - FLOW COEFFICIENT Cv

The flow coefficient Cv , is the standard flow rate

which flows through a valve at a given opening,

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* PARCOL
4

i.e. referred to the following conditions:

- static pressure drop (p(Cv)) across the valve
of 1 psi (6895 Pa)
- flowing fluid: water at a temperature from 40
to 100 F (5 40 C)
- volumetric flow rate: expressed in gpm

Sizing equations allow to calculate a value of

the flow coefficient starting from different operating conditions (type of fluid, pressure drop, flow
rate, type of flow and installation) and making
them mutually comparable as well as with the
standard one.

The value of Cv can be determined from tests

using the following formula:

C v = qv

p( Cv )

The equations outlined in sub-clauses 4.1 and

4.2 are in accordance with the standard IEC
534-2-1

(2)
4.1 - SIZING EQUATIONS FOR INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLUIDS (TURBULENT FLOW)

where:
p(Cv) is the static pressure drop of 1 psi (see
above)
p is the static pressure drop from upstream to
downstream expressed in psi.
is the specific mass of the fluid expressed in
Ib/ft3
o is the specific mass of the water expressed in
Ib/ft3

In general actual flow rate of a incompressible

fluid through a valve is plotted in Fig. 2 versus
the square root of the pressure differential ( p )
under constant upstream conditions.
The cur ve can be splitted into three regions:
- a first normal flow region (not critical), where
the flow rate is exactly proportional to p .
This not critical flow condition takes place until pvc > pv .
- a second semi-critical flow region, where the
flow rate still rises when the pressure drop is
increased, but less than proportionally to p .
In this region the capability of the valve to convert the pressure drop increase into flow rate
is reduced, due to the fluid vaporisation and
the subsequent cavitation.
- In the third limit flow or saturation region the
flow rate remains constant, in spite of further
increments of p .

Also the above equation (2) is valid at standard

conditions as specified under point 3.3.
3.3 - STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS

The standard conditions referred to in definitions

of flow coefficients (Kv , Cv) are the following:
-

flow in turbulent condition

no cavitation and vaporisation phenomena
valve diameter equal to pipe diameter
static pressure drop measured between upstream and downstream pressure taps located
as in Fig. 1
- straight pipe lengths upstream and downstream the valve as per Fig. 1
- Newtonian fluid

This means that the flow conditions in vena

contracta have reached the maximum evaporation rate (which depends on the upstream
flow conditions) and the mean velocity is close
to the sound velocity, as in a compressible fluid.

Note: Though the flow coefficients were defined

as liquid (water) flow rates nevertheless they are
used for control valve sizing both for incompressible and compressible fluids.
2D

The standard sizing equations ignore the

hatched area of the diagram shown in Fig. 2,
thus neglecting the semi-critical flow region. This

6D
p1

20D (*)

- SIZING EQUATIONS

p2

(*)

Straight pipe lengths upstream and

downstream the valve
D = Nominal pipe and valve diameter
L = Valve dimension
p1,p2 = Pressure taps

10D (*)

Fig. 1 - Standard test set up

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* PARCOL
approximation is justified by simplicity purposes
and by the fact that it is not practically important
to predict the exact flow rate in the hatched area;
on the other hand such an area should be
avoided, when possible, as it always involves
vibration and noise problems as well as mechanical problems due to cavitation.
Basic equation
Valid for standard test conditions only.

qv = K v

p
/

with qv in m3/s
p in bar (105 Pa)

p
/

qv = Cv

with qv in gpm
p in psi

Note: Simple conversion operations

among the different units give the
following relationship : Cv = 1.16 Kv
Normal flow (not critical)
It is individuated by the relationship:

CV =

CV =

p <

F 2
pmax = LP
Fp

(p F pv )
1

qm
865 FRp p r
1.16 q v
FpR

p
r

qm

p max = FL p1 FF p v
IEC limit flow

IEC normal flow

approximation of IEC
equations

2%
normal flow

semi-critical flow

limit flow or "choked flow"

noise and vibration

p =

flashing (p2 <p v )

K c (p1 pv ) flow
f rate affected by cavitation

beginning of cavitation

p = x FZ (p1 p v )
p

Fig.2 -Flow rate diagram of an incompressible fluid flowing through a valve plotted versus downstream
pressure under constant upstream conditions.

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* PARCOL
Limit flow
It is individuated by the relationship:

Cv =

Cv =

q m (max )
865 FLP

2
2

FLPP
(p1 FF pv )
p pmax =
F
p

(p1 FF p v )r

1.16 q v (max )
FLP

(p1 FFp v )
r

If the valve is without reducers F P = 1 and FLP = F L

4.2 - SIZING EQUATIONS FOR COMPRESSIBLE
FLUIDS (TURBULENT FLOW)

Such an effect is taken into account by means

of the expansion coefficient Y (see 5.6), whose
value can change between 1 and 0.667.

The Fig. 3 shows the flow rate diagram of a compressible fluid flowing through a valve when
changing the downstream pressure under constant upstream conditions. The flow rate is no
longer proportional to the square root of the pressure differential p as in the case of incompressible fluids. This deviation from linearity is
due to the variation of fluid density (expansion)
from the valve inlet up to the vena contracta.

Normal flow
It is individuated by the relationship
x < F xT

Due to this density reduction the gas must be

accelerated up to a higher velocity than the one
reached by an equivalent liquid mass flow. Under the same p the mass flow rate of a compressible fluid must therefore be lower than the
one of an incompressible fluid.

limit flow

vena contracta expansion effect

sound velocity in vena contracta

-7-

2/3 < Y 1

Cv =

qm
27.3 Fp Y x p1 1

Cv =

qv
M T1 Z

2120 Fp p1 Y
x

limit flow
density variation effect

or

Fig.3 - Flow rate diagram of a

compressible fluid
flowing through a valve
plotted versus differential pressure under
constant upstream
conditions.

* PARCOL
Limit flow
It is individuated by the relationship
x F xTP

Cv =

Cv =

and/or

A second physical model overcomes this limitation assuming that the two phases cross the vena
contracta at the same velocity.

Y = 2/3 = 0.667
The mass flow rate of a gas (see above) is proportional to:

q m( max )
18.2 Fp F x TP p1 1

Y x 1 = Y

x
= x/ V eg
V g1

where Veg is the actual specific volume of the

gas i.e.

q v (max )
M T1 Z

1414 Fp p1
F x TP

V g1 /Y 2
In other terms this means to assume that the
mass flow of a gas with specific volume Vg1 is
equivalent to the mass flow of a liquid with specific volume Veg under the same operating conditions.

where: qv is expressed in Nm3/h

If valve is without reducers Fp = 1
and xTP becomes xT

Assuming :

Ve = f g

Vgl
Y

+ f liq Vliq1

where fg and fliq are respectively the gaseous

and the liquid mass fraction of the mixture, the
sizing equation becomes:

4.3 - SIZING EQ UATIONS FOR TWO-PHASE

FLOWS
No standard formulas presently exist for the calculation of two-phase flow rates through orifices
or control valves.

q m = 27. 3 Fp C v

4.3.1- LIQUID/GAS MIXTURES

x p1
Ve

When the mass fraction f g is very small (under

about 5%) better accuracy is reached using the
first method.

A first easy physical model for the calculation

roughly considers separately the flows of the two
phases through the valve orifice without mutual
energy exchange.

For higher amounts of gas the second method

is to be used.

Therefore:

4.3.2- LIQUID/VAPOUR MIXTURES

C v = C v g + C v liq

The calculation of the flow rate of a liquid mixed

with its own vapour through a valve is very complex because of mass and energy transfer between the two phases.

i.e. the flow coefficient is calculated as the sum

of the one required for the gaseous phase and
the other required for the liquid phase.

No formula is presently available to calculate with

sufficient accuracy the flow capacity of a valve
in these conditions.

This method assumes that the mean velocities

of the two phases in the vena contracta are considerably different.

Such calculation problems are due to the following reasons:

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* PARCOL
The most reliable explanation of such results is
that the two phases flow at quite different velocities, though mutually exchanging mass and
energy.

- difficulties in assessing the actual quality of the

mixture (i.e. the vapour mass percentage) at
valve inlet. This is mostly true and important at
low qualities, where small errors in quality
evaluation involve significant errors in the calculation of the specific volume of the mixture
(e.g. if p1= 5 bar, when the quality varies from
0.01 to 0.02 the mean specific volume of the
mixture increases of 7.7%).

On the ground of the above considerations it is

possible to state that:

- for low vapour quality (less than about three

percent vapour by mass) at valve inlet the most
suitable equation is the one obtained from the
sum of the flow capacities of the two phases
(at different flow velocities).

While the global transformation from upstream

to downstream (practically isoenthalpic) always
involves a quality increase, the isoenthropic
transformation of the mixture in thermodynamic
balance between valve inlet and vena contracta
may involve quality increase or decrease, depending on quality and pressure values (see diagram T/S at Fig. 4).

C v = C v liq + C v vap

- for high vapour quality at valve inlet the most

suitable equation is the one obtained from the
hypothesis of equal velocities of the two
phases, i.e. of the equivalent specific volume.

- some experimental data point out the fact that

the process is not always in thermodynamic
equilibrium (stratifications of metastable liquid
and overheated steam).

Cv =

- experimental data are available on liquid-vapour mixtures flowing through orifices at flow
rates 1012 times higher than the ones resulting from calculation when considering the fluid
as compressible with a specific mass equal to
the one at the valve inlet.

qm
27 .3 Fp

x p1
Ve

Temperature

1
Fig. 4 - Thermodynamic transformations of a water / vapour
mixture inside a valve.

1
2

In the transformation shown at left side

of the diagram (isoenthropic between
inlet and vena contracta Vc) the vapour
quality increases.

Vc
2
Vc

In the transformation at right side the

quality decreases, moving from 1 to Vc.

Enthropy

-9-

In both cases the point 2 are on the

same isoenthalpic curve passing
through the point 1, but with a higher
quality.

* PARCOL
The effect of fittings attached to the valve is
probably negligible in laminar flow condition and
it is presently unknown.
In equations applicable to compressible fluid the
correcting factor p 1+p 2/2 was introduced to
account for the fluid density change.

4.4 - SIZING EQUATIONS FOR NON TURBULENT

FLOW
Sizing equations of subclauses 4.1 and 4.2 are
applicable in turbulent flow conditions, i.e. when
the Reynolds number calculated inside the valve
is higher than about 30,000.
The well-known Reynolds number:

Re = u d

In addition to the flow coefficient some other

parameters occur in sizing equations with the
purpose to identify the different flow types (normal, semi-critical, critical, limit); such parameters
only depend on the flow pattern inside the valve
body. In many cases such parameters are of primary importance for the selection of the right
valve for a given ser vice. It is therefore necessary to know the values of such parameters for
the different valve types at full opening as well
as at other stroke percentages.

is the dimensionless ratio between mass forces

and viscous forces. When the first prevails the
flow is turbulent; otherwise it is laminar.
Should the fluid be very viscous or the flow rate
very low, or the valve very small, or a combination
of the above conditions, a laminar type flow (or
transitional flow) takes place in the valve and the
Cv coefficient calculated in turbulent flow
condition must be corrected by FR coefficient.
Due to that above, factor F R becomes a
fundamental parameter to properly size the low
flow control valves i.e. the valves having flow
coefficients Cv from approximately 1.0 down to
the microflows range.
In such valves non turbulent flow conditions do
commonly exist with conventional fluids too (air,
water, steam etc.) and standard sizing equations
become unsuitable if proper coefficients are not
used.

Such parameters are:

FL - liquid pressure recovery factor for incompressible fluids
Kc - coefficient of constant cavitation
Fp - piping factor
FLP- combined coefficient of FL with Fp
FF - liquid critical pressure ratio factor
Y - expansion factor
xFZ - coefficient of incipient cavitation
xT - pressure differential ratio factor in choked
condition
xTP - combined coefficient of Fp with xT
FR - Reynolds number factor

The currently used equations are the following:

CV =

qm
865 FR p r

incompressible fluid

CV =

1.16 q v
FR

CV =

5.1 - RECOVERY FACTOR FL

p
r

The recovery factor of a valve only depends on

the shape of the body and the trim. It shows the
valve capability to transform the kinetic energy
of the fluid in the vena contracta into pressure
energy; it is so defined:

qm
T1

67 FR
p ( p 1 + p 2 ) M

FL =

compressible fluid
CV =

- PARAMETERS OF SIZING EQUATIONS

qv
M T1

1500 FR
p ( p 1 + p 2 )

p1 p2
p1 pvc

Since pvc (pressure in vena contracta) is always

lower than p2 , it is always FL 1. Moreover it is
important to remark that the lower is this coefficient the higher is the valve capability to transform the kinetic energy into pressure energy
(high recovery valve).

The above equations are the same outlined in

subclauses 4.1 and 4.2 for non limit flow condition
and modified with the correction factor FR.
The choked flow condition was ignored not being
consistent with laminar flow.
Note the absence of piping factors Fp and Y
which were defined in turbulent regime.

The higher this coefficient is (close to 1) the

higher is the valve attitude to dissipate energy
by friction rather than in vortices, with conse-

- 10 -

* PARCOL
longer and this flow rate is assumed as q v(max).

quently lower reconversion of kinetic energy into

pressure energy (low recovery valve). In practice the sizing equations simply refer to the pressure drop (p1-p2 ) between valve inlet and outlet
and until the pressure pvc in vena contracta is
higher than the saturation pressure p v of the fluid
at valve inlet, then the influence of the recovery
factor is practically negligible and it does not
matter whether the valve dissipates pressures
energy by friction rather than in whirlpools.

FL can be determined measuring only the pressure p1 and qv(max) .

b

- Accuracy in determination of FL
It is relatively easier determining the critical flow
rate qv(max) for high recovery valves (low FL) than
for low recovery valves (high FL ). The accuracy
in the determination of FL for values higher than
0.9 is not so impor tant for the calculation of the
flow capacity as to enable to correctly predict
the cavitation phenomenon for services with high
differential pressure.

The FL coefficient is crucial when approaching

to cavitation, which can be avoided selecting a
lower recovery valve.
a

- Determination of FL
c

- Variation of FL versus valve opening and flow

direction

Since it is not easy to measure the pressure in

the vena contracta with the necessary accuracy,
the recovery factor is determined in critical conditions:

FL =

The recovery factor depends on the profile of

velocities which takes place inside the valve body.
Since this last changes with the valve opening,
the FL coefficient considerably varies along the
stroke and, for the same reason, is often strongly
affected by the flow direction. The Fig. 6 shows
the values of the recovery factor versus the plug
stroke for different valve types and the two flow
directions.

1.16q v (max )
C v p1 0 .96 p v

Critical conditions are reached with a relatively

high inlet pressure and reducing the outlet pressure p2 until the flow rate does not increase any

C v1 , F L 1

Fpv

(p F )

Cv1= Cv 2

Fpv

(p F )
L 1

pm ax (1) = F

p1

L2

pmax (2) = F

C v2 ,F L 2

FL1 >FL 2

Cv1FL1
Cv2FL2

pv
pvc
- 11 -

p2 I
p2II Fig. 5 - Comparison between two valves with
equal flow coefficient but
with different recovery facIII
p2 tor, under the same inlet
fluid condition, when varyIV
p2 ing the downstream pressure. At the same values
of Cv, p1 and p2 valves
with higher F L can accept
higher flow rates of fluid.

* PARCOL
1
1
0.95

4
2, 4

Coefficiente di recupero FL
Pressure recovery factor FL

0.9

7
0.85

5
3

0.8

0.75

0.7
7
0.65
3

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

seggio doppio - V-port

seggio singolo - fusso apre
seggio singolo - flusso chiude
seggio singolo a gabbia - flusso apre
rotativa eccentrica - flusso apre
farfalla a disco eccentrico
seggio doppio - parabolico

double seat - V-port

single seat - flow to open
single seat - flow to close
single seat cage - flow to open
eccentric plug - flow to open
eccentric disk
double seat - parabolic

0.6
10

50

1-8110
1-6911
1-6911
1-6933
1-6600
1-2471
1-8110

% del Cv max
% of rated Cv
100

Fig. 6 - Typical FL values versus % value Cv and flow direction for different PARCOL valve types.
5.2 - COEFFICIENT OF INCIPIENT CAVITATION
XFZ AND COEFFICIENT OF CONSTANT CAVITATION Kc
Index of resistance to cavitation
stellite gr. 6
chrome plating
17-4-PH H900
AISI 316/304
monel 400
gray cast iron
chrome-molybdenum alloyed steels (5% chrome)
carbon steels (WCB)
bronze (B16)
nickel plating
pure aluminium

20
(5)
2
1
(0.8)
0.75
0.67
0.38
0.08
(0.07)
0.006

Fig. 7 - Cavitation resistance of some metallic

materials referred to stainless steels AISI 304/
316. Values between brackets only for qualitative comparison.

- 12 -

When in the vena contracta a pressure lower than

the saturation pressure is reached then the liquid evaporates, forming vapour bubbles. If, due
to pressure recovery, the downstream pressure
(which only depends on the downstream piping
layout) is higher than the critical pressure in the
vena contracta, then vapour bubbles totally or
partially implode, instantly collapsing. This phenomenon is called cavitation and causes well
known damages due to high local pressures
generated by the vapour bubble implosion. Metal
surface damaged by the cavitation show a typical pitted look with many micro- and macro-pits.
The higher is the number of imploding bubbles,
the higher are damaging speed and magnitude;
these depend on the elasticity of the media where
the implosion takes place (i.e. on the fluid temperature) as well as on the hardness of the metal
surface (see table at Fig. 7).

* PARCOL
the formula Kc = 0.8 FL2. Such a simplification
is however only acceptable when the diagram of
the actual flow rate versus p , under constant
upstream conditions, shows a sharp break point
between the linear/proportional zone and the
horizontal one. If on the contrary the break point
radius is larger (i.e. if the p at which the deviation from the linearity takes place is different from
the p at which the limit flow rate is reached)
then the coefficient of proportionality between
Kc and FL2 can come down to 0.65. Since the
coefficient of constant cavitation changes with
the valve opening, it is usually referred to a 75%
opening.

Critical conditions are obviously reached gradually. Moreover the velocity profile in the vena
contracta is not completely uniform, hence may
be that a part only of the flow reaches the vaporization pressure. The FL recovery factor is
determined in proximity of fully critical conditions,
so it is not suitable to predict an absolute absence of vaporization. In order to detect the beginning of the constant bubble formation, i.e. the
constant cavitation, the coefficient Kc was defined. This coefficient is defined as the ratio p/
(p1 - pv ) at which cavitation begins to appear in
a water flow through the valve with such an intensity that, under constant upstream conditions,
the flow rate deviation from the linearity versus
p exceeds 2%. Usually the beginning of cavitation is identified by the coefficient of incipient
cavitation xFZ. The xFZ coefficient can be determined by test using sound level meters or accelerometers connected to the pipe and relating
noise and vibration increase with the beginning
of bubble formation. Some informations on this
regard are given by standard IEC 534-8-2 Laboratory measurement of the noise generated by a
liquid flow through a control valve, which the Fig.
8 was drawn from. A simple calculation rule uses

5.3 - PIPING FACTOR Fp

sound pressure level (dB)

As already explained characteristic coefficients

of a given valve type are determined in standard
conditions of installation. The actual piping geometry will obviously differ from the standard one.
The coefficient Fp takes into account the way
that a reducer, an expander, a Y or T branch, a
bend or a shut-off valve affect the value of Cv of
a control valve. A calculation can only be carried
out for pressure and velocity changes caused
by reducers and expanders directly connected
to the valve. Other effects, such as the ones
caused by a change in velocity profile at valve
inlet due to reducers or other fittings like a short
radius bend close to the valve, can only be evaluated by specific tests. Moreover such per turbations could involve undesired effects, such as
plug instability due to asymmetrical and unbalancing fluidodynamic forces. When the flow coefficient must be determined within 5 % tolerance the F p coefficient must be determined by
test. When estimated values are permissible the
following equation may be used:

p/(p1-pv)

Fp =

XFZ

ptr
x FZ =
p1 pv

being:

where ptr is the value of p at

which the transition takes place
from not cavitating to cavitating
flow.

1
K C v
1+

0.00214 d 2

K = K 1+ K 2 + K B1 K B2

Where C v is the selected flow coefficient, K1 and

K2 are resistance coefficient which take into account head losses due to turbulences and
frictions at valve inlet and outlet, K B1 and/or
KB2 = 1 - (d / D)4 are the so called Bernoulli
coefficients, which account for the pressure
changes due to velocity changes due to reducers or expanders.

Fig. 8 - Determination of the coefficient of incipient cavitation

by means of phonometric analysis.
(Drawn from IEC Standard 534-8-2)

- 13 -

* PARCOL
In case of reducers:

d 2
K1 = 0.5 1
D

pmax is no longer equal to F L

it becomes:
2

FLp

(p1 FF pv )
Fp

In case of expanders:

d 2
=
K 2 1.01
D

(see Fig. 9)

It is determined by test, like for the recovery factor FL (see point 5.1).

FLP =

In case of the same ratio d/D for reducers and

expanders:

d 2
K1 + K 2 = 1.51
D

1.16 q v (max )LP

C v p1 0. 96p v

When FL is known it also can be determined by

the following relationship:

FLP =
5.4 -

(p1 F F p v ) , but

RECOVERY FACTOR WITH REDUCERS FLP

FL
FL2
(K)1 C2v
1+
0.00214
d

Where: (K)1= K1 +KB1

Reducers, expanders, fittings and, generally

speaking, any installation not according to the
standard test manifold not only affect the standard coefficient (changing the actual inlet and
outlet pressures), but also modify the transition
point between normal and choked flow, so that

5.5 - LIQUID CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO

FACTOR FF
The coefficient FF is the ratio between the apparent pressure in vena contracta in choked con-

p max = FL p1 FF pv

q max FL Cv
q max FLP Cv
p1 FF pv

pC
v

FLP
Fp

q
F

q
C

p max =

p
Fig. 9 - Effect of reducers on the diagram of q versus

p when varying the downstream pressure at constant upstream pressure.

- 14 -

* PARCOL
dition and the vapour pressure of the liquid at
inlet temperature:

- Y is a function of the fluid type, namely the

exponent of the adiabatic transformation
= cp /cv
- Y is function of the geometry (i.e. type) of the
valve

FF = pvc /pv
When the flow is at limit conditions (saturation)
the flow rate equation must no longer be expressed as a function of p = p1-p2, but of pvc
= p1 -pvc(differential pressure in vena contracta).
Starting from the basic equation (at point 4.1):

qv = Cv

From the first hypothesis: Y = 1 - ax, therefore:

q mY x
A mathematic procedure allows to calculate the
value of Y which makes maximum the above
function (that means finding the point where the
rate dqm/ dx becomes zero.

p1 p 2
r

and from:

FL =

3
q m (1 ax ) x = x a x

p1 p2
p1 pvc

By setting

dq m
1
3a x
=

=0
dx
2
2 x

the following equation is obtained:

q v = FL C v

p1 p vc
r

1
= 3a x
x

Since pvc depends on the vapour pressure

pvc = FF pv therefore:

q v = FL C v

i.e.:

pv
pc

1
3a

2
1
a =
3a
3

Y =1

pv
pc

x
3x T

thus taking into account also the third hypothesis. As a matter of fact xT is an experimental
value to be determined for each valve type. Finally the second hypothesis will be taken into
account with an appropriate correction factor:

where pc is the critical thermodynamic pressure.

5.6 -

x=

As Y = 1 when x = 0 and Y = 2 /3, when the flow

rate is maximum (i.e. x = xT ) the equation of Y
becomes the following:

Supposing that at saturation conditions the fluid

is a homogeneous mixture of liquid and its vapour with the two phases at the same velocity
and in thermodynamic equilibrium, the following
equation may be used:

FF = 0.96 0.28

Y = 1

hence:

EXPANSION FACTOR Y

F = /1.4, which is the ratio between the exponent of the adiabatic transformation for the actual gas and the one for air.

This coefficient allows to use for compressible

fluids the same equation structure valid for incompressible fluids. It has the same nature of
the expansion factor utilized in the equations of
the throttling type devices (orifices, nozzles or
Venturi) for the measure of the flow rate. The Y s
equation is obtained from the theory on the basis of the following hypothesis (experimentally
confirmed):
- Y is a linear function of x = p/p1

The final equation becomes:

Y = 1

- 15 -

x
3Fy x T

* PARCOL
Cv/d2
(d in mm)

15 x 10-3

20 x 10-3

25 x 10-3

30 x 10-3

35 x 10-3

40 x 10-3

FL

.5 .6 .7 .8 .9

.5 .6 .7 .8 .9

.5 .6 .7 .8 .9

.5 .6 .7 .8 .9

.5 .6 .7 .8 .9

.5 .6 .7 .8 .9

d/D

FLP

FLP

FLP

FLP

FLP

FLP

.25
.33
.40
.50
.66
.75

.49 .58 .67 .77 .85

.49 .58 .68 .76 .85
.49 .58 .68 .77 .85
.49 .59 .68 .77 .86
.49 .59 .68 .77 .86
.49 .59 .69 .78 .87

.48 .57 .66 .74 .81

.48 .57 .66 .74 .82
.48 .57 .66 .74 .82
.49 .58 .66 .75 .83
.49 .58 .67 .76 .84
.49 .58 .68 .76 .85

.47 .56 .64 .71 .78

.48 .56 .64 .71 .78
.48 .56 .64 .72 .78
.48 .56 .65 .72 .79
.48 .57 .66 .74 .81
.49 .58 .66 .75 .83

.47 .54 .61 .68 .74

.47 .54 .62 .68 .74
.47 .55 .62 .69 .75
.47 .55 .62 .69 .76
.48 .56 .64 .71 .78
.48 .57 .65 .73 .80

.45 .53 .59 .65 .70

.46 .53 .59 .65 .70
.46 .53 .60 .66 .71
.46 .54 .60 .66 .72
.47 .55 .62 .69 .74
.47 .56 .63 .70 .77

.44 .51 .57 .62 .66

.44 .51 .57 .62 .66
.45 .51 .57 .62 .67
.45 .52 .58 .63 .68
.46 .53 .60 .66 .71
.47 .54 .62 .68 .74

Fig. 10 - Values of FLP for valves with short type reducer at the inlet with abrupt section variation
1

Fig. 11 -Liquid critical pressure ratio factor

0.96

FF
0.9

pv = Vapour pressure (bar abs.)

0.8

pc = Critical pressure (bar abs.)

0.7

FF = 0.96 0.28
0.6
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

pv
pc

Pv
Pc

Fig. 12 -Critical pressure ratio factor for water

FF

1
0,96

0,95
0,90
0,85
0,80

221.2

0,75
0,70

0,68

0,65
0,60

pv
FF = 0.96 0.28
221.2

50

100
150
pv = Vapour pressure (bar abs.)

200

pc

250

1
Y

Fig. 13 -Expansion factor Y.

The diagram is valid for a given of F value.

0.9

0.8

XT

ing
eas
incr

0.7
0.667

x=

0.6
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

- 16 -

1.0

p
p1

* PARCOL
Therefore the maximum flow rate is reached
when x = F . xT (or F xTP if the valve is supplied with reducers) ; correspondently the expansion factor reaches the minimum value of 0.667.
5.7 -

If the downstream pressure p2 is further reduced,

the flow rate still increases, as, due to the specific internal geometry of the valve, the section
of the vena contracta widens transversally (it is
not physically confined into solid walls). A confined vena contracta can be got for instance in a
Venturi meter to measure flow rate: for such a
geometry, once the sound velocity is reached
for a given value of p2 the relevant flow rate remains constant, even reducing further p2 . Nevertheless the flow rate does not unlimitedly increase, but only up to a given value of p/p1 (to
be determined by test), the so called pressure
differential ratio factor in choked flow condition,
xT .

PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL RATIO FACTOR

IN CHOKED FLOW CONDITION xT
As already seen the recovery factor does not occur in sizing equations for compressible fluids.
Its use is unsuitable for gas and vapours because
of the following physical phenomenon.
Let us suppose that in a given section of the
valve, under a given value of the downstream
pressure p2, the sound velocity is reached. The
critical differential ratio

5.8 - PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL RATIO FACTOR

IN CHOKED FLOW CONDITION FOR A VALVE
WITH REDUCERS XTP

p
x cr =
p1 cr

xTP is the same coefficients xT however determined on valves supplied with reducers or installed not in according to the standard set up.

is reached as well, being

y

y 1

x cr = F 1
+ 1

2
L

Cd
xT
d/D
.80
.75
.67
.60
.50
.40
.33
.25

10

15

.40 .50 .60 .70 .80

xTP
.40 .49 .59 .69 .78
.40 .50 .59 .69 .78
.40 .50 .60 .69 .78
.41 .51 .60 .70 .79
.41 .52 .61 .70 .80
.42 .52 .62 .71 .80
.43 .53 .62 .72 .81
.44 .53 .63 .73 .83

x TP =

20

.40 .50 .60 .70 .80

Fp
.99
.98
.98
.97
.96
.95
.94
.93

xTP
.40 .49 .58 .67 .75
.40 .49 .58 .67 .75
.41 .50 .59 .68 .76
.42 .52 .61 .69 .78
.44 .53 .63 .71 .79
.44 .55 .65 .74 .82
.46 .56 .66 .75 .83
.48 .58 .67 .76 .85

xTP
.39 .48 .56 .64
.40 .49 .57 .65
.42 .51 .59 .67
.43 .53 .61 .69
.46 .55 .64 .72
.49 .58 .67 .75
.50 .60 .69 .78
.52 .62 .71 .79

1+

x T (K1 + K B1 ) C v
2
0.0024
d

25

.40 .50 .60 .70

Fp
.98
.97
.95
.93
.91
.89
.88
.87

xT

(Fp )2

30

.20 .30 .40 .50

Fp
.96
.94
.91
.89
.85
.82
.81
.79

xTP
.21 .30 .39 .47
.22 .31 .40 .48
.24 .33 .43 .51
.25 .36 .45 .54
.28 .39 .49 .58
.30 .42 .53 .62
.31 .44 .55 .64
.33 .46 .57 .67

.15

Fp
.94
.91
.87
.84
.79
.76
.74
.72

.20

.25

xTP
.17
.18
.19
.21
.24
.26
.27
.27

.21
.23
.25
.27
.30
.33
.34
.37

.26
.27
.30
.32
.36
.40
.40
.44

Fp
.91
.88
.83
.79
.73
.70
.69
.65

Fig. 14 -Calculated values of xTP and Fp for valves installed between two commercial concentric reducers (with abrupt section variation)
Cd = Cv / d 2 (d expressed in inches).
Example: For a 2" valve is: Cv = 80 and xT = 0.65
The valve is installed in a 3" pipe between two short type reducers.
Cd = Cv / d2 = 20 d / D = 2/3 = 0.67
A linear interpolation between xT = 0.6 and xT = 0.7 results in xTP = 0.63

- 17 -

* PARCOL
FR

Some practical values of xTP versus some

piping parameters and the specific flow coefficient Cd are listed in the table at Fig.
14.

Cd=10

Cd=15

5.9 -

Cd=20

laminar flow

transitional flow

REYNOLDS NUMBER FACTOR FR

The FR factor is defined as the ratio
between the flow coefficient C v for not
turbulent flow, and the corresponding
coefficient calculated for turbulent flow
under the same conditions of installation.
If experimental data are not available , FR
can be derived by the diagrams of Fig. 15
versus the valve Reynolds number Re v
which can be determined by the following
relationship:

turbulent

Rev

Fig. 15 - FR factor versus Rev for

some Cd values

VALVE S TYLE MODIFIE R Fd

Valve ty pe

Flow direc
ectti on

Globe, parabolic plug

(1-6911, 1-6951, 1-6921, 1-6981 e 1-4411)
Butterfly valve
1-2471, 1-2512,
1-2311

Max. opening
90
60

Cage valve
1-6933, 1-4433,
1-6971, 1-4471

Number of holes
50
100
200

Double seat
1-8110

Parabolic
V-port

Relat ive f low

coe
co
eff
ffiicient
0. 10

1. 00

Flow-to-open
Flow-to-close

0.10
0.20

0.46
1.00

Whatever

0.20
0.20

0.7
0.5

Whatever

0.45
0.32
0.22

0.14
0.10
0.07

Between
seats

0.10
0.10

0.32
0.28

Fig. 16 -Typical Fd values for PARCOL control valves. More accurate values on request

The term under root accounts for the valve inlet

velocity (velocity of approach) which, except for
wide-open ball and butterfly valves, can be
neglected in the enthalpic balance and taken as
unity.
Fd factor (the valve style modifier) has been
introduced to account for the geometry of trim in
the throttling section.
Being the Cv in Rev equation the flow coefficient
calculated by assuming turbulent flow conditions,
the actual value of C v must be found by an
iterative calculation.

- 18 -

* PARCOL

This data sheet was derived from IEC 60534-7 with some improvements not affecting the numbering of the original items.

- 19 -

PARCOL S.p.A. Via Isonzo, 2

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