HrU - 29th - Research and Extension Review - Proceedings PDF

Haramaya University Office of Research Affairs
Proceedings of the 29th Annual Research and Extension Review

Workshop, 2011/2012
Edited and compiled by:
Mengistu Urge (PhD)

Nigussie Dechassa (PhD)
Mengistu Ketema (PhD)
Mulugeta Yitayih (MSc)
Getachew Animut (PhD)
March 2012
Haramaya University
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Copyright ©Haramaya University, 2012
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Office of Research Affairs of Haramaya University
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Email: [email protected]
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES. 1
1.1 ROOT AND TUBER CROPS RESEARCH PROGRAM................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Maintenance of Sweet Potato Genotypes at Haramaya University ............................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Maintenance of Potato Genotypes at Haramaya University ....................................................................................... 3
1.2 LOWLAND OIL CROPS RESEARCH PROGRAM ACTIVITIES (2011/12 CROPPING SEASON)....................................... 4
1.2.1 National Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Variety Trial ....................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Identification of Causative Factor(s) of Groundnut Wilt in the Farmers’ Field and Control Measure(s) Formulation ............ 5
1.3 SORGHUM RESEARCH PROGRAM ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 Regional Varity Trial for Highland Areas of Eastern Ethiopia ................................................................................. 6
1.3.2 Preliminary Variety Trial for Highland and Intermediate Areas of Eastern Ethiopia .................................................... 7
1.4 SMALL CEREALS RESEARCH PROGRAM ................................................................................................................. 9
1.4.1 Wheat Stem Rust Surveillance in Eastern Ethiopia ................................................................................................. 9
1.4.2 East African Wheat Rusts Trap Nursery (EAWRTN) ....................................................................................... 12
1.5 COMMON BEAN RESEARCH PROGRAMME........................................................................................................... 16
1.5.1 Regional Variety Trials ................................................................................................................................... 16
1.5.2 Collaborative National Yield Trials (Ongoing activities) ......................................................................................... 17
1.5.3 On-farm and On-station Verification of Candidate Varieties .................................................................................. 18
1.5.4 Collection, Characterization, Screening for Effectiveness of Native Rhizobia Strains and Field Testing of Effective Strains for
Nitrogen Fixation on Common Bean Genotypes .................................................................................................. 19
1.6 MAIZE IMPROVEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY GENERATION PROJECT ................................................................... 20
1.6.1 Maintenance of Inbred Lines ............................................................................................................................ 21
1.6.2 Micro-seed Production for Maintenance of Maize Populations .................................................................................. 22
1.6.3 Breeder Seed Multiplication ............................................................................................................................... 22
1.6.4 Hybridization ................................................................................................................................................ 22
1.6.5 Preliminary Variety Trials (PVTs) of Late and Intermediate Maturing Maize Hybrid Varieties (12). ........................... 24
1.6.6 NVTs-National Variety Trials (3) of White Late and Intermediate Maturing Non-QPM and QPM Hybrids .............. 27
1.6.7 Variety Verification Trial ............................................................................................................................... 28
1.6.8 Highland Maize Variety Trials ........................................................................................................................ 29
1.7 HIGHLAND PULSE CROPS ................................................................................................................................... 33
1.7.1 Faba Bean Preliminary Adaptation Trial ........................................................................................................... 33
1.7.2 Faba Bean Regional Preliminary Variety Trial .................................................................................................... 34
1.7.3 Faba Bean National Variety Trial- Small Seeded for Wide Adaptation ................................................................... 35
1.7.4 Faba Bean National Variety Trial- Large Seeded for Wide Adaptation-Set II........................................................... 35
1.7.5 Faba Bean National Variety Trial- Large Seeded for Wide Adaptation ................................................................... 35
1.7.6 Faba Bean Breeder Seed Multiplication and Maintenance (FBSM) .......................................................................... 36
1.7.7 Field Pea Preliminary Variety Trial ................................................................................................................... 39
1.7.8 Field Pea Preliminary Adaptation Trial .............................................................................................................. 41
1.7.9 Field Pea Breeder Seed Maintenance and Multiplication ......................................................................................... 42
1.7.10 Chickpea Preliminary Adaptation Trial ............................................................................................................ 44
1.7.11 Chickpea National Variety Trial- Dessi Type ................................................................................................... 45
1.7.12 Chickpea National Variety Trial- Kabuli Type .................................................................................................. 46
1.7.13 Lentil Preliminary Adaptation Trial ................................................................................................................ 48
1.7.14 Lentil National Variety Trial ......................................................................................................................... 49
1.7.15 Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) ......................................................................................................... 51
1.8 NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES........................................................... 56
1.8.1 Production of Vermicompost from Khat (Catha edulis) Wastes Using Eisenia foetida Earthworms ................................. 56
1.8.2 Assessment and Evaluation of Need of Inoculation of Effective Rhizobia Isolates on Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in
Ethiopia Soils .............................................................................................................................................. 60
1.8.3 Evaluation of the Effect of Integrated Application of Nitrogen Fertilizer With and Without Inoculation of Effective Rhizobia
Isolates on Yield and Yield Components of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Eastern Ethiopia Soils ................. 63
1.8.4 Assessment and Evaluation of Need of Inoculation of Effective Rhizobia Isolates on Groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) in
Eastern Ethiopia Soils ................................................................................................................................... 64
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1.8.5 Evaluation of Selected Isolates of Rhizobium Leguminosarum bv. Vicea Nodulating Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) in
Hararghe Highland ...................................................................................................................................... 67
1.8.6 Evaluation of Selected Isolates of Rhizobium Leguminosarum bv. Vicea Nodulating Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) in
1.8.7 Evaluation of Selected Isolates of Rhizobium Leguminosarum bv. Vicea Nodulating Lentil (Lens culinaris) in Hararghe
Highland .................................................................................................................................................... 70
1.8.8 Evaluation of Selected Isolates of Rhizobia Nodulating Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) in Hararghe Highland ...................... 71
1.8.9 Effect of Co-inoculation of Rhizobium Leguminosarum bv. viciae and Phosphate Solubilizing Bacterium on Faba Bean (Viciae
faba L.) Production in Eastern Ethiopia Highland ............................................................................................. 72
1.8.10 Effect of Co-inoculation of Rhizobium Leguminosarum bv. viciae and Phosphate Solubilizing Bacterium on Field Pea (Pisum
sativum) Production in Eastern Ethiopia Highland ............................................................................................. 74
1.8.11 Effect of Integrated Application of Bradyrhzibium sp. and Iron Fertilizer on Two Varieties of Soybean at Shinile
Demonstration Site Using Drip Irrigation ......................................................................................................... 75
1.8.12 Integrated Application of Rhizobium Leguminosarum bv. Vicea and Vermicompost on Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) in
1.8.13 Evaluation of Rhizobium Inoculation and Bone Phosphate (Orga fertilizer) Application on Nodulation and Yield of Field
Pea (Pisum sativum L.) ................................................................................................................................. 77
1.8.14 Evaluation of the Effect of Inoculated Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) and Field Pea (Pisum Sativum L.) Precursor cCops and
Different Rate of Bone Phosphate (Orga) on Yield of Maize (Zea mays L.) and Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) at Haramaya
Experimental Site ........................................................................................................................................ 78
1.8.15 Evaluation of Selected and Environmental-friendly Improved Biofertilizer (Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae) for Highland
Pulse Crops and Scaling out/up the Technology to Eastern Ethiopia ...................................................................... 80
1.8.16 Effect of Integrated Pest and Soil Fertility Management On Nodulation and Grain Yield of Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea
L.) in Eastern Ethiopia ................................................................................................................................ 83
1.8.17 Effect of Khat Compost on Yield and Yield Components of Potato at Haramaya Experimental Site ............................. 88
1.8.18 Evaluation of the Multiplication of Earthworm in Different Animal Manure ........................................................... 88
1.9.1 ANIMAL AND RANGE SCIENCES ...................................................................................................................... 89
Feeding Value of Ground Prosopis Juliflora Pods in Layers and Broiler Rations ................................................................. 89
2. COLLEGE OF BUISNESS AND ECONOMICS ............................................ 104

2.1 Is Ethiopia Ready to Commence Capital Market? An Analysis of Opportunities, Constraints and the Dubious ................ 104
2.2 Income Diversification Pursuits of Khat (Catha edulis) Cropping Households in Eastern Hararghe Highlands .................. 116
3. COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES............. 124

3.1 Challenging Behaviors in Preschool Children: Teachers’ Perceptions and Experiences in Preschool Settings of Dire Dawa,
Ethiopia ................................................................................................................................................... 124
3.2 Internal Quality Assurance of Science and Technology Education in Ethiopian University: The case of Haramaya University133
4. COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES ........ 143

4.1 DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 143
4.1.1 The potential and Traditional Medicinal Values of High Niche Genus of Aloes in Eastern Hararghe Lowlands, Ethiopia
............................................................................................................................................................... 143
4.1.2 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Diversity of Some Traditional Coffee Agroforestry Gardens in Western Hararghe, Ethiopia
............................................................................................................................................................... 149
4.2 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.......................................................................................................................... 157
4.2.1 The Effect of Cooperative Learning on Students’ Achievement in Organic Chemistry: A Case Study of Haramaya University
First Year Chemistry Students ...................................................................................................................... 157
5. COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES ........................ 164

5.1 SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES ..................................................................................................... 164
5.1.1 Assimilation in Oromo Phonology ................................................................................................................... 164
5.2 DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND HERITAGE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................ 178
5.2.1 Socio-economic Conditions of the Peasants in Hararghe Highland, 1941-1974 ......................................................... 178
6. EXTENSION ACTIVITIES ................................................................................... 191

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6.1 Pre-extension Demonstration of Two High Yielding Common Bean Varieties (Haramaya and Chercher) in Habro and Boke
Districts, West Hararghe Zone ...................................................................................................................... 191
6.2 Scaling-up of Improved Faba Bean Variety (Gachena) and Improved Field Pea Variety (Meti) in Meta, Deder and Goro-Gutu
Districts, East Hararghe Zone ...................................................................................................................... 196
6.3 Scaling-up of Improved Groundnut Seed along with Management of Rootrot through Seed Revolving Strategy in Dire Dawa and
Harari Region and Gursum and Babile Districts of East Hararghe Zone of Oromia Region, Ethiopia ........................ 200
6.4 Scaling-up of improved Teff variety (Kuncho-RIL-355) through Seed Revolving Strategy in Gurawa and Tullo Districts, East
and West Hararghe Zones ............................................................................................................................ 202
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29th Annual Research and Extension Review Proceedings, March 2012, Haramaya University
1. College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

1.1 Root and Tuber Crops Research Program
Wassu Mohammed and Simeret Burga
1.1.1 Maintenance of Sweet Potato Genotypes at Haramaya University
Background and Justification

Sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] produces storage roots rich in carbohydrates and β-carotene, and its leaves are
rich in protein. The roots also contain vitamins C, B complex and E as well as potassium, calcium and iron. Purple-
fleshed ones contain antioxidants such as anthocyanins. In world crop statistics, sweet potato ranked seventh, just after
cassava, with an annual production of around 9 metric tons and a cultivated area of 110 million ha (FAO, 2009). In most
developing countries, it is a smallholder crop tolerant to a wide range of edaphic and climatic conditions and grown with
limited inputs. It is tolerant to cold and is cultivated at altitudes as high as 2,500 m.a.s.l. It has become the staple food of
communities living in the highlands of Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi of Eastern Africa, and in Papua New Guinea
where annual per capita fresh roots consumption is over 150 kg. Asia is the largest producing region and China alone
accounts for almost 60% of the world sweet potato production. In the southern provinces of Sichuan and Shandong,
sweet potato is a major source of raw material for food processing industries (Fuglie and Hermann, 2004).
Sweet potato is cultivated in Ethiopia mainly for human consumption and as animal feed. It ranks third after enset
(Ensete ventricosum (Wele) Cheesman) and potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) as the most important root crops produced in the
country. Although the crop is drought tolerant, it needs sufficient moisture at early stage especially during the first six
weeks. The total area under production reached 33,070 ha and the annual production is estimated to be over 2,628,539
quintals (CSA, 2003). According to FAO (2000) and CSA data (CSA, 2005, 2006 ), the national average storage root yield
of sweet potato of Ethiopian ranges between 8 to 10 t ha-1 with experimental storage root yields ranging between 30 to
73 t ha-1 (Hall and Harmon, 1989; Bhansari and Ashley, 1990).
Similar to other crops, sweet potato genetic resources show a wide spectrum of gene pool that can be categorized
under the following groups; wild species, weed or feral species, native cultivar, improved cultivar and breeding line.
Current knowledge of the distribution of sweet potato genetic resources indicates that the maximum diversity of I.
batatas is in northwestern and southern America and Africa. Like other major crops, sweet potato genetic resources are
facing a high risk of losing a significant amount of variation (Zosimo, 1987). Thus, Haramaya University emphasizes on
the importance of intensive collection of sweet potato germplasm. The University maintains 116 sweet potato
germplasm from international and national collections. The germplasm collection is not only used by the University, but
also by the national research system. Therefore, it is necessary to maintain these valuable materials for future use. The
objective of this project was therefore to maintain sweet potato collection at field at Haramaya University.
Materials and methods

The materials were maintained under a field condition. One hundred sixteen sweet potato genotypes were planted in a
non-replicated trial at Haramaya University. Vine cuttings of each genotype were planted at the spacing of 50 cm by 80
cm on ridges. All the required cultural practices were applied according to the recommendation.
Results
One hundred and sixteen sweet potato genotypes were maintained. The list of the genotypes is given in Table 1.1.
Duration
The maintenance activity started decades ago and will continue for unlimited number of years to come.
Activities to be accomplished during the remaining period

The genotypes will be maintained and morph-physicochemical characterization activities will be accomplished to identify
the characteristics and the purpose the accession will be used for and other information will be documented and made
available for users.
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Table 1.1. Sweet potato germplasms collection at Haramaya University
No. Variety No. Variety No. Variety No. Variety

1 Tis-8441-3 30 Tis-8441-4 59 CEMSA 88 CN-1753-16
2 Tis-8441-3 31 Tis-9465-2 60 Bacariso 89 CN-1752-14
3 Tis-82/0602-12 32 Tis-80/043-3 61 Awassa-83 90 CN-2065-18
4 Tis-70357-7 33 Tis-9465-10 62 Nefissie 91 CN-2059-9
5 Tis-9465-7 34 Tis-9068-8 63 CN-2065-5A 92 CN-2065-16
6 Tis-8250-9 35 Tis-70357-5 64 CN-2065-11 93 CN-2065-15
7 Tis-9065-5 36 Tis-9465-8 65 CN-2065-1 94 CN-1753-5
8 Tis-82/0602-2 37 Becale type-3 66 CN-2065-11 95 CN-1775-4
9 Tis-80/043-1 38 Koka-26 67 CN-2065-7 96 CN-1775-3
10 Tis-9068-6 39 Wondogenet 68 CN-2065-8 97 CN-1753-1
11 Tis-82/0602-6 40 Tis-9068-2 69 CN-2065-10 98 CN-1753-7
12 Tis-82/0602-1A 41 Koka-9 70 CN-2065-5B 99 CN-1753-8
13 Tis-70357-4 42 Guracha 71 CN-2065-6 100 CN-1754-6
14 Tis-8250-4 43 Arbaminch 72 CN-2066-4 101 CN-1754-5
15 Tis-9465-1 44 Abadiro 73 CN-2066-2 102 CN-1754-3
16 Tis-9465-8 45 Koka-14 74 CN-1752-8 103 CN-1753-11
17 Tis-9065-1 46 Guba-1 75 CN-1752-9 104 CN-1753-12
18 Tis-8441-1 47 Koka-12 76 CN-1752-15 105 CN-1753-13
19 Tis-9468-7 48 Bacale 77 CN-2059-4 106 CN-1753-14
20 Tis-80/043-2 49 Bacale type-1 78 CN-2059-3 107 CN-1753-17
21 Tis-82/062-11 50 Alemaya-local-2 79 CN-2059-20 108 CN-1753-18
22 Tis-8250-7 51 Alemaya-local-3 80 CN-2059-5 109 CN-1754-12
23 Tis-9465-9 52 Becale-type-1 81 CN-2059-8 110 CN-2054-5
24 Tis-9068-3 53 Lesh type—1 82 CN-1752-5 111 CN-2054-7
25 Tis-8250-8A 54 Korojo-1 83 CN-1752-6 112 CN-1754-11
26 Tis-8250-2 55 Becale-B 84 CN-2054-1 113 CN-1753-20
27 Tis-8250-1 56 Korojo 85 CN-2054-2 114 CN-1753-19
28 Tis-70357-2 57 Becale-B 86 CN-1754-9 115 Adu
29 Tis-82/0602-1B 58 Korojo-2 87 CN-1753-15 116 Berkome
References
CSA (Central Statistical Authority of Ethiopia), 2003. Ethiopian Agricultural Sample Enumeration, 2001/02 (1994) result
for Amhara Region. Statistical report on Area of production of crops. Part II B.May, 2003.
CSA (Central Statistical Authority of Ethiopia), 2005. Ethiopian Agricultural Sample Enumeration, 2004/05 (1997);
report on Area and Production of crops (private peasant holding, Meher Season) statistical bulletin, 331.Addis
Ababa.
FAO, 2000. Production yearbook, 1999. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization.
FAO, 2009. World information and early warning system on plant genetic resources. Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, Rome.
Fuglie, K.O. and Hermann, M., 2004. Sweet potato post-harvest research and development in China. Proceedings of an
International Workshop, Chengdu, Sichuan, Republic of China, 160p, 7–8 November 2001.
Hall, M.R.and Harmon, S.A., 1989. ”Coastal red” sweet potato. Hort.Sci.24:196-177.
Zosimo Huaman, 1987. Current status of maintaining sweet potato germplasm resources at CIP. International Potato
Center (CIP).
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1.1.2 Maintenance of Potato Genotypes at Haramaya University

Potato is one of the most important staple food crops in East and Central Africa region. It helps in ensuring food
security, especially in disaster situations. Potato production in these regions increased from 2.8 million metric tons in
1998 to about 4.2 million metric tons in 2002 implying a growth rate of nearly 8% per annum. Despite this remarkable
growth, yields are low as compared to those obtained elsewhere in the World. The average yield of potato in Ethiopia
ranges only between 8 to 10 t/ha, which is much lower than the yields obtained in the Sudan (17 t/ha) and Egypt (26
t/ha) (Haverkort et al., 2012). The major contributing factors to the low yields have been the use of inferior and/or
poorly adapted varieties, high prevalence of diseases and insect pests, poor soils, and unfavorable weather conditions.
Shortage of improved seeds or planting materials and inadequate provision of extension services also contributed greatly
to the low potato yields in the country (George and Otim, 2007).
Source materials and germplasms are very crucial in variety development and release. In most cases, the richer the
germplasms, the more and better varieties are developed and released. However, countries in East and Central Africa
have different approaches to accelerate release of acceptable varieties. They also follow different approaches in building
the source of materials and germplasms. Some countries depend entirely on CIP and/or PRAPACE for materials for
breeding programs, while others generate own crosses using both local and exotic materials. In Ethiopian, the Ethiopian
Agricultural Research Institution (EARI) has a national mandate to conduct and coordinate research, but higher
education institutions (Universities and Colleges) are also engaged in research on potato and other crops. EIAR has a
strong collaborative research with international agricultural research centers such as CIP on potato and sweet potato
research. Variety development, evaluation, release, and registration procedures pass through several stages (George and
Otim, 2007). However, EIAR along with Universities such as Haramaya University released considerable number of
potato varieties for different regions and agro-ecologies mainly depending on CIP for potato germplasm source.
The presence of genetic variability is considered the prerequisite in any plant-breeding program. Therefore,
maintaining the available potato germplasm is crucial for the success of potato improvement. Haramaya University is a
pioneer institution in starting potato research in the country and is known for maintaining accessions obtained from
International Research Centers. The collection that the University maintained also serve as deposit for the national
potato research program. Therefore, the objective of this project was to maintain potato genotypes at Haramaya
University and make available for regional and nation research system.
Materials and Methods

Three hundred fifty potato genotypes were planted in a non-replicated trial with three rows at Haramaya University.
Medium size and well-sprouted potato tubers were planted at a spacing of 75 cm between rows and 30cm between
plants. All agronomic practices were applied as per the recommendation for the crop.
Duration
The activity was started decades ago and it will continue for unlimited number of years.
Activities to be accomplished during the remaining period
The genotypes will be maintained and screened for disease resistance, yield, and other quality traits. The potato
accessions, which will fulfill the objective of the breeding program, will be promoted to subsequent breeding stages to
improve the crop. In addition, the accession will be available for other research activities.
References
Haverkort, A.J., Koesveld, M.J. van, Schepers, H.T.A.M., Wijnands, J.H.M., Wustman, R., XiaoYong Zhang (2012).
Potato prospects for Ethiopia: on the road to value addition. Lelystad : PPO-AGV, 2012 (PPO publication 528) -
66 p
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1.2 Lowland Oil Crops Research Program Activities (2011/12 Cropping Season)
Amare Kebede
Introduction
Haramaya University (HU) is conducting research on groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) and
linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) under Oil Crops Research (OCR) Program. The research program includes highland and
midland oil crops. In each commodity program (Table 1.2), there are breeding, crop management and socio-economic
related activities. Under the national level, the OCR program is conducting research focusing on the following general
objectives:
 To develop improved varieties of oil crops and production practices for different agro-ecologies of the country.
 To develop integrated and sustainable pest management options to increase production and productivity of oil
crops.
 To assess production opportunities and constraints, analyze the adoption of technologies in oil crops in major
production areas.
 To transfer the existing and upcoming improved technologies to end-users and assess their impacts on the
livelihood of the society.
Table 1.2. Outline of Haramaya University lowland oil crops research activities during 2011/12 main cropping season
Research activities
No. Commodity Completed On-going Reinitiated New Total
1 Groundnut 1 2 1 2 6
2 Sesame - - - 3 3
3 Linseed - - 2 2
4 Nationally - 3 - - 3
coordinated
Total 14
Groundnut
Groundnut is the sixth most important oilseed crop in the world. It contains edible oil and protein, and is a rich source
of dietary fiber, minerals and vitamins. In addition, it fetches high price. In Ethiopia, groundnut is grown mainly for
food, including the extracted edible oil. The by-product from oil extraction of groundnut (groundnut cake) serves as
animal feed. Thus, groundnut research is required to develop high yielding varieties with other desirable traits.
Completed Groundnut Research Activity
1.2.1 National Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Variety Trial
Abstract: The performances of eleven groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) genotypes at 6 environments were evaluated in
eastern Ethiopia. Among these genotypes, BaHa-jidu (NC-AC-2748 X Chico) and BaHa-gudo (ICGV-88357)
were found best in dry pod and other agronomic traits. BaHa-jidu is runner type and medium seeded, whereas BaHa-
gudo is erect type and large seeded. Both varieties are red in testa color, have 53% oil content and moderately resistant
as standard check (Werer-962) to leaf spot and rust. BaHa-jidu gives 2.08 t/ha dry pod yield (DPY) and has 26%
advantage over Werer-962. BaHa-gudo gives 1.97 t/ha DPY and has 20% advantage over Werer-962. This
variety is preferred for roasted grain (kolo) due to its seed size. After official approval for release, BaHa-jidu and
BaHa-gudo will be recommended for production in the coming years.
Keywords: Environment; Genotype; ICGV-88357; NC-AC-2748 X Chico
Introduction
Among factors, contributing to low yield of groundnut is lack of high yielding varieties. To develop high yielding
groundnut varieties, Haramaya University lowland OCR program conducted research on different groundnut genotypes
in eastern Ethiopia.
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Methodology
Genotypes were introduced from International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). To
select best genotypes in desirable traits, eleven groundnut genotypes were evaluated at Babile and Likale research sites of
eastern Ethiopia for three years. The verification trial was conducted at Gursum, Likale, Babile and Gursum in 2011
main cropping season and evaluated by National Variety Release Committee (NVRC). Dry pod yield, days to flowering,
days to maturity, number of pegs per plant, number of mature pods per plant and reaction to major diseases data were
collected. The experiment was arranged in RCBD in 5 rows with inter and intra row spacing of 60cm and 10cm,
respectively with 3 replications. Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software of General Linear Model (GLM) procedure
was applied to analyze data. Mean separation was carried out using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test.
Results and Discussion

BaHa-jidu (NC-AC-2748 X Chico) and BaHa-gudo (ICGV-88357) out-yielded the checks in dry pod yield. BaHa stands
for Babile Research Station of Haramaya University and literally refers to the eastern part of Ethiopia. BaHa-jidu and
BaHa-gudo are distinct in their agronomic characteristics (Table 1.3). BaHa-jidu is the runner type whereas BaHa-gudo
is erect type. Both varieties are red in testa color. BaHa- jidu and BaHa-gudo are medium and large-seeded, respectively.
Table 1.3. Agronomic descriptions and yield of BaHa-jidu and BaHa-gudo
Mean dry pod yield t/ha Dry pod yield

2007 G.C 2008 G.C 2009 G.C advantage over
Genotypes Babile Likale Babile Likale Babile Likale Mean Werer-962 (%)
BaHa-jidu 2.08 2.72 2.49 2.08 2.52 0.59 2.08 26.83
BaHa-gudo 1.81 2.88 1.96 2.10 2.23 0.82 1.97 20.12
Werer-962 1.57 2.48 1.84 1.48 2.01 0.47 1.64
Number of
Days to Days to Number of Mature Hundred seed Shelling
Genotypes flowering maturity pegs/plant pods/plant weight (g) percentage
BaHa-jidu 33.54 125.88 29.16 14.79 50.03 70.00
BaHa-gudo 33.25 126.88 23.91 11.32 73.97 65.90
The mean dry pod yield performance of BaHa-jidu and BaHa-gudo was superior to the standard check (Table 1.3). BaHa-
jidu and BaHa-gudo were as moderately resistant as the standard check to leaf spot and rust in the tested environments.
The oil content of BaHa-jidu and BaHa-gudo are 53.6% and 53.5%, respectively. BaHa-gudo is preferred for roasted grain
(kolo) because of its large-sized seed. Thus, after an official approval by the National Variety Release Committee, these
varieties will be recommended for production in Babile, Likale and other similar agro-ecologies with altitude ranging
1400 to 1650 meter above sea level.
Summary
BaHa-jidu gives 2.08 t/ha dry pod yield (DPY) and has 26% advantage over Werer-962. BaHa-gudo gives 1.97 t/ha DPY
and has 20% advantage over Werer-962. The candidate varieties will be recommended for production in Babile, Likale
and other similar agro-ecologies with altitude ranging 1400 to 1650 meter above sea level.
On-going Groundnut Research Activities
1.2.2 Identification of Causative Factor(s) of Groundnut Wilt in the Farmers’ Field and
Control Measure(s) Formulation
Amare Kebede, Anteneh Argaw, Muluken Goftishu, Awol Seid and Habtamu Bekele
Introduction
During farmers’ field inspections, more than half of the plants of groundnut observed to be wilted and died. Upon
examination, roots of some plants were found to be rotten, associated with termites and/or fungal molds. Some plants
exhibited symptoms of one or more diseases and insect pest incidences. However, the actual causes of plant wilting and
death were not identified clearly. Thus, this research activity was proposed to identify the causes of plant wilting and
death, and design appropriate control/management measure(s) against wilting and death of the plants.
5
Methodology
Multidisciplinary approach was proposed to identify the cause of wilt and death of the crop. Plant and soil samples from
the vicinity of plant roots were collected from Gursum, Likale, Babile, Fedis and Kile. The evidence of fungi, nematodes,
termites, soil pH and nutrient status were examined. In greenhouse experiment, suspected young culture isolates of fungi
will be inoculated on groundnut seedlings.
Highlights of results
From the overall farmers’ groundnut field observation, higher numbers of diseased plants occurred in poorly managed
fields compared to well-managed fields. From the individual diseased and healthy plant examination, diseased plants
showed ineffective and lower number of nodulation than the healthy ones. In addition, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger,
Fusarium and Rhizoctonia spp. were isolated from diseased plants. Plant parasitic nematodes: Criconemoides, Helicotylencus,
Hemicycliophora, Longidorus, Meloidogyne (juveniels), Pratylenchus, Trichodorus, spp. and free-living bio indicator nematodes were
observed in association with diseased plants and soil samples from the vicinity of diseased plant roots. Termites were
found in association with both diseased and healthy plants. For assesment of soil nutrient status, soil samples have been
prepared for analysis in a laboratory.
1.3 Sorghum Research Program

Ketema Belete
Introduction
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is a major cereal crop in eastern Ethiopia. Most of the sorghum cultivated in this region is tall
and late maturing local landrace. The crop is used for food, feed, construction and firewood purposes. The early
maturing short stature varieties released for production are not preferred by farmers because they have low biomass for
use as animal feed, firewood and construction purposes. The early maturing and short varieties are used by some farmers
in lowland areas whenever the local varieties fail due to moisture shortage and/or Striga problems. Therefore, the focus
of the sorghum improvement program at Haramaya University is to identify high yielding local sorghum varieties. To
this effect, the initial work of selecting the best sorghum varieties for highland and lowland areas was done at Haramaya
and Babile research station of the University, respectively. The breeding approach used was more of pure line selection
method.
In pure line selection method, the sorghum germplasm are collected from farmers’ fields. The collection will be
evaluated in observation nursery for one season or for two seasons. The evaluation is mainly visual. The best
observation nursery material will be advanced to preliminary variety trial (PVT). In PVT, the genotypes under evaluation
are compared with recently released and local sorghum varieties in replicated trials. The best PVT material will be grown
in at least three sites including on station (Haramaya for highland and Babile for lowland) as a regional variety trial
(RVT). The experimental varieties in RVT will be evaluated with the checks for a minimum of two years on farmers’
fields and on station. The varieties that perform significantly better than the recently released variety in terms of yield
and other important traits will be proposed to the National Variety Release Committee (NVRC) for release.
Developing varieties is not the only activity of the sorghum improvement program. Crop management, disease
management and popularization of sorghum varieties have also been done. To this effect, agronomists, plant
pathologists and agricultural extension experts are working as team members of the crop improvement program.
Realizing the importance of crop diversification, pearl millet research has been initiated for execution in the next
cropping season (2012/13 croping season). The crop is more tolerant to drought than sorghum. However, its yield
potential is less than sorghum. Nevertheless, there is a need to investigate its potential as an alternative crop owing to its
superior drought tolerance.
In this report, breeding and agronomic research highlights (activities) of the 2011/12 croping season are presented as
follows.
Completed Breeding Activities
1.3.1 Regional Varity Trial for Highland Areas of Eastern Ethiopia
Objectives
 To identify high yielding and best performing sorghum varieties for the highland areas of eastern Ethiopia.
Background
Regional Varity Trial (RVT) is the third breeding activity in varietal development when pure line selection method is
used. The first and the second are observation nursery and PVT, respectively. Usually, the activities prior to RVT are
6
conducted on station, but RVTs include minimum of two off station activities. The varieties that performed better than
the checks (based on data of minimum two years on two sites) in RVT will be advanced to variety verification trial.
Methodology
Six experimental varieties and four check varieties (3 as standard check and 1 as local check) were grown for two years at
three locations: Adele, Haramaya and Kersa. Randomized complete block design with three replications was used.
Agronomic data were collected.
Highlight of the results

Three experimental varieties were found to be best based on the results of the two-year trials at the three locations
(Table 1.4). The three varieties are Wegarie-3, Wegarie-5 and Fendisha-5. These varieties will be advanced to variety
verification trial (VVT) as candidate varieties for release after being evaluated by the National Variety Release Committee
(NVRC).
1.3.2 Preliminary Variety Trial for Highland and Intermediate Areas of Eastern Ethiopia
Objectives
 To identify high yielding and best performing sorghum varieties for the highland and intermediate elevation
areas of eastern Ethiopia.
Background
Preliminary variety trial (PVT) is the second breeding activity in varietal development when pure line selection method is
used. The first is observation nursery. It is conducted on station rather than on farmers’ fields as done for RVT, because
the varieties in PVT are large in number. The varieties that performed better than the checks (usually for one cropping
season) will be advanced to RVT.
Table 1.4. Mean grain yield and days to flowering of sorghum varieties grown at Adele, Haramaya and Kersa as RVT
during the 2010 and 2011 cropping season
No. Variety Yield (kg/ha) Days to 50% flowering

1 Wegerie-3 7007 140
2 Wegerie-5 6531 143
3 Fendisha-5 6299 150
4 Muyra-3 5325 148
5 Muyra-4 5078 141
6 Fendisha-2 4790 150.
7 Muyra-1 5271 144
8 Muyra 2 4826 136
9 Chelenko 5263 145
10 Local 4498 143
11 LSD 692 2.5
Methodology
There were three sets of PVT, PVT-1, PVT-2 and PVT-3 consisting of 17, 21 and 25 varieties, respectively. The first two
(PVT-1 and PVT-2) were conducted at Haramaya for highland and PVT-3 at Babile for intermediate/lowland altitude.
At each location, appropriate check was used. At Haramaya 4 varieties (3 as standard check and 1 as local check) and at
Babile 2 varieties (1 as standard check and 1 as local check) were among the 17, 21 and 25 varieties. Randomized
complete block design with three replications was used. Agronomic data was collected. The varieties were evaluated for
one croping season at Haramaya and Babile.
Highlight of the result

All the varieties in PVT-1 were as good as the check varieties in terms of overall plant aspect and were not significantly
different among each other in yield (Table 1.5). Entries number 1 to 10 and 14 from PVT-2 (Table 1.6) and entries 1-3,
7, 9-11, 13 16-18 and 22 from PVT-3 (Table 1.7) were selected based on yield and overall plant aspect. The selected
entries from PVT-1 and PVT-2 will be evaluated again as PVT at Haramaya and those selected from PVT-3 at Babile.
The need of evaluating these varieties in PVT rather than RVT is because of two reasons. The selection from each is too
7
large to be evaluated on more locations and there is a need of grouping the selection of Haramaya into two different
sorghum types, Sheferie and Muyra.
Table 1.5. Mean grain yield and overall plant aspect of sorghum Preliminary Varity Trial Set-1 (PVT-1) grown at
Haramaya during 2011 cropping season
No Entry Name Yield (kg/ha) Overall plant aspect* Remark

1 Sheferie Red 4355 3 All of the 13
2 Sheferie Red 3822 3 have been
3 Sheferie Red 6713 1 selected
4 Sheferie Red 6046 1
7 White Muyra 3776 3
8 Yellow Muyra 5136 3
14 Muyra 1 6302 2
15 Muyra 2 4782 1
16 Cnelenko 4446 2
17 Long Muyra 4640 3
LSD 1027
* Visual evaluation, where 1 = Excellent, 2 = Very good, 3 = Good, 4 = Fair, 5=Poor
Table 1.6. Mean grain yield and overall plant aspect of sorghum Preliminary Varity Trial Set-1 (PVT-2) grown at
Haramaya during 2011 cropping season

1 Wegerie Yellow 7422 1 Selected
4 Wegerie Red 4320 2 Selected
8 Wegerie White 6454 3 Selected
11 Wegerie Yellow 7361 4
12 Wegerie Yellow 6088 4
13 Wegerie White 5467 4
15 Wegerie White 4862 5
16 Wegerie Red 5955 4
17 Wegerie Red 6134 4
18 Muyra 1 4587 2
19 Muyra 2 4610 1
20 Chelenko 7886 2
21 Long Muyra 6534 3
LSD 1516
* Visual evaluation, where 1 = Excellent, 2 = Very good, 3 = Good, 4 = Fair, 5 = Poor
8
Table 1.7. Mean grain yield and overall plant aspect of sorghum Preliminary Varity Trial Set-1 (PVT-3) grown at Babile
during 2011 cropping season

1 2009 collection # 1 1920 1 Selected
4 2009 collection # 5 2018 4
5 2009 collection # 7 1501 4
6 2009 collection # 9 1672 4
8 2009 collection # 12 1582 4
12 2009 collection # 21 1547 4
14 2009 collection # 25 1840 4
15 2009 collection # 26 1688 4
19 2009 collection # 33 1502 4
20 2009 collection # 35 2336 4
21 2009 collection # 37 1883 4
23 IS 9302 2275 3
24 Chame 1654 1
LSD 567
* Visual evaluation, where 1=Excellent, 2=Very good, 3=Good, 4=Fair, 5=Poor
1.4 Small Cereals Research Program
Ongoing Projects
1.4.1 Wheat Stem Rust Surveillance in Eastern Ethiopia
Temam Hussien
Introduction
Haramaya University is a team member of the National Wheat Rusts Surveillance Project. The University is mandated to
make surveys in the major wheat growing regions of eastern Ethiopia and report to the coordinator at Ambo Plant
Protection Research Centre. Climate change, in terms of rising temperatures, and the timing and increasing variability of
rainfall, is contributing to the spread and severity of rust diseases. Emerging races of rust are showing adaptations to
extreme temperatures not seen before. Scientists around the globe are working on monitoring and surveillance (close
watch) of stem and stripe rusts to ensure rapid detection and reporting so farmers, policymakers, and agricultural
research centers can respond more quickly to initial outbreaks.
To combat the problem of wheat rusts, farmers in rust prone regions need to adopt new varieties of wheat that have
durable resistance to both stem and stripe rusts. New rust resistant varieties are in the pipeline at international and
national agricultural research centers. Breeders are selecting for other important characteristics including improved yield
performance, drought tolerance, and regional suitability. Country preparedness for outbreaks of wheat rusts involves
such issues as the availability of resistant varieties that are known to and accepted by farmers, the availability of sufficient
quality seeds of new varieties for farmers to use, and the availability, accessibility and affordability of effective fungicides
and capacity of farmers to use them.
In most cases, the bottleneck to getting resistant varieties into the field in time to protect local harvests is local capacity
and the ability of national programs to rapidly multiply seeds and deliver them to market. Improving country capacity
requires long-term planning, funding, and getting farmers involved earlier in the variety selection process. There is a
need for enhancing in-country capacity of the breeding, seed and extension systems to continuously ensure that new,
highly productive and genetically diverse resistant varieties are available and accepted by farmers to meet the challenges
9
of changing rust virulence. Coordination and timely information sharing among all the stakeholders from surveillance
and plant protection officers to wheat breeders, seed system, extension agents, and farmers are necessary.
Directed, optimized mitigation of the threat of stem and yellow rusts to resource poor farmers cannot be achieved
without vigilant monitoring of the incidence and nature of stem rust in countries thought to be Ug99-free today, and in
those where Ug99 is already established. The stark fact is that today, we do not know how far Ug99 or its derivates have
migrated. Lack of this knowledge impedes resolution and adoption of appropriate national and international policies,
investments, and strategies in plant protection, plant breeding, seed systems, and research on the stem rust pathogen. It
is insufficient to predict the pathways by which the Ug99 lineage will migrate, since mutation and sexual recombination
(especially in East Africa and Central Asia where the alternate host is endemic) will spawn new variants; variants whose
characteristics may dictate changes in gene deployment strategies in both the choice of gene combinations used by
breeders, and in the distribution and retirement of varieties by national seed sectors. Such variants can arise anywhere,
not just East Africa.
Currently, however, no framework exists for acquiring and sharing data on incidence, severity, and genetic
composition of stem rust infections in the developing world. Likewise, there is no single source of information on the
spatial and temporal distribution of wheat (or wheat varieties) in these regions through the course of a year. Combined,
these deficiencies preclude directed, efficient action by scientists and policy makers tasked with mitigating the threat to
cereal production posed by wheat stem rust.

Survey sites
Surveys of wheat fields were carried out in East and West Hararghe zones’ major wheat growing areas from 7 to 15
November 2011 to check status of wheat rusts with emphasis on stem rust.
The field survey was carried out along the following survey routes:
Haramaya→Kersa→Lange→Kullubi→Chelenko→Kobo→Dedder→Karamekela→Harawacha→Mole→Masa→Mesel
a→Hirna
Hirna→Bedessa→Wachu→Harar
Harar→Kurfachelle→Gurawa→Harar
Harar→Kombolcha→Jarso
Harar→Jigjiga→Chinaksen→Haramaya
Survey Methodology
Surveys were carried out along the main roads and wheat fields were observed at intervals of approximately 15 to 20 km.
Geographic locations, approximate sizes of fields and wheat growth stages were first recorded. Following this, plants
were inspected for symptoms of wheat rusts (stem/black, leaf/brown and yellow/stripe rusts) by walking in a zigzag
manner starting from one to the other side of each field. Disease incidence (proportion of plants infected expressed as
percentage of the total plants assessed) was determined on 100 plants/field that were scored as either diseased or disease
free. Disease severity (percentage of plant part infected) was recorded using the Modified Cobb Scale on 10 randomly
selected plants per field.

The surveyed areas were situated between 09°02.223´ to 09°32.061´ N latitude and 040°54. 436´ to 042°44.457´ E
longitude (Table 1.8). The altitude of the surveyed areas ranged from 1664 to 2739 m.a.s.l. In the majority of the
surveyed fields, wheat plants were between growth stages 7 and 9 (grain dough to ripening stages) on the growth stage
scale suggested by Zadoks and co-workers (Zadoks et al., 1974). The approximate sizes of the surveyed fields ranged
from 0.1 to 0.5 hectares. A total of 57 fields were observed, but data was recorded from 43 fields only.
Stem and leaf rusts were not encountered in all the fields inspected except traces of leaf rust on three cultivars in the
East African Disease Trap Nursery. Yellow rust was encountered in fields located at >2400 m.a.s.l. with severities
ranging from trace to 40S particularly on the improved variety named Kubsa (HAR 1685). The absence of stem and leaf
rusts and low severity of yellow rust could be attributed to unfavourable environmental conditions. Several reports have
indicated that wheat rust diseases are severe only in years when conditions are unusually favourable, susceptible varieties
are grown, cultural practices are altered, or when the above conditions occur in combination. The range of temperatures
that favour the development of stem, leaf and yellow rusts are 15-30°C, 15-25°C, and 10-15°C, respectively. According
to earlier reports, under Ethiopian conditions, the rusts infect wheat late in the season, but if favourable conditions
prevail and susceptible varieties are grown, early infections are possible.
Recommendation
In general, during the 2011/2012 main crop season, the weather particularly the relatively dry condition that prevailed
during the season seems to have been unfavourable and suppressed rust development. Due to this severity of stem, leaf
10
and yellow rusts was very low. In the future, the rust infections need to be correlated with the weather data particularly
temperature, moisture and relative humidity.
Table 1.8. Wheat rusts distribution in the major wheat growing areas of Hararghe in 2011 main cropping season
Altitu Stem rust Leaf rust Yellow rust

de Incide Seve Incidenc Sever Incid
District Location Name (m) Latitude Longitude nce rity e ity ence Severity
Chinaksen Almale 1980 09o29.441’ 042o38.796’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chinaksen Yugyug 2008 09o32.061’ 042o32.223’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chiro Arberekete 2264 09o 02.223’ 040o54.436’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Deder Obi 2406 09o 18.852’ 041o25.963’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Deder Chafégurmu 2425 09o17.400’ 041o23.307’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Deder Waltebudim 2554 09o 16.468’ 041o21.161’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Deder Lemenwattaha 2739 09o 12.525’ 041o20.268’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Diretayara Hasangey 2060 09 o 20.863’ 042 o 06.620’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gurawa Aradayaya 2494 09o12.027’ 041o47.298’ 0 0 0 0 100 40S
Gurawa Hulajeneta 2485 09o09.885’ 041o47.459’ 0 0 0 0 100 20S
Gurawa Hulajeneta 2490 09o08.891’ 041o48.827’ 0 0 0 0 100 20S
Haramaya Haramaya Univ. 2031 09 o 25.178’ 042 o 02.199’ 0 0 3 tr 0 0
Jarso Ifajalala 2495 09o29.210’ 042o12.878’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Jarso Ararsa 2556 09o29.292’ 042o14.878’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Jarso Afugug 2538 09o29.731’ 042o18.170’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Jarso Afugug 2535 09o27.340’ 042o14.502’ 0 0 0 0 1 tr
Jarso Afugug 2534 09o29.276’ 042o14.094’ 0 0 0 0 2 tr
Jarso Galtakke 2491 09o29.196’ 042o12.850’ 0 0 0 0 1 tr
Jijiga Umerjey 1736 09o24.237’ 042o44.457’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Jijiga Wataharta 1740 09o24.457’ 042o44.138’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Jijiga Sugdug 1664 09o07.015’ 042o 04.865’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kersa Metekoma 2133 09o26.856’ 041o50.320’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kersa Yabetaleucha 2133 09o26.858’ 041o50.322’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kersa Lencha 2019 09o26.433’ 041o46.507’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kersa Unidentified 2128 09o26.870’ 041o50.022’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kombolcha Tula 2186 09o23.853’ 042o06.439’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kombolcha Waramohammed 2447 09o29.004’ 042o12.461’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kombolcha Waramohammed 2452 09o28.999’ 042o12.458’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kurfacele Jirubalina 2405 09o14.055’ 041o48.818’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kurfacele Odagudina 2519 09o12.495’ 041o48.830’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kurfacele Jirubelina 2397 09o14.052’ 041o48.802’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kurfacele Rasajenata 2491 09o12.402’ 041o48.049’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Melkabelo Burkanegaya 2630 09o 10.291’ 041o18.387’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Melkabelo Odabelina 2421 09o 13.879’ 041o48.731’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mesala Bahabiftu 2436 09o 07.682’ 041o13.388’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mesala Lubudekeb 2341 09o 04.520’ 041o09.705’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mesala Burka 2169 09o 04.778’ 041o08.856’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Meta Hawibilisuma 2313 09o26.405’ 041o42.609’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Meta Chelenkolola 2142 09o24.954’ 041o37.030’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Meta Dursitubilisuma 2239 09o24.612’ 041o35.862’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tullo Odabalena 1797 09o13.108’ 041o06.483’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tullo Odanegaya 1818 09o13.151’ 041o06.430’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tullo Tarkanfata 2207 09o10.955’ 041o03.236’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
11
1.4.2 East African Wheat Rusts Trap Nursery (EAWRTN)

Temam Hussien
Introduction
East Africa Wheat Rusts Trap Nursery (EAWRTN) was previously (2007-2010) known as Ethiopian Wheat Rusts Trap
Nursery (EWRTN). But later it was changed to EAWRTN as three East African countries, i.e., Kenya, Tanzania and
Uganda became participants in this program as of the 2011 cropping season. The main objective of the EAWRTN is to
monitor prevailing virulences of the pathogens causing leaf, stem and yellow rusts and effectiveness resistance genes.

This nursery included 146 entries grouped into four sets (See Table 1.9, set II is not presented)
Set I: 45 commercial varieties,
Set II: 17 yellow rust differentials (to be grown in yellow rust hot spot areas),
Set III: 42 stem rust differentials (to be grown in stem rust hot spot areas), and
Set IV: 42 leaf rust differentials (to be grown in leaf rust hot spot areas).
Set II which consist of 17 yellow rust differentials was not grown at Haramaya University main campus site because this
site is not considered hot spot for yellow rust. During the 2011 main crop season, EAWRTN was planted on Haramaya
University Main Campus Research Site traditionally known as Rare. Each entry was planted in two rows of one meter
long and 20 cm apart. Diseases were recorded using the Modified Cobb Scale which has two parameters: disease severity
(percentage of rust infection of the plant) and plant response to infection (type of infection).
The disease severity was expressed as percent (ranging from 0 to 100) of rust infection of the plant. The numbers are
always multiples of five, i.e., 0, Tr (trace level), 5, 10, 15….95, 100, N (when the plant is completely dead). The infection
types were expressed as follows: 0 = Immune, R= Resistant, MR= Moderately Resistant, MR-MS = Both Moderately
Resistant and Moderately Susceptible but the MR frequency is higher in the plant, MS = Moderately Susceptible and S=
Susceptible. Disease records included both the severity and the type of infection (host response) as shown in the
examples given below:
TrR: Trace level of % rust infection with resistant plant response,
10MR: 10% of rust coverage (severity) and moderately resistant host response,
40S: 40% of rust coverage (severity) and susceptible host response

Effectiveness of commercial varieties in controlling the three rusts
Seventeen (38%) of the commercial varieties were immune from leaf, stem and yellow rusts. However, when individual
rust is considered, 56% of the commercial varieties were immune and 44% showed traces of infection to leaf rust. Eighty
percent of these varieties were immune while 20% showed traces of stem rust infections. Similarly, 69% of these
varieties were free and 31% indicated traces of yellow rust infections. The virulence of the three rusts on the commercial
varieties was very low during the 2011 main cropping season. It seems that the commercial varieties were effective in
controlling the three rusts. However, a one year’s data cannot be conclusive. Therefore, the study must be repeated in
the 2012 cropping season for proper conclusion.
Prevailing virulence of the pathogen causing leaf, stem and yellow rusts
When virulence of the pathogens causing leaf, stem and yellow rusts were considered, only trace infections of the three
rusts were detected. However, the data was insufficient to draw conclusions.
Recommendation
The study must be repeated for at least one year.
12
Table 1.9. Varieties included in East Africa Wheat Rust Trap Nursery
Set I. Commercial Varieties
Entry No. Variety Yellow rust scoring Stem rust scoring Leaf rust scoring
1. Thai 0 0 0
2. Gassay 0 0 TrR
3. Senkegna TrR 0 0
4. Dega Menz Bollo 0 0 0
5. Menze TrR 0 0
6. Sulia TrR 0 0
7. Enseno 0 0 0
8. Bako-1 0 0 TrR
9. Bako-2 0 0 0
10. PBw343 TrR 0 TrR
11. Mada Wollabu 0 0 0
12. Sofummer 0 0 0
13. Ude 0 TrR 0
14. Yerer 0 0 0
15. Digelu 0 0 TrR
16. Millennium 0 0 0
17. KBG01 TrR 0 TrR
18. Danphe 0 0 0
19. Picaflor 0 0 0
20. PBW343 0 TrR 0
21. Morocco TrMs TrR TrMs
22. Flag-5 0 0 TrR
23. Tusie 0 0 0
24. Enkoy TrR 0 TrR
25. Pavon-76 0 0 TrMR
26. Kubsa 0 0 0
27. Galama 0 0 TrR
28. KENYA KUDU TrR TrMs TrR
29. KENYA PLUME TrR 0 TrR
30. ET 13A2 0 0 0
31. PBW343 TrR TrMs TrR
32. K62954A 0 0 TrR
33. Dashen 0 0 TrR
34. HAR719 0 0 0
35. HAR723 TrR 0 TrR
36. HAR 934 TrMs 0 TrR
37. HAR743 0 0 0
38. HAR733 TrR 0 0
39. HAR820 0 0 TrR
40. Meraro TrR 0 0
41. PBW343 0 0 0
42. Morocco TrR 0 TrR
43. Abola TrR 0 0
44. Shorima 0 0 TrMs
45. ETBW 5496 0 0 0
13
Set III. Stem rust differentials
Entry No. Stem Rust Differentials Stem rust scoring

1. ISR8ARA 0
2. BARLETA BENVENUTO 0
3. W2691SR9B TrR
4. VERNSTEIN 0
5. ISR5SB TrR
6. CNS (TC2B)/LINE E 0
7. W2691SR10 TrR
8. ISR11RA 0
9. CH.SP. (TC3B) 0
10. PBW343 TrR
11. W2691SR13 0
12. LINE A SELN. 0
13. W2691SR15NK 0
14. COMBINATION VII 0
15. Cham 8 0
16. SWSR22T.B. TrR
17. SeRi 82 0
18 EAGLE 0
19. W2691SR28KT 0
20. PBW343 0
21. Morocco TrR
22. PUSA/EDCH TrR
23. BTSR30WST 0
24. LINE E/KVZ 0
25. CNS SR32 AS TrR
26. TETRA CANTHTCH/Ag. SQUARROSA (RL5045) 0
27. MQ (2)5*G2919 0
28. W3763 0
29. W2691 SRTT1 TrR
30. W2691 SRTT2 0
31. PBW343 TrR
32. FED.*2/SRTT3 0
33. MEDEA AP9D 0
34. BTSRGAMUT 0
35. PELISS TrR
36. BT/WLD TrR
37. H44 DERIV TrR
38. ENTRELARGO DE MONTIJO (W3560) TrR
39. TAF-2 TrR
40. MARQUIS (W2) 0
41. PBW343 TrR
42. Morocco TrR
14
Set IV. Leaf rust differentials
Entry Leaf Rust Differentials Leaf rust scoring

No.
1. THATCHER TrR
2. TC*6/CENTENARIO (RL6003) 0
3. TC*6/WEBSTER (RL6016) TrR
4. TC*6/CARINA (RL6019) TrR
5. TC*6/DEMOCRAT (RL6002) 0
6. TC* ANIVERSARIO (RL6007) TrR
7. TRANSFED/6*TC (RL6010) 0
8. TC*6/EXCHANGE (RL6004) TrR
9. HUSSAR (W976) 0
10. PBW343 TrR
11. MANITUOU 0
12. SELKIRK/6*TC (RL6013) TrR
13. TC*6/MARIA ESCOBAR (RL6006) TrR
14. TC*6/KENYA1483 (RL6052) TrR
15. TC*6/EXCHANGE (RL6005) 0
16. KLEIN LUCERO/6*TC (RL6008) TrR
17. TC*7/AFRICA43 (RL6009) 0
18. TC*7TR (RL6040) 0
19. THEW (W203) TrMR
20. PBw343 0
21. Morocco TrMS
22. TC*6/RL5406 (RL6043) 0
23. TC*6/RL5404 (RL6044) 0
24. LEE310/6*TC (RL6012) TrMR
25. TC*6/AGENT (RL6064) 0
26. TC*?/TRANSEC 0
27. TC*6/ST-1-25 (RL6078) TrR
28. GATCHER (W3201) TrMS
29. CS2D-2M 0
30. TC*6/CS7AG#11 (RL6080) 0
31. PBW343 TrR
32. TCLR32 (RL5497) TrR
33. TC*6/PI58548 (RL6057) 0
34. TC*6/PI58548 (RL6058) 0
35. RL5711 0
36. E84018(NEP/AE.SPELTOIDES 2-9-W//5*NEPT/3/3*MITU) 0
37. TC*6/VPM (RL6081) TrR
38. TC*6/CARINA (RL6051) 0
39. WL711 TrR
40. GAZA (W277) (DuRuM) 0
41. PBw343 0
42. Morocco TrR
15
1.5 Common Bean Research Programme

Bulti Tesso and Yonas Moges
Introduction
The lowland pulse research program of Haramaya University have the mandate of developing lowland pulse
technologies (variety development, agronomic, crop protection and socioeconomic) for eastern Ethiopia. The program
focuses on common bean as 95% of the national lowland pulse research program focuses on the same crop. However,
research on cowpea has also been conducted at regional as well as national level. Despite the importance of common
bean in this region, its productivity is constrained by different biotic and abiotic factors. Moisture stress in the lowlands
such as Babile and Fedis, and high severity of different fungal and bacterial diseases in the high potential areas such as
Haramaya, Hirna and similar environments, are the major factors that limit bean production in the region.
The bean research program of Haramaya University has been conducting regional variety trials on the major common
bean market classes for the last two decades to develop high yielding, disease resistant, and moisture stress tolerant
varieties that also meet the consumers’ and market criteria. These variety trials are conducted at four research stations
(Haramaya, Hirna, Babile, and Fedis) that represent the different bean production environments of east and west
Hararghe zones. The major bean market classes preferred in the region are small reds, large seeded beans, red mottled
beans, and white pea (navy) beans, where the latter is mainly produced for market.
In variety development efforts made hitherto, six common bean varieties that fulfil the aforementioned breeding
objectives have been released between 1997 and 2008. As a continuation of this variety development process, six
candidate varieties were verified on farmers’ fields at several representative localities in 2011 main rainy season. The
national variety release committee evaluated these candidate varieties on verification plots by October 2011 in
accordance with the national variety release procedure. This report presents the results of the on farm and on station
evaluated candidate varieties and the four sets of regional variety trials and brief descriptions of the new activities
proposed for 2012 main rainy season.
Objectives
General
 Increasing common bean production and productivity and thereby contribute to enhanced food security and
poverty reduction in Ethiopia in general and in eastern Ethiopia in particular.
Specific
 To develop and promote high yielding and multiple stress resistant common bean varieties with desirable
agronomic practices, and acceptable quality for food and market.
 To demonstrate and promote common bean protection technologies for eastern Ethiopia.
 To develop improved common bean technologies for the mid and lowland areas.
Ongoing Activities
1.5.1 Regional Variety Trials

Four sets of replicated variety trials, representing four different market classes of bush beans, were planted and evaluated
at four different locations in eastern Ethiopia. The trials were planted in mid to late July 2011 at all locations because of
late onset of rainfall. Ten to 13 genotypes selected from the respective pre-regional variety trials in 2010 were included in
each trial along with the standard checks. RCBD with three replications was used to conduct the trials at each location.
The trials are described in Table 1.10.
Table 1.10. Description of common bean regional variety trials
Trial title Market class No. of No. of No. of

represented genotypes replications locations*
Red Mottled Bean Variety Trial Red mottled 10 3 4
Speckled Bean Variety Trial Cream/speckled 10 3 4
Large Red Bean Variety Trial Large red kidney + 10 3 4
large round red
Small Red Seeded Bean Variety Trial Small red 13 3 4
*The test locations are Haramaya, Hirna, Babile, and Fedis research stations
16
The four test locations were selected to represent the major bean growing areas of eastern Ethiopia, and vary widely with
regard to the biotic and abiotic factors constraining bean production in the region. Babile and Fedis stations are
characterized by low amount and erratic distribution of rainfall (but this was not the problem this year) as well as low
soil fertility, while Hirna and Haramaya stations are characterized by moderate to high rainfall and fertile soils. Hirna and
Haramaya are hot spot areas for most bean diseases, mainly for CBB, anthracnose, ALS, rust and halo blight. This gave
us the opportunity to screen genotypes for drought resistance/tolerance, tolerance to low soil fertility (N & P), and for
resistance to common bean diseases. Compared to the past years, the 2011 planting season provided a unique
opportunity for screening genotypes for resistance/tolerance to disease, bean stem maggot, and excessive rainfall.
Despite its late onset, the rain continued without interruption from planting up to pod filling on daily basis. Due to this,
there was problem of water logging (especially at Haramaya and Hirna), heavy stem maggot infestation, and high severity
of CBB at all locations. Generally, except for rust, which did not occur during the season, the genotypes in all trials
showed clear genotypic variations for disease resistance and overall performance under the excess rainfall condition of
this year (see Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1. Common Bacterial Blight (CBB) - a clear contrast between resistant and susceptible genotypes at Haramaya
(Haramaya University Campus): Photo taken on September 18, 2011
Highlights of Results
Data collection was completed on disease reaction and pertinent agronomic traits including yield at all locations and for
all trials. Potential genotypes were identified from each trial (market class) based on disease resistance, grain yield and
overall performance at the four research stations. However, the trials will be repeated in the 2012/13 cropping season to
fulfill the number of environments required to release varieties (a minimum of 3 locations for a minimum of two years).
1.5.2 Collaborative National Yield Trials (Ongoing activities)

Six national and two pre-national variety trials constituted from bush beans of different market classes were planted at
Haramaya research center in July 2011. The pre-national variety trials consisted of 25 genotypes each, while 12 to 16
genotypes were included in the national variety trials. The trials represent the major market classes important in
Ethiopia, including red mottled, medium and large reds, small reds, medium and large whites, navy, and cream-speckled
types. The genotypes in each trial were critically evaluated for disease reaction and other agronomic traits. As the season
was conducive for disease development, except rust, resistant and susceptible genotypes were clearly differentiated.
Moreover, some genotypes in the National Variety Trials sent from Melkassa were completely killed by BCMV at
Haramaya (Figures 1.2). In addition to critical evaluation for disease reaction and overall performance in the field, data
were collected on pertinent agronomic traits including grain yield.
17
Figure 1.2. A genotype highly susceptible to BCMV in National Variety Trial at Haramaya (Photo taken on September
18, 2011)
High yielding and disease resistant genotypes that showed better overall performance under the prevailing edaphic and
climatic condition of Haramaya were ranked and selected from each market class. These will be included in multi-
location yield trials and will be tested at four research stations in eastern Ethiopia for the next two years (2012- 2014) to
identify and release new varieties with better adaptation to environmental stresses.
Completed Activities
1.5.3 On-farm and On-station Verification of Candidate Varieties

Six candidate varieties that have been recommended for release, based on their superior performances in three different
regional variety trials at four locations over three years (2008-2010), were planted at nine on-farm and four on-station
sites ( i.e., a total of 13 sites) for final verification. At each site, the candidate varieties were planted on plot sizes of 100
m2 along with their respective standard checks. Farmers (women and men) have evaluated and ranked the candidate
varieties based on their preference criteria. Moreover, a technical committee composed of breeders, pathologists, and
experts from the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development was sent from the national variety release
committee to evaluate the performances of these candidate varieties in accordance with the variety release policy of
Ethiopia. The candidate varieties proposed for release were the following:
Red mottled: ECAB 0023, ECAB 0060 & K-132
Large Red Kidney: ECAB 0247, ECAB 0203, & RXR- 10
The committee had critically evaluated the varieties in October 2012 and presented its comprehensive report on the
national variety release standing committee annual meeting, which was held from 15 – 17 March 2012 in Addis Ababa.
In its report, the committee has recommended five of the six proposed varieties for full release. The national variety
Release Standing Committee has also accepted the technical committee’s recommendation and approved the full release
of the five varieties. From the proposed candidate varieties, ECAB 0023 was rejected due to its small seed size, though it
is acceptable with regard to all other traits. The released five varieties are given below along with their descriptions
(Table 1.11).
Table 1.11. Major characteristics of improved common bean varieties
Variety name Days to Yield (kg)

Original Assigned Growth 50% Days to 100 SW On farmers’
designation local name habit Market class flowering maturity (g) On research field field
2000- 3000*
RXR-10 Tinike Type- IIa Large Red Kidney 47 91 42.1 1000- 2100** 1500-2500
2200-3000*
K-132 Hundane Type- IIb Red Mottled 46 91 40.7 1200-2000** 1500-2000
2300-3600*
ECAB-0060 Fedis Type- IIa Red Mottled 47 93 47.31 1000-2500** 1000-2200
ECAB-0247 Babile Type-IIa Large Red Kidney 48 91 40.7 2400-3500 1500-3000
ECAB-0203 Hirna Type- IIa Large Red Kidney 48 92 45.69 2300-3400 1600-3000
*Yield at potential areas (Haramaya and Hirna) **Yield at moisture stress areas with low soil fertility (Babile and Hirna)
18
Origin and pedigree

These varieties were originally introduced from CIAT/Tanzania through the East and Central African Bean Research
Network (ECABREN) and had gone through multi location trials in the eastern parts of the country. The test results
showed that they are best varieties for regional release.
Germplasm Maintenance
In addition to the activities described, about 200 germplasm lines have been planted for maintenance. Seed samples of
past nurseries (germplasm/breeding lines) that may have potential future use have been kept in our seed store over the
last many years. These were planted this year to produce fresh seed samples to avoid loss of viability.
Seed Multiplication
Six common bean varieties released by Haramaya University were planted at Haramaya research center for seed
production (Table 1.12 and Fig 1.3).
Table 1.12. Amount of common bean breeder seed produced during 2011 main rainy season
Variety Market class Breeder seed produced (kg)

Gofta (G-2816) Cream (Mulatinho) 300
Ayenew (GLP x 92) Pinto 250
Chercher (STTT-165-96) Navy 200
Haramaya (G-843) Cream (Mulatinho) 230
Kufanzik (MX-8754-9M) Pinto 250
Dursitu (G-811) Small red 260
Figure 1.3. A partial view of breeder seed production field at Haramaya University campus: photo taken on September
18, 2011.
1.5.4 Collection, Characterization, Screening for Effectiveness of Native Rhizobia Strains

and Field Testing of Effective Strains for Nitrogen Fixation on Common Bean Genotypes
Anteneh Argaw
Highlights
Native rhizobia strains collection and characterization

Native rhizobia strains were collected from bean fields in diverse agroecologies of Ethiopia and characterized in
microbiology laboratory of Haramaya University in 2010.
Preliminary evaluation of rhizobia strains for effectiveness

The characterized rhizobia strains were inoculated to different bush bean genotypes in green house and in laboratory
growth chambers to identify effective strains for biological nitrogen fixation potential. Based on the green house and
laboratory results, ten best strains were selected for testing on common beans in the field.
19
Field experiment
The ten most effective rhizobia strains that were selected based on preliminary green house and laboratory inoculation
tests were used for replicated multi-location field experiment. The rhizobia strains were inoculated to three bush bean
varieties in factorial arrangement using randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Non-
inoculated plots of the three genotypes were included as controls. The experiment was planted in July 2011 at two
locations (Haramaya and Fedis research centers).
The bush bean varieties used for the field inoculation experiment are Mx 8754-9M, G-2816, and DOR 811, which
represent early, medium, and late maturity groups, respectively. Mx 8754-9M (Kufanziq) represent pinto market class with
Type IIIa growth habit; G-2816 (Gofta) represent cream-mulatinho market class with Type IIIb growth habit, while
DOR 811 (Dursitu) is small red and represent Type IIa growth habit. Data on nodule count (total and effective nodules
per plant) and other important agronomic traits including yield have been collected. Based on the obtained preliminary
information, a new proposal has been drafted as “Integrated Soil Fertility Management” and submitted to the Pan
African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) for funding.
Constraints
The major constraints of the bean research program are the following.
1. Lack of seed storage: one small building is shared with the highland pulse research program. The germplasms
introduced do not stay more than a year because of suffocation and over crowdedness.
2. Shortage of vehicle: this problem is evident at the pick periods, mainly at planting, data collection and
harvesting times when all research programs compete for the limited number of vehicles.
3. Lack of office: the program does not have office for the technical and field assistants.
Acknowledgement
The successful completion of the reported completed trials was due to the hard work of Ms. Woinshet Feleke, a
hardworking and experienced field assistant. These trials were conducted by the financial support we obtained from
ECABREN/PABRA through the CIAT-Uganda administration. I would like to extend sincere thanks to the CIAT
Uganda Office, to ECABREN and to PABRA for their generous support. I am also very grateful to the national bean
program of Ethiopia (Melkassa) for the support provided to us, and for the germplasm that we have been getting.
Finally, we would like to forward our sincere thank to the office of the Research and Extension of Haramaya University,
for enabling us to accomplish our routine research activities as planned by providing vehicle and other facilities.
References
Bulti, T. 2007. Yield and Canning Quality Attributes of Navy Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), MSc Thesis, Haramaya
University.
Genchev, D., P. Christova, I. Kiryakov, M. Beleva and R. Batchvarova. 2010. Breeding of common bean for resistance
to the physiological races of anthracnose identified in Bulgaria. Biotechnol. & Biotechnol. Eq., 24(2): 1814-1823.
Hernández-Delgado, S., M.H. Reyes-Valdés, R. Rosales-Serna and N. Mayek-Pérez. 2009. Molecular markers associated
with resistance to Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. in common bean. Journal of Plant Pathology, 91 (1): 163-170.
Kelly, J.D and P.N. Miklas. 1999. Marker Assisted Selection, pp. 93-132. In: Singh, S.P. (ed.) Common Bean Improvement in
the Twenty-First Century. Vol.7. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston, London.
1.6 Maize Improvement and Technology Generation Project

Habtamu Zeleke
Activity Report of the Period 2011/2012 Cropping Season
Introduction
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the world leading cereal crops. Maize being the highest yielding cereal crop in the world is
of significant importance for countries like Ethiopia, where rapidly increasing population has already outstripped the
available food supplies. In Ethiopia, during the year 2012, maize was grown on about 2.185 million hectares, resulting in
total annual production of 6.5 million tons, with an average of 3.0 tons per hectare (CSA, 2012). It is a primary crop in
majority of farming systems and staple food of the rural population in much of the mid-altitude sub-humid agro-ecology
of the country. Maize stands first in total production and productivity and, second in area coverage (22.2%) next to teff
(28.4%) of all cereal crops cultivated in Ethiopia (CSA, 2012).
Given the potential the country, the total production and productivity of maize per unit area is very low compared
with the yield levels per unit area attained in some major maize producing countries such as USA (10.3 tons ha-1),
Germany (9.7 tons ha-1), and South Africa (4.96 tons ha-) (FOASTAT, 2011). This calls for further improvement of
maize management practices and also development of productive maize varieties with efficient nutrient use.
20
The maize research and extension program of the university has been working hand-in-hand with the National Maize
Research and Extension for the past several years. As a result, it has been contributing in the development of improved
maize technology for the Ethiopian farmers and that of the farmers of eastern Ethiopia.
In 2011/2012 cropping season, activities in areas of germplasm enhancement, variety development, variety
verification, variety demonstration, and seed multiplication of two released varieties (Raare-1 and Gibe-1) have been
conducted. The highlights of the results obtained are discussed as follows. The weather condition during the early stages
of the 2011/2012 cropping season was conducive and the rainfall was good at planting, early seedling establishment
period and at flowering with the exception of the scarce rainfall in the month of June.
Objectives
General
 Increasing maize productivity and production and thereby contribute to enhanced food security and poverty
reduction in Ethiopia in general and in eastern Ethiopia in particular.
Specific
 To broaden the genetic base of maize germplasm for highland, mid-altitude and low altitude areas of eastern
Ethiopia.
 To develop and promote high yielding, stress tolerant and widely/specifically adapted hybrids and open
pollinated varieties with desirable agronomic practices and quality traits for food and feed.
 To develop improved maize protection technologies for mid and lowland areas.
 To renew and conserve breeding materials, to increase and maintain true to type breeder seeds.
 To demonstrate and promote improved maize technologies.
Breeding and Genetics

Germplasm enhancement
Success in maize improvement depends on the existence of genetic variability among the breeding materials for any trait
of interest. Variability can be obtained from exotic and local sources as well as by the use of cross breeding and selection
techniques. Experimental varieties (hybrids and OPVs) and inbred lines are generated in the breeding nurseries. Thus,
availability of diverse germplasm is essential in a breeding program to guarantee the development of superior cultivars.
Objective
 To enhance the availability of elite germplasm for the development of improved varieties (both white and
yellow hybrids and OPVs, non-QPM and QPM).
Germplasm maintenance
Activity 1: Maintenance of inbred lines
Activity 2: Maintenance of maize populations
Activity 3: Breeder seed multiplication
Methodology
One hundred twenty white seeded and 51 yellow seeded inbred lines were planted in two rows of 5.1 m length. The
spacing between rows and between plants within the row was 0.75 m and 0.30 m, respectively. Off type plants from each
line were strictly rouged out. Flowers of selected plants were isolated before pollen shed. Pollen was collected and dusted
on the stigma and the pollinated plants were left covered until harvest.
Raare-1, Alemaya composite, Bukri, Alemaya popcorn and sweet corn were also planted in a plot of 20 m x 10 m. In
each variety, flowers of about 200 plants were isolated by pollen and silk bags. Pollen was collected, bulked from the
respective varieties separately and finally the isolated plants were pollinated by the bulk pollen. The pollinated plants
were left isolated until harvest to secure genetic purity of the varieties.
1.6.1 Maintenance of Inbred Lines

Half to one kilogram of fresh and clean seed was obtained from the hundred 20 white seeded inbred lines and 51 yellow
seeded lines. Part of the seeds will be used in the next season breeding nursery and part will be stored for maintenance.
21
1.6.2 Micro-seed Production for Maintenance of Maize Populations
Objective
 The objective was to increase the seeds of the genotypes for maintenance and for use in breeding programs.
Methodology
Nineteen early to late maturing maize varieties were grown during the season on a plot size of 10 m X 20 m in non-
replicated trial. All recommended cultural practices were followed.
Ten to 15 kilograms of seed was obtained from each variety. These will be used in 2012/2013 cropping season.
1.6.3 Breeder Seed Multiplication
Objective
 The objective was to obtain fresh seeds of Raare-1, Al composite, Al popcorn-1976 and Al-sweetcorn.
Methodology
Raare-1, Alemaya composite, Al popcorn-1976 and Al-sweetcorn were planted in a non-replicated plot of size 20 m X 20
m. In each plot, about 200 plants were bagged by pollen (tassel) and shoot (ear) bags. Pollen collected from the
respective varieties was bulked separately and used to pollinate that particular variety. All other cultural practices were
followed as required.
Ten to fifteen kilograms of Raare-1, Alemaya composite, Bukuri, Alemaya popcorn-1976 and Al-sweetcorn varieties
were obtained.
1.6.4 Hybridization
Objective
 To produce SC yellow experimental hybrids.
Methodology
Yellow inbred lines were planted in a crossing block on a plot size of 3 mX 5.1 m with intra and inter row spacing of 25
cm and 75 cm, respectively. At flowering, selected lines were crossed using hand pollination technique.
Sixty-three SC crosses of yellow experimental genotypes were obtained to be tested in 2012/13 cropping season (Table
1.13). From each cross, 0.25 to 0.5 ka clean seed was harvested.
22
Table 1.13. List of SC hybrids obtained during the season
No. Cross Type

1 CML-44 X CML-151 SC hybrid
2 CML-157 X AL99AL-79 SC hybrid
3 CML-44 X 157 SC hybrid
5 CML-157 X AL-195 SC hybrid
6 AL99CML-300 X CML-151 SC hybrid
7 AL99CML-300 X AL99AL-281 SC hybrid
8 AL99CML-300X TL-96A-1504-14 SC hybrid
10 AL99CML-39 X AL99Al-281 SC hybrid
11 TL-96A-1503-31A X AL-162 SC hybrid
12 AL-149 X TL-96A-1503-31A SC hybrid
13 CML-33 X TL-96A-1504-14 SC hybrid
17 AL-149 X TL-96A-1504-14 SC hybrid
18 CML-272 X AL99CML-39 SC hybrid
19 TL-96A-1503-31A X CML-28 SC hybrid
21 CML-44 X AL99CML-79 SC hybrid
22 AL99CML-39 X TL-96A-1504-14 SC hybrid
23 CML-28 X TL-96A-1503-31A SC hybrid
24 TL-96A-1503-31A X CML-151 SC hybrid
25 AL-95 X TL-96A-1504-14 SC hybrid
26 CML-44 X AL99Al-281 SC hybrid
29 TL-96A-1504-14 X CML-151 SC hybrid
30 AL99Al-281 X CML-151 SC hybrid
33 AL99AL-281 X AL-162 SC hybrid
35 All99CML-79 X AL99Al-281 SC hybrid
8 AL99CML-39 XTL-96A-1504-14 SC hybrid
39 CML-151 X AL99Al-281 SC hybrid
40 CML-151 XCML-33 SC hybrid
41 AL99AL-281 X TL-96A-1504-14 SC hybrid
43 TL-96A-1504-14 X AL-162 SC hybrid
44 AL99CML-79 X AL99AL-281 SC hybrid
23

49 AL99CML-79 X TL-96A-1503-31A SC hybrid
50 AM99CML-300 X TL-96A-1503-31A SC hybrid
54 AL99AL-281 X TL-96A-1503-31A SC hybrid
55 AL99AL-281 X CML-28 SC hybrid
57 TL-96A-1503-31A X TL-96A-1504-14 SC hybrid
Variety development
Experimental maize varieties which include OPVs and different types of hybrids (top cross, double top cross, single
cross, three-way cross) are regularly formed in the breeding nurseries. These varieties will be organized into different sets
of trials and tested for agronomic characteristics and their adaptation across locations within the mid and low altitude
sub-humid agro-ecologies. Besides, the National Maize Research Project has a wealth of experience in hosting variety
evaluation from different multinational private companies and local public seed companies. In the current project period
too, the maize program will continue to evaluate these maize trials across locations, once they have gone through all the
necessary steps to introduce and test the varieties. Thus, the objective is to evaluate and identify high yielding
widely/specifically adapted maize varieties.
Experimental variety evaluation
1.6.5 Preliminary Variety Trials (PVTs) of Late and Intermediate Maturing Maize Hybrid
Varieties (12).
Methodology
Twelve sets of trials have been conducted in this category. Each trial consisted of 18 - 72 entries that were planted in
lattice design or RCBD depending on the number of entries included. The net plot size was 2 rows of 5.1m long with 30
cm and 75 cm intra and inter row spacing, respectively. During planting, two seeds were planted per hole, which was
later thinned to one plant per hole. All the required agronomic management practices were done.
The main results obtained in each of the trials are discussed as follows.
PVT-2B (28 entries)

The analysis of variance indicated no significant difference between the entries for days to maturity and grain yield.
However, highly significant difference among the entries was detected for plant height. The yield ranged from 5329.15-
9852.90 kg/ha, with the lowest obtained from variety no. 13 and the highest from variety no. 8 (Table 1.14).
24
Table 1.14. Major findings of PVT-2B
Pant height (cm) Days to maturity Yield (kg/ha)

Mean 190.00 176 7665.20
Range 170-210 171-179 5329.15-9852.90
Stat. sig. ** - -
PVT-2D (44 entries)

There was no significant difference among entries for days to maturity. However highly significant and significant
difference among the entries was detected for plant height and yield, respectively. The yield ranged from 6516.81-
10657.82 kg/ha, with the lowest obtained from variety number 13 and the highest from variety number 8 (Table 1.15).
Table 1.15. Major findings of PVT-2D

Mean 180 177 8440.50
Range 166-187 176-179 6516.81-10657.82
Stat. sig. ** - *
PVT-2E (42 entries)

There was no significant difference among entries for days to maturity, but there were highly significant differences for
grain yield and plant height among enteries. The yield ranged from 8709 – 13963 kg/ha, with the lowest obtained from
variety number 9 and the highest from variety 8 (Table 1.16).
Table 1.16. Major findings of PVT-2E
Plant height (cm) Days to maturity Yield (kg/ha)

Mean 173 177 10750.00
Range 173-193.00 175-179 8709.90-13963.15
Stat. sig. ** - **
PVT-2F (18 entries)

Analysis of variance showed no significant difference among entries for days to maturity, grain yield as well as for plant
height. The yield ranged from 6063 – 9582 kg/ha, with the lowest obtained from variety 12 and the highest from variety
6 (Table 1.17).
Table 1.17. Major findings of PVT-2F

Mean 160.20 177 7306.50
Range 143.30-183.30 176-178 6063.00-9581.90
Stat. sig. - - -
PVT-2J (64 entries)

Analysis of variance indicated significant difference among entries for plant height and grain yield. The yield ranged from
5557.40 - 12671.40 kg/ha, which was produced by entry number 64 and entry number 13, respectively (Table 1.18).
Table 1.18: Major findings of PVT-2J

Mean 175.60 177 5557.40
Range 155-210 175-179 5557.40-12671.40
Stat. sig. * - **
PVT-2K (50 entries)

There was no significant difference among entries for days to maturity, however highly significant difference among the
entries was detected for plant height and grain yield. The yield ranged from 5692 – 11536 kg/ha, with the lowest
obtained from variety number 1 and the highest from variety number 31 (Table 1.19).
25
Table 1.19. Major findings of PVT-2K
Pant height(cm) Days to maturity Yield (kg/ha)

Mean 176 176 9095.46
Range 140-195 174-177 9095.46-11535.54
Stat. sig. ** - **
PVT-2N (30 entries)

Analysis of variance indicated no significant difference among entries for days to maturity and grain yield, however
highly significant difference among the entries was detected for plant height. The yield ranged from 5502-11399 kg/ha,
with the lowest obtained from variety 10 and the highest from variety number 8 (Table 1.20).
Table 1.20. Major findings of PVT-2N

Mean 176 176 9515.85
Range 150-193 174-182 5502.29-11397.86
Stat. sig. ** - -
PVT-2S (7 entries)
Analysis of variance indicated no significant difference among entries for days to maturity. However, highly significant
difference among the entries was detected for plant height and grain yield. The yield ranged from 5502-11399 kg/ha,
with the lowest obtained from variety number 10 and the highest from variety number 8 (Table 1.21).
Table 1.21. Major findings of PVT-2S

Mean 162 176 6918.00
Range 140-190 175-177 5620.35-8462.46
Stat. sig. ** - **
PVT-2V (72 entries)

There were significant differences among varieties for plant height and grain yield. The yield ranged from 2574-11340
kg/ha, with the lowest obtained from variety 20 and the highest from variety 18 (Table 1.22).
Table 1.22. Major findings of PVT-2V

Mean 158.80 177 7309.50
Range 110-210 176-178 2574.34-11340.01
Stat. sig. * - **
PVT-2T (38 entries)

Varieties differed significantly in plant height and grain yield, indicating the existence of genetic difference for these
traits. The yield ranged from 3138-10445 kg/ha, with the lowest obtained from variety number 20 and the highest from
variety number 18 (Table 1.23).
Table 1.23. Major findings of PVT-2T

Mean 161.40 176 7328.90
Range 125-175 176-178 3137.50-10445.33
Stat. sig. ** * **
QPVT-2A (18 entries)

The analysis of variance showed significant difference among varieties for plant height and grain yield. The yield ranged
from 4419-8595 kg/ha, with the lowest obtained for variety number 11 and the highest for variety number 18 (Table
1.24). In this set, none of the new entries out yielded the standard check, except entry number 10.
26
Table 1.24. Major findings of QPVT-2A

Mean 150.60 177 6149.59
Range 143.30-1667.70 176-178 4419.20-8594.60
Stat. sig. * - **
1.6.6 NVTs-National Variety Trials (3) of White Late and Intermediate Maturing Non-
QPM and QPM Hybrids
Objective
 To evaluate elite experimental varieties for yield and related traits.
Methodology
Ten to 30 entries selected from the non-QPM, and QPM preliminary variety trials were planted in RCB design replicated
3 times. Each genotype was planted on a plot size of two rows of 5.1m long with 30 cm within and 75 cm between rows.
The trials were evaluated along with standard checks at Haramaya. All planned data were collected.
Highlight of Results
The results obtained in NVT-9A, NVT-8A and QNVT-8B is indicated as follows.
NVT-9A (13 entries)

Days to maturity and yield did not significantly differ among entries. However, significant difference among entries was
detected for plant height. The yield range revealed that all the tested varieties have good yield potential. Eleven hybrids
produced over 10 tons of grain yield per ha. The lowest yield was obtained from entry number 8 and the highest from
entry number 3 (Table 1.25).
Table 1.25. Major findings of NVT-9A

Mean 234.4 178 11268.4
Range 220-253 177-179 9200.6-12872.5
Stat. sig. ** - -
NVT-8A (10 entries)

The analysis of variance indicated no significant difference among entries for grain yield. However, entries differed in
plant height and days to maturity. Eight hybrids produced over 10 tons of grain yield per ha each indicating to be a
potential candidate for future contemplated new hybrid(s). The lowest yield was obtained from entry number 7 and the
highest from entry number 6 (Table 1.26).
Table 1.26. Major findings of NVT-8A

Mean 202.3 178.1 10786.3
Range 180-230 177-179 9715.8-11796.5
Stat. sig. ** * -
QNVT-8B (30 entries)

The analysis of variance revealed significant difference among entries for grain yield and plant height. Nine hybrids
produced over 9 tons of grain yield per ha. This yield level for quality protein maize types is exceptional and one or two
of these can be potential candidates for release. The lowest yield was obtained from entry number 23 and the highest
from entry number one (Table 1.27).
27
Table 1.27. Major findings of QNVT-8B

Mean 162.0 178 8152.0
Range 136.7-193.3 ? 5258.0-10669.5
Stat. sig. ** - **
1.6.7 Variety Verification Trial
Objective
 To present popcorn varieties to National Variety Release Committee for possible release.
Methodology
Standard methodology was followed as indicated in the National Variety Release guideline, i.e. the plot size was 10 m X
10 m = 100 m2. Three were 13 rows per plot. The rows were spaced 0.75 m apart and the distance between plants within
the row was 0.30 m. All other cultural practices were done as required. The locations were Haramaya University campus,
Adele, and Tujigabissa peasant associations, the latter two being on-farm trials. Seeds were provided to 14 households to
roast and evaluate the varieties and select their preferred variety using VERY GOOD, GOOD and FAIR to show the
popping quality of the varieties.
Yield performance and popping quality performance of the verification have sown that the candidate varieties are
acceptable. The yield of the two varieties is comparable (3813 and 4142 kg ha-1, Table 1.28) which is a good yield level
for popcorn. Moreover, on average both were evaluated by households as very good for their popping quality. The result
is depicted in Tables 1.28, 1.29, and 1.30. The collected sample and user opinion are sent to the national coordinator so
that the result can be compiled at national level and presented to variety release committee.
Table 1.28. Mean performance of candidate popcorn variety tested at Haramaya, eastern Ethiopia in 2011/2012
cropping season
Traits
Variety PHT EHT Rust Blight PAS EAS GY/ha (kg)
Popcorn 2009 165 48 1.5 1 2 1.8 3812.93
Popcorn 2010 165 89 1.3 1 1.5 1.67 4141.73
PHT = Plant height (cm); EHT = Ear Height (cm); PAS = Plant aspect; EAS = Ear aspect and GY/ha = Grain yield/ha
Table 1.29. Results of popping ability evaluation of Var. Popcorn 2009 (HU 2012)
Score
Name Evaluation by Very good Good Fair
PPOCORN 2009 Family 1 
Family 2 
Family 3 
Family 4 
Family 5 
Family 6 
Family 7 
Family 8 
Family 9 
Family 10 
Family 11 
Family 12 
Family 13 Response not received
28
Table 1.30. Results of popping ability evaluation of Var. Popcorn 2010 (HU 2012)
Score
Name Evaluation by Very good Good Fair
POPCORN 2010 Family 1 
(Improved) Family 2 
Family 3 
Family 4 
Family 5 
Family 6 
Family 7 
Family 8 
Family 9 
Family 10 
Family 11 
Family 12 
Family 13 
1.6.8 Highland Maize Variety Trials

Highland maize research project based at Ambo in collaboration with sister institutions in the country develop, evaluate,
and release suitable varieties for highland agro-ecologies of the countries. With this aim, experimental varieties which
include OPVs and different types of hybrids (top cross, double top cross, single cross, three-way cross) are regularly
formed in the breeding nurseries and the formed varieties are organized into different sets of trials and tested for
agronomic characteristics.
Objective
 The objective is to evaluate and identify high yielding widely/specifically adapted maize varieties for the highland
agro-ecologies.
Methodology
During 2011/2012 cropping season, 13 sets of trials comprising of 22-36 entries were conducted. Each trial was planted
in alpha lattice design replicated twice. Each plot consisted of one row with a row length of 5.1m. The distance between
rows was 75 cm and between plants within the row was 30 cm. Planting was done when the soil moisture is optimum for
germination and seedling emergence. Two seeds were planted per hole and later on seedlings were thinned to one plant
per hole except the end holes where two plants were preserved until harvest. Other cultural practices were done as
required.
The highlights of results obtained in each set are discussed hereunder, except for AMB11PVT19-7 in which all the
entries included produced significantly lower yield compared to the best check (Wonchi).
Highlights of results of AMB11, PVT1-7

Four varieties that are with similar yield potential as compared to the best standard check have been identified. These
will be further tested in the coming season. These varieties produced 13044 to 14119 kilograms of yield per hectare
(Table 1.31).
Table 1.31. Mean grain yield performance of four selected entries from AMB11PVT1-7
Entry No. Yield kg/ha % of the best check

7 14119.20 108.38
5 13246.51 101.68
9 13188.66 101.24
19 13044.05 100.13
22 (Best check) 13027.68 100.00
29
Highlights of results of AMB11PVT2-7

Four entries produced 11817 to 13108 kilograms of yield per hectare (Table 1.32). These yield level are not statistically
different from that of the best check. These selected materials can be used in further breeding work.

10 13108.35 103.79
13 12439.78 98.50
20 11952.78 94.64
2 11816.52 93.57
21 (Best check) 12629.09 100.00

Four entries that yielded similar grain amount as compared to the best standard check have been identified and these will
be further tested in the coming season. These varieties produced 10805 to 11531 kilograms of yield per hectare (Table
1.33).

14 11530.64 99.33
5 11421.04 98.38
12 11230.10 96.74
8 10804.71 93.07
22 (Best check) 11608.80 100.00

Four entries that gave statistically similar grain yield as compared to the best standard check have been identified. These
varieties will be further tested in NVT trials. These varieties produced 13141 to 14544 kilograms of yield per hectare
(Table 1.34).

6 14544.31 110.96
18 14219.83 108.49
1 13412.51 102.33
7 13140.62 100.26
22 (Best check) 13107.15 100.00

Four entries that gave statistically similar grain yield as compared to the best standard check have been identified. These
varieties will be further tested in NVT trials. These varieties produced 13059 to 13855 kilograms of yield per hectare
(Table 1.35).

3 13855.19 108.24
20 13543.38 105.81
13 13510.39 105.55
14 13058.75 102.02
22 (Best check) 12800.00 100.00
30

Four entries with yield potential similar or better than the best standard check have been identified for use in future
breeding work or release as improved hybrid. These varieties produced 12050 to 13863 kilograms of grain yield per
hectare (Table 1.36).

13 13863.08 114.95
12 13024.09 108.00
20 12259.80 101.66
18 12049.69 99.92
22 (Best check) 12059.73 100.00


4 12424.13 112.07
14 12361.82 111.51
7 11693.30 105.48
18 11209.08 101.11
22 (Best check) 11086.16 100.00

breeding work or release as improved hybrid. These varieties produced 10342 to 12707 kilograms of yield per hectare
(Table 1.38).

10 12706.78 132.44
1 10998.32 114.63
12 10739.69 111.93
19 10341.83 107.79
21 (Best check) 9594.62 100.00

EntryNo. Yield kg/ha % of the best check

13 12373.33 104.61
20 11601.03 98.08
12 11598.40 98.05
1 11498.25 97.21
21 (Best check) 11828.59 100.00

Three entries with yield potential similar or better than the best standard check have been identified for use in future
31
EntryNo. Yield kg/ha % of the best check

19 11700.00 120.61
16 11089.15 114.31
6 10709.45 110.40
21 (Best check) 9700.75 100.00

breeding work or release as improved hybrid. These varieties produced 7970 to 8348 kilograms of grain yield per hectare
(Table 1.41).

14 8348.33 102.9234
12 8184.11 100.8988
18 8150.89 100.4892
10 7970.21 98.26167
22 (Best check) 8111.21 100.00

hectare (Table 42).

10 12940.95 130.81
13 12914.26 130.55
11 12416.00 125.51
14 10321.03 104.33
16 (Best check) 9892.57 100.00
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank all the technical and field assistants, particularly Mr. Degefa Gebissa and Mr. Elias Abrahim for
their seriousness at work and quality data collection. Those who directly and indirectly contributed in the materialization
of the project activities are also highly acknowledged.
References
Central Statistics Authority (CSA). 2012. Crop production forecast sample survey for major crops (private peasant
holdings meher season). The FDRE Statistical Bulletins, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
FAOSTAT. 2010. Statistical Database of the Food and Agriculture of the United Nations.
32
1.7 Highland Pulse Crops
Faba bean (Vicia faba L.)

Million Fikreselassie, Mekonen Dagne and Mekuanent Belay
Abstract: Six different sets of faba bean experiments were conducted at Haramaya University during
the 2011 main cropping season with the objective of improving the productivity of faba bean through
development of varieties tolerant/resistant to different constraints and suitable for cultivation in
Eastern Ethiopia and to renew, increase and maintain true to type breeder seeds of released Gachena
variety and make available for basic seed production. In the Preliminary Adaptation Trial, four
materials which were superior to Gachena, (Moti, Gebelcho, Obse and Tumsa) were evaluated further
and multiplied for utilization in East and West Hararghe. In the Regional Preliminary Variety Trial,
there was significant difference among the tested genotypes regarding characters such as number of
seeds per pod, thousand seed weight and seed yield. Six genotypes out yielded the standard check in
terms of seed yield. In the National Variety Trial (Small seeded for wide adaptation), the trait
thousand seed weight showed significant difference among the tested entries. Differences among the
genotypes in terms of number of seeds per pod and per plant and thousand seed weight was
significant in the National Variety Trial (Large seeded for wide Adaptation). The genetic purity of
Gachena was maintained in Breeder Seed Multiplication and Maintenance experiment and the
genetically purified seed will be delivered to the seed unit of the University for further pre-basic
and/or basic seed production.
Keywords: Faba Bean; Vicia faba L; Pulse Crops; Eastern Ethiopia; Gachena
Introduction
Faba bean is one of the major pulse crops grown in the highlands (1800-3000 m.a.s.l.) of Ethiopia where the need of
chilling temperature is satisfied. Faba bean is a crop of manifold merits for the farming communities in the highlands of
Ethiopia. It serves as a source of food and feed with a valuable and cheap source of protein. It plays a significant role in
soil fertility restoration as a suitable rotation crop that fixes atmospheric nitrogen. It is also good source of cash to the
farmers, and generates foreign currency to the country. Despite the importance, the productivity of the crop is far below
the potential due to several yield-limiting factors. The inherent low yielding potential of the indigenous cultivars is
among the most important production constraint (Asfaw et al., 1994; Yohannes, 2000). Moreover, diseases and abiotic
factors like water stress are important production constraints that deserve priority as breeding objectives (Gemechu et
al., 2003).
It is obvious that the genetic modification of crops is preferred than the continual manipulation of environmental,
particularly to the resource poor farmers who cannot afford the purchase of production inputs. The main objective of
the faba bean research program was to improve the productivity of faba bean through the development of varieties
tolerant/resistant to different constraints and suitable for cultivation under Eastern Ethiopia and to renew, increase and
maintain true to type breeder seeds of released faba bean variety ‘Gachena’ and make available for basic seed production.
To meet the aforementioned objectives, different set of breeding experiments were conducted at Haramaya University
during 2011/12 main cropping season. The brief account of the research methodology with the result of each
experiment is discussed hereunder.
1.7.1 Faba Bean Preliminary Adaptation Trial

Seven recently released faba bean varieties collected from Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research with the check
Gachena, were used. The treatments were laid in RCBD with two replications at Haramaya University research site. All
pertinent agronomic data were collected as per the standard breeding procedure and the trial management was as per the
recommendation.
Results
The mean performance of thirteen traits used for the eight commercial varieties is presented in Table 1.43. Analysis of
variance showed significant difference (P<0.05) among the tested entries for the traits such as stand count, biomass yield
and thousand seed weight indicating the existence of genetic variability among these commercial varieties. The highest
thousand seed weight was recorded for Gebelcho (845.9g) and the lowest was for Degaga (517.9g) with the overall mean of
685g (Figure 1.4). Therefore, the materials can be used as a parent for crossing program to utilize the genotype
efficiently.
33
Table 1.43. Mean performance of 8 commercial faba bean varieties during 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
Trt DF DM STD Ch Rust Lodg PH PPPl Spp SPPl BMY TSW SYLDH
Moti 29.5 71 65 4.00 2.50 1.50 130.50 7.80 2.90 22.60 14.90 801.35 3200.00
Gebelcho 31.5 70 54 4.00 3.00 1.00 134.50 6.70 2.69 17.90 19.00 845.95 3000.00
Obse 30 72 65.5 4.00 4.00 1.00 136.00 6.80 2.75 18.80 18.10 705.15 2975.00
Tumsa 28.5 68.5 78 3.00 5.00 1.00 132.50 7.40 2.68 20.60 19.00 777.35 3150.00
Degaga 30 71 70.5 3.00 4.00 1.50 127.50 9.20 2.92 25.90 15.00 517.95 2500.00
Dosha 28.5 69 86 3.00 5.00 1.00 119.50 8.40 2.93 24.70 12.70 767.90 1950.00
Cs20DK 30 72.5 80 4.00 2.00 1.00 131.50 7.30 2.50 18.20 16.60 520.15 2750.00
Gachena 30.5 69 79.5 3.00 3.00 1.00 130.50 5.90 2.83 16.70 16.50 546.10 2950.00
Mean 29.81 70.38 72.31 3.50 3.56 1.13 130.31 7.44 2.77 20.68 16.48 685.24 2809.38
LSD ns ns 12.6 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 3.45 181.7 ns
CV 6.93 3.07 7.64 28.57 26.92 33.59 3.36 22.09 10.7 24.49 10.44 11.59 29.23
Work plan
Four materials which were superior to Gachena (Moti, Gebelcho, Obse and Tumsa) will be evaluated further and multiplied
for East and West Hararghe.
Figure 1.4. Variety over thousand seed weight
1.7.2 Faba Bean Regional Preliminary Variety Trial

Sixteen promising lines of faba bean along with the standard check Gachena, were used. The materials were laid in RCBD
with four replications at Haramaya University research field. All cultural practices were used as per the recommendation
of the location. Field and laboratory data were subjected to analysis of variance using the SAS software (SAS, 1996).
Results
Analysis of variance and mean agronomic performance of the genotypes is presented in Table 1.44. There was
significant difference among the tested genotypes in number of seeds per pod, thousand seed weight and seed yield. Six
genotypes out yielded the standard check in terms of seed yield. In this line, the highest yielders were Moti, EK01024-1-
1, EK01024-1-2 and EK01021-4- in their decreasing order, whereas the lowest was the standard, Gebelcho with over all
mean yields of 3552 g. With respect to thousand seed weight, the highest was recorded for the variety EK01024-1-2
(1021g) and EK01004-2-1(1019g), EK01002-1-1(1010g) in their decreasing order. Whereas, the lowest was recorded for
the standard check, Gebelcho, (565g) with the overall mean of 912g. Based on the result, it can be suggested that there is
sufficient variability among the tested genotypes for the intended traits implying that it is possible to improve the crop in
this line.
Work plan
The six superior materials will be promoted for further breeding scheme in multi location trial to meet the national
variety release standard (DUS principle)
34
1.7.3 Faba Bean National Variety Trial- Small Seeded for Wide Adaptation

Twenty small seeded genotypes of faba bean from Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center along with the standard check
Degaga, were used. The materials were laid in RCBD with four replications at Haramaya University research station. All
the cultural practices for the experiment were used as per the recommendation of the testing site. Field and laboratory
data were collected and subjected to analysis of variance using SAS software (SAS, 1996).
Results
The mean performance of tested faba bean genotypes is given in Table 1.45. Significant difference was observed among
the tested entries for the trait thousand seed weight. The highest thousand seed weight was recorded for accession
EK01019-7-2 (862.58g) whereas the lowest for the standard, Degaga, (631.60g) with the overall mean of 762.98g
indicating the probability of getting sound materials which can be used as a source of gene for thousand seed weight.
Work plan
Since the trial is an on-going experiment, the materials will be further evaluated for yield and traits that contribute to
yield for one additional cropping season.
1.7.4 Faba Bean National Variety Trial- Large Seeded for Wide Adaptation-Set II
Material and Methods

Thirteen large seeded genotypes of faba bean from Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center along with the standard
checks Moti and Dosha, were used. The materials were laid in RCBD with four replications at Haramaya University
research station. All the cultural practices for the experiment were used as per the recommendation of the testing site.
Field and laboratory data were collected and subjected to analysis of variance using SAS software (SAS, 1996).
Results
The mean performance of the tested faba bean genotypes is given in Table 1.46. Significant difference was observed
among the tested entries for the traits thousand seed weight and seed yield. However, no accession was superior to the
standard check, Dosha. The maximum seed yield was scored for Dosha (4614.31kg/ha) and the minimum for the
genotype EK CSR 01009-2-2 (3294 kg/ha). Even if the standard gave highest seed yield, it was the lowest in thousand
seed weight (771 g) whereas; accession EK 02005-1-1 gave the highest (982 g). The result indicated the existence of
variability in the concerned traits. Thus, probability of getting sound materials that can be used as source of gene for
thousand seed weight is high.
Work plan
Since it is on-going experiment, the materials will be further evaluated for yield and traits that contribute to yield for one
additional cropping season.
1.7.5 Faba Bean National Variety Trial- Large Seeded for Wide Adaptation

Sixteen large seeded faba bean genotypes collected from Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center along with the standard
checks Gebelcho and Moti, were tested in this breeding experiment. The treatments were arranged in RCBD with four
replications and conducted at Haramaya University research station. All the agronomic/cultural practices were used as
per the recommendation of the testing location. Field and laboratory data were collected and subjected to analysis of
variance using SAS software program.
Results
Table 1.47 presents the mean performance of the tested faba bean genotypes during the 2011 main cropping season.
There was significant difference among the genotypes in terms of number of seeds per pod and per plant and thousand
seed weight indicating the possibility of improving the crop in these traits of interest.
Work plan
The materials will be maintained and utilized for further breeding activity for specific traits.
35
1.7.6 Faba Bean Breeder Seed Multiplication and Maintenance (FBSM)

One regionally released faba bean variety, Gachena, from Haramaya University were purified and maintained in plot size
of 10 m x 10 m in isolated field to avoid contamination, since the crop is entimophilic by its nature. The activity was
carried out at Haramaya University research station during the 2011 main cropping season. All the necessary agronomic
practice including rouging of the off-types was performed to maintain the genetic purity of the breeder seed.
Results
Some parameters was recorded and presented in Table 1.48. The genetic purity of the variety was maintained by distance
isolation and discarding the off-type. About 193 kg of purified breeder seed was produced.
Work plan
Further purification and maintenance will continue and the produced seed will be delivered to the seed unit of the
University for pre-basic and/or basic seed production.
Table 1.44. Mean performance of 16 faba bean accessions over 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
Trt DF DM STD Ch Rust Lodg PPPl spp SPPl BMY TSW SYLD
Moti 35.50 76.50 81.46 3.00 3.50 1.00 6.55 3.28 20.90 4.10 874 3968.06
EK-01001-5-1 35.75 77.00 61.75 3.00 4.00 1.00 6.50 2.84 18.75 3.43 856 3530.41
EK-01001-8-1 34.75 77.50 83.60 3.00 3.50 1.00 8.20 3.17 26.05 4.33 896 3659.47
EK-010001-9-2 35.00 77.00 69.83 3.00 3.50 1.00 6.05 3.26 19.85 4.15 960 3525.88
EK-01001-10-5 35.25 77.00 67.21 3.00 4.50 1.00 6.40 2.93 18.65 4.25 996 3405.00
EK-01004-2-1 35.25 76.75 74.81 3.00 3.50 1.50 7.60 3.05 23.00 4.70 1019 3764.94
EK-01006-7-1 35.25 77.50 63.89 3.00 4.00 1.25 5.80 3.20 18.70 4.25 940 3434.47
EK-01015-1-1 35.75 77.25 69.35 3.00 4.00 1.00 6.20 3.02 18.70 4.18 824 3094.38
EK-01019-2-1 35.50 77.00 71.96 3.00 5.00 1.00 5.60 3.36 19.15 3.70 916 3360.88
EK-01019-7-5 35.75 78.50 76.24 3.00 4.00 1.25 6.35 3.51 22.30 4.10 939 3552.19
EK-01024-1-1 36.00 78.25 74.81 3.00 3.50 1.00 6.35 2.97 18.20 3.68 948 3954.31
EK-01024-1-2 35.25 77.25 65.08 3.00 4.00 1.25 7.20 3.27 23.30 4.55 1021 3913.75
EK-01002-1-1 35.50 77.75 69.83 3.00 3.00 1.00 6.50 2.79 18.10 4.03 1010 3585.00
EK-01021-4-1 35.00 78.25 71.49 3.00 3.50 1.50 6.05 3.70 21.75 5.35 867 3782.28
EK-01004-2-1 34.75 77.50 69.83 3.00 3.50 1.25 6.60 3.05 20.20 4.40 973 3707.34
Gebelcho 36.00 78.50 70.06 3.00 3.00 1.00 7.15 2.97 21.50 5.08 565 2592.13
Mean 35.39 77.47 71.32 3.00 3.75 1.13 6.57 3.15 20.57 4.27 912.68 3551.91
LSD ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 0.67 ns ns 268.54 310.2
CV 2.61 2.43 13.63 0 28.25 28.11 20.63 10.67 22.03 18.28 14.96 16.3
36
Trt D Ch. Lod BM

DF M STD Sp Rust g PPPl SPP SPPL Y TSW SYLD
EK 01023-1-2 36.25 80.00 60.80 1.00 2.50 1.25 11.65 2.82 31.90 3.48 812.73 3841.50
EK 01012-1-3 36.50 80.75 69.59 2.00 3.00 1.75 11.25 2.51 28.10 3.83 842.58 4689.94
EK 01019-7-1 37.00 79.75 77.43 1.00 3.00 1.75 10.75 2.83 29.70 3.63 799.00 4173.44
EK 01019-7-2 37.25 79.50 72.68 1.00 3.00 2.00 9.65 2.94 26.50 4.15 862.58 4378.28
EK 01019-7-3 37.00 78.75 81.23 1.00 3.50 1.50 11.85 2.65 30.55 3.78 825.03 4498.28
EK 01019-7-6 35.75 79.50 65.79 1.00 3.00 1.25 9.50 2.81 25.15 4.05 787.08 4765.88
EH 00128-3 35.75 80.75 74.10 1.50 3.50 1.50 10.35 2.63 25.00 3.83 840.00 4328.28
EH 00126-4 36.25 78.50 74.58 1.00 4.50 1.25 11.15 2.69 27.35 3.95 833.53 4926.66
EK CSR 02002-3 36.75 81.50 83.13 1.00 2.50 1.25 10.70 2.93 30.80 4.33 786.85 4427.59
EK LSS 02009-2 36.50 80.50 79.56 1.50 3.50 1.75 12.00 2.81 32.85 4.18 719.40 5059.00
EK LSS 02022-1 36.25 79.75 72.68 1.00 4.50 1.50 11.55 2.48 26.00 4.35 783.78 4704.47
EH00005-6-1 37.25 80.25 76.00 1.00 4.00 1.50 11.60 2.61 30.05 4.13 725.13 4616.88
EH00014-1 37.00 80.25 81.94 1.00 3.50 1.25 11.95 2.59 30.50 4.08 719.48 4529.06
EH00014-3-1 37.00 80.00 82.65 1.00 3.50 1.25 11.90 2.89 30.80 4.25 755.73 4102.03
EH00053-1 36.00 79.25 79.09 1.00 2.50 1.50 9.86 2.71 26.30 4.00 723.38 3846.66
EH00105-2 36.50 81.25 81.46 1.50 4.00 1.50 11.45 2.40 25.70 3.78 739.60 4243.75
EH 00016-2 36.50 80.50 86.21 1.50 3.00 1.50 10.00 2.66 25.75 4.00 667.75 3340.63
EH 00012-4 36.75 80.25 82.18 1.50 3.00 1.25 9.40 2.24 20.55 3.58 678.93 3773.06
EKLSS01009-2-1 36.25 80.50 75.53 2.00 2.50 2.00 8.90 2.77 24.30 3.68 725.55 3999.94
DEGAGA 36.50 80.50 77.19 2.00 3.50 1.25 11.20 2.49 27.70 4.00 631.60 4332.28
Mean 36.55 80.10 76.69 1.28 3.30 1.49 10.83 2.67 27.78 3.95 762.98 4328.88
LSD ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 139.1 ns
CV 2.08 2.1 14.45 52.2 30.3 30.8 25.14 13.5 21.13 15.6 9.47 21.25
5 6 9 7
Trt DF DM STD Ch. Rust Lodg PPPl spp SPPl BMY TSW SYLD
Sp
1 35.75 78.25 73.86 2.00 5.00 1.50 6.80 3.18 21.30 4.25 852.40 3937.34
2 36.50 77.50 76.48 1.50 3.50 1.00 5.95 2.99 17.30 3.88 898.65 3637.13
3 35.75 77.75 71.73 2.00 3.00 1.00 7.30 3.21 23.40 3.90 924.68 4021.56
4 35.50 78.00 66.98 1.50 4.00 1.25 8.05 2.98 23.15 3.90 777.35 3492.03
5 35.25 77.25 61.75 2.00 4.00 1.75 5.00 3.00 15.05 3.28 880.45 3472.97
6 36.25 78.25 74.58 1.50 3.50 1.50 7.70 3.22 24.75 4.08 982.63 4430.78
7 35.75 78.25 77.90 1.50 3.50 1.75 6.35 3.31 20.90 4.00 939.50 3705.09
8 36.50 79.50 81.94 1.50 3.50 1.00 5.75 3.01 17.25 4.23 943.45 4215.56
9 36.75 79.75 73.39 1.00 4.50 1.00 7.35 3.01 21.80 4.00 862.15 4033.59
10 35.50 78.75 77.19 1.50 4.00 1.25 7.25 3.44 24.35 3.80 905.98 4008.44
11 36.75 78.75 74.58 1.50 3.50 1.00 7.40 3.30 24.40 4.33 799.03 3294.00
12 35.25 77.50 71.01 1.00 3.00 1.25 8.55 3.18 24.95 3.75 872.20 3458.59
13 35.00 79.50 66.26 1.50 4.00 1.25 7.60 2.98 23.30 3.78 771.25 4614.31
Mean 35.88 78.38 72.89 1.54 3.77 1.27 7.00 3.14 21.68 3.93 877.67 3870.88
LSD ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 168.2 335.1
CV 3.16 2.19 16.88 59.49 30.68 32.87 23.96 18.74 22.8 11.73 9.32 15.22
37
Table 1.47. Mean performance of 16 faba bean accessions during the 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
Trt DF DM STD Ch.sp Rust Lodg PPPl Spp SPPl BMS TSW SYLD
Moti 39.00 80.00 67.45 1.00 2.75 1.75 8.10 3.01 24.40 3.70 807.25 4337.91
EK 01001-5-1 40.25 79.25 78.14 1.25 3.75 1.75 6.40 4.04 25.10 3.83 572.43 2573.13
EK 01001-8-1 39.00 82.00 73.63 1.00 3.00 1.50 6.10 2.47 15.15 4.03 967.63 4791.81
EK 01001-9-2 39.36 94.26 81.84 1.01 3.13 1.36 4.16 2.98 12.37 4.00 923.75 4005.16
EK 01001-10-5 39.50 255.00 74.34 1.00 2.50 2.00 6.45 3.36 21.20 3.95 1023.15 4595.25
EK 01004-2-1 40.25 82.25 85.26 1.00 3.00 2.00 6.30 3.01 18.50 4.10 990.78 4339.63
EK 01006-7-1 38.75 83.75 75.29 1.50 3.50 1.75 5.85 3.23 18.65 3.80 738.15 3503.59
EK 01015-1-1 40.25 81.25 83.13 1.50 3.50 2.00 6.25 3.62 22.65 3.98 933.00 4022.34
EK 01019-2-1 39.50 81.75 77.90 0.75 3.25 1.50 5.90 2.69 15.75 3.73 789.53 3601.03
EK 01019-7-5 39.75 82.00 86.45 1.00 3.00 1.75 5.75 2.78 15.80 4.10 856.63 4240.25
EK 01024-1-1 40.00 79.75 82.41 0.75 3.25 1.75 6.95 3.28 22.30 3.98 844.40 3314.63
EK 01024-1-2 39.75 80.75 76.48 1.25 2.75 1.75 7.05 3.20 22.50 4.23 880.30 4280.56
EK 01002-1-1 40.00 80.25 76.95 1.50 3.00 1.75 5.75 3.82 21.45 4.05 937.65 3942.91
EK 01021-4-1 38.78 75.64 74.59 0.99 2.92 1.58 6.02 4.20 24.06 4.16 885.09 4875.47
EK 01004-2-1 40.25 82.25 79.33 1.00 3.50 1.75 5.10 4.61 24.00 3.98 852.13 3969.22
Gebelcho 39.75 82.75 77.66 1.00 3.00 1.50 6.25 3.74 22.55 4.45 746.78 4573.44
Mean 39.63 92.68 78.18 1.09 3.11 1.72 6.15 3.38 20.40 4.00 859.29 4060.38
LSD ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 1.61 8.1 ns 298 ns
CV 2.81 16.24 59.89 38.24 26.16 23.21 24.95 27.45 10.54 17.55 28.26
Table 1.48. Mean performance of released faba bean variety (Gachena) during 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
Range DF DM Ch.spot Rust PH PPPl Spp SPPl TSW SYLD

Mean 36.0 94.2 3.60 4.00 126.30 12.60 2.79 35.30 569.10 193.00
Max 39.0 105.0 5.00 5.00 145.00 17.00 3.75 60.00
Min 33.0 68.0 3.00 3.00 110.00 7.00 1.92 16.00
Acknowledgment
The financial assistance from Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research and Haramaya University for the research
work is highly acknowledged. The authors also wish to thank the Office of Vice President for Research Affairs of the
University for its invaluable support.
Reference
Asfaw Telaye, Beyene Demtsu and Tesfaye Getachew, 1994. Genetics and Breeding of field pea. P. 122-137. In: Asfaw Tilaye
et al. (eds.) Cool-season Food legumes of Ethiopia. Proc. First National Cool-season Food Legumes Review conference,
16-20 December 1993, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ICARDA/IAR. ICARDA: Alepo, Syria.
Gemech Keneni, Mussa Jarsso, Tezera Wolaby and Getinet Dini, 2003. Extent and pattern of genetic diversity for
morph-agronomic traits in Ethiopian highland pulse landraces: II. Faba bean (Vicia faba L.).
Million Fikreselassie, 2012. Evaluation of the performance of commercial Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) varieties on some
Morpho-physiological and N-fixing Traits under Eastern Ethiopia. Int. J. Agr. & Agri. R. 2(8): 29-43.
Million Fikreselassie and Habtamu Seboka, 2012. Genetic Variability on Seed Yield and Related Traits of Elite Faba
Bean (Vicia faba L.) Genotypes. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 15: 380-385
SAS Institute, 1996. SAS/STAT guide for personal computers, version 6.12 edition. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.
Solomon Admassu, 2006. Genotype X Environment Interaction and Correlation Among Some Stability Parameters of
Yield and Its Attributes in Maize (Zea mays L). MSc thesis presented to the School of Graduate Studies of
Haramaya University, Ethiopia.
Yohannes D, 2000. Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) in Ethiopia. Institute of biodiversity Conservation and Research (IBCR).
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
38
Field pea (Pisum sativum L.)

Million Fikreselassie, Mekuanent Belay and Mekonen Dagne
Abstract: A total of three field pea experiments were conducted at Haramaya University research
field during 2011 main cropping seasons to achieve the objective of developing and promoting high
yielding, stress tolerant and widely/specifically adapted field pea varieties with desirable agronomic
and quality traits in Eastern Ethiopia and to renew, increase and maintain true to type breeder seeds
of released variety of Meti and make available for basic seed production. In the field pea Preliminary
Variety Trial, the mean squares of the genotypes were highly significant for all characters studied. In
the experiment field pea Preliminary Adaptation, two superior varieties (Milky and Gume) as
compared to Meti in terms of various traits will be further tested, multiplied, and distributed to
farmers in Eastern and Western Hararghe. In the field pea Breeder seed Maintenance and
Multiplication experiment, the purity of the variety Meti was maintained by discarding the off-type
and 100 kg of breeder seed was produced and the produced seed will be delivered to the seed unit of
the University for further production of pre-basic or basic seed.
Keywords: Field pea; Pisum sativum L.; Genetic Improvement; Meti; Breeder Seed
Introduction
The pulse crops as a group in Ethiopia constitute a considerable number and diversity of crop species (Vavilov, 1926)
one of which is the field pea (Pisum sativum L.). It is an annual grain legume of the papillonaceae family and has high
protein level (23-33%) (Cousin et al., 1985). According to FAO (1998) center of origin/diversity of field pea are East
Africa and West Asia with secondary center in South Asia and South and east Mediterranean sub-regions. The species P.
sativum is dominant in Ethiopia even though wild and primitive forms are also known to exist in the high elevation of the
country (Hagedorn, 1984, Amare and Adamu, 1994, Mussa et al., 2003). According to CSA (2010), field pea covers about
226,532.57 ha of the total arable lands with a total production of 235,872.1 tons. This constitutes about15.21 percentage
of the total area covered by pulses and12.43 percentage of the total annual production of pulses in the country.
The crop plays an important role in the economic lives of the farming communities in Ethiopia. It serves as a source
of food and feed with a valuable and cheap source of protein. It plays a significant role in soil fertility restoration as
suitable rotation crop that fixes atmospheric nitrogen. The crop is a good source of cash to farmers and foreign currency
to the country (Girma, 2003). Despite its importance, however, the productivity of the crop is only 1.04 t/ha (CSA,
2010), which fluctuates and is far below the potential as compared to the research station yields of 2.5-3.5 t/ha (Mussa et
al., 2003). The production has been constrained by several yield-limiting factors. Among them, the important once are
the inherent low yielding potential of the indigenous cultivars (Asfaw et al., 1994), diseases like Ascochyta blight
(Mycospharella pinodes) and Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) (Dereje and Tesfaye, 1994), poor soil fertility, unimproved
cultural practice such as poor seed bed preparation and lack of fertilizer use (Amare and Adamu, 1994).
In order to best exploit the available genetic wealth, unraveling the information on the extent and nature of genetic
diversity of the population is important. In line with this, the objective of the study was to develop and promote high
yielding, stress tolerant and widely/specifically adapted field pea varieties with desirable agronomic and quality traits for
Eastern Ethiopia and to renew, increase and maintain true to type breeder seeds of released field pea variety ‘Meti’ and
make available for basic seed production.
For all experiments, the field experiment was conducted at Haramaya University main campus research field during
2011/12 main cropping season. Haramaya has an altitude of 1980 meter above sea level. It is in semi-arid sub-tropical
belt of Eastern Ethiopia. The area receives an average annual rainfall of 870 mm. The soil is characterized as a fluvisol
with pH of 7.4 (Solomon, 2006). Highlights of the methodology and summary of results for each experiment are
indicated hereunder.
1.7.7 Field Pea Preliminary Variety Trial

Twenty-seven genotypes of elite field pea materials along with two commercial varieties, Burkitu and Latu, were
considered in this study. The materials were advanced from preliminary observation nursery received from Kulumsa
Agricultural Research Center. Treatments were arranged in RCBD with three replications. All the agronomic/ cultural
practices were used as per the recommendations of the testing site. Field and laboratory data were collected and
subjected to analysis of variance using SAS software.
39
Result
From the analysis of variance results, the mean squares due to block/replication were non-significant for all traits, except
stand count, number of seeds per pod and per plant, which were highly significant (Table 1.49). Mean squares due to
genotypes were highly significant for all the traits studied and revealed the presence of variability for these traits in field
pea genotypes investigated. The field pea genotypes evaluated in this study showed significant phenotypic variability in
terms of plant morphology, phenology and yield attributes. These results are similar with the findings of other scholars
like Tesfaye (1999) and Tezera (2000). In this study, efficiency of randomized complete block design was generally trait
specific.
From the mean performance (Table 1.50), the commercial variety, Burkitu, along with two tested genotypes, EH-
04049-1 and EH-05033-3, required longer days to mature and statistically different from the population mean (97.30).
Generally, all accession required 34 to 44.67 days for grain filling and 55.33 to 60.33 days for vegetative growth. The
result from this investigation is in agreement with the previous reports of Musa et al. (2003).
In general, the genotypes showed shorter days to maturity and grain filling periods. Thus, may be suitable for lower
rainfall regions whereas the late types can be adapted to the highland areas with dependable rainfall. Thus, the variability
that has been exhibited by these genotypes can offer great flexibility for the development of suitable varieties for the
various agro-ecological zones in Ethiopia. The genotypes that possess shorter grain filling period character can be
suitable for areas where terminal drought frequently occurs. From the results, the broad spectrum of variability observed
among these genotypes of field pea for different characters generally indicates possibilities for genetic improvement of
the crop through selection and cross breeding.
Table 1.49. Analysis of variance for 14 traits of elite field pea genotypes tested in 2011croping season at Haramaya
University research field.
Variables MSR(2) β MSG(26) MSE CV (%)

DF 3.60ns 168.06** 6.40 11.52
GFP 91.31* 91.42** 5.06 12.80
DM 241.98 ns 473.41** 10.85 11.41
STD 5594.87** 390.12** 11.97 1642
AB 0.12 ns 2.23* 0.97 25.69
Mldw 0.02 ns 2.31** 0.88 24.27
PH 2055.11 ns 2438.44** 30.66 16.61
Ppp 3.24 ns 8.62** 1.91 22.60
Spp 3.85** 1.48** 0.65 22.80
Sppl 603.52** 163.01** 6.51 26.42
Biom 0.80 ns 1.78** 0.78 19.54
TSW 21.88 ns 2966.38** 37.15 19.93
HI 39.55 ns 78.31** 5.25 28.26
SYLD 72.63 ns 126403.10** 228.26 30.21
*** Significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability level respectively and ns non significant MSR= Mean Square due to
replication, MSG= Mean Square due to genotypes, MSE= Mean Square due to error, CV%= Coefficient of variation in
percentage. β Figures in parenthesis indicate degrees of freedom. DF= Days to 50% flowering, GFP= grain filling
period, DM = Days to 90% maturity, STD = stand count, AB = Aschochyta blight, mldw = Powdery mildew, PH =
Plant height in cm, PPP = Number of pods per plant, SPP = Number of seeds per pod, SPPL = Number of seeds per
plant, Biom = Biomass yield, TSW = Thousand seeds weight in gram, HI = Harvest index in percentage SYLD = Seed
yield in g per plant
Work plan
The superior materials will be promoted for further breeding scheme in multi location trial to meet the national variety
release criteria (DUS).
40
Table 1.50. Mean performance of 27 field pea accessions during 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
Trt DF DM STD AB Mldw PH ppp spp SPPl BMY TSW SYLD

Burkitu 56.50 99.00 72.70 4.00 4.00 174.50 7.60 2.24 17.0 4.15 190.20 2705.56
EH 04049-1 55.50 100.00 68.68 4.00 3.00 163.00 8.70 2.64 23.1 3.45 159.65 3053.06
EH 04028-2 56.50 98.00 65.66 3.00 3.00 183.50 9.10 2.47 22.2 3.95 178.25 4308.89
EH 04057-2 55.50 97.00 81.41 4.00 3.00 162.50 11.30 2.79 31.0 3.85 168.80 4133.61
EH 04045-2 56.00 96.50 64.66 4.00 4.00 185.50 11.10 2.55 28.5 3.60 193.95 4238.61
EH 04057-1 56.00 96.50 73.70 5.00 4.00 209.00 7.70 2.47 18.7 4.40 203.15 4440.83
EH 04044-1 28.00 49.00 49.92 1.50 1.50 102.50 4.10 0.88 7.2 2.05 197.50 1536.11
EH 04029-2 57.00 97.50 58.96 5.00 3.00 201.50 9.10 3.00 25.6 4.65 225.15 4639.17
EH 04051-1 57.00 97.00 82.50 4.00 3.00 176.50 8.30 2.68 20.7 5.50 194.80 4890.28
EH 04053-1 56.50 99.50 68.34 4.00 4.00 185.00 6.60 2.77 19.1 4.00 200.70 4129.17
EH 04047-1 56.00 99.00 78.81 4.00 4.00 197.00 8.80 2.88 25.9 4.50 112.40 5967.78
EH 05028-2 58.50 97.50 76.72 4.00 4.00 181.00 7.00 2.54 18.0 3.85 209.35 4257.22
EH 05030-3 58.00 96.50 88.44 4.00 5.00 197.00 8.30 2.17 18.2 4.45 169.75 4524.44
EH 05002-3 57.50 96.50 80.40 4.00 4.00 182.50 8.80 2.91 24.2 4.00 188.35 3535.00
EH 05016-1 56.50 98.00 76.05 3.00 3.00 204.50 9.10 2.39 21.2 3.95 192.60 4535.83
EH 05014-6 56.00 97.50 84.42 4.00 3.00 197.00 10.10 2.55 24.9 4.50 182.70 4871.39
EH 05029-6 57.50 96.50 66.00 5.00 5.00 214.50 7.00 3.27 22.9 4.05 199.40 5668.06
EH 05024-2 59.50 99.50 84.76 3.00 5.00 190.50 6.30 2.84 18.3 3.95 176.70 2603.33
EH 05026-3 58.50 96.00 81.41 4.00 3.00 195.00 7.90 3.08 24.6 3.50 214.55 3297.50
EH 05043-4 59.00 97.00 75.04 3.00 4.00 188.00 8.00 2.78 22.4 4.05 216.10 4354.17
EH 05027-4 57.00 96.50 81.41 4.00 3.00 201.50 8.70 2.62 21.3 3.95 223.30 5159.72
EH 05024-4-1 59.00 97.00 85.09 3.00 4.00 222.50 7.20 3.03 22.2 4.45 188.20 3253.06
EH 05011-2 56.00 97.50 87.77 4.00 3.00 191.50 7.80 3.37 27.2 3.50 205.15 4468.89
EH 05024-3-1 57.50 97.50 81.07 4.00 4.00 177.00 9.10 3.05 27.7 3.00 175.45 4573.61
EH 05033-3 56.00 100.00 74.71 3.00 4.00 181.50 9.20 4.31 41.3 3.55 177.55 3928.61
EH 05032-1 55.50 98.50 82.75 3.00 4.00 189.00 8.80 2.91 26.2 4.08 191.00 5753.06
Latu 57.5 100 76.465 4 4 198.5 9.40 3.02 29.2 3.9 210.45 4567.78
Mean 55.93 95.96 75.84 3.76 3.65 187.11 8.34 2.75 23.29 3.96 186.86 4199.78
LSD ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 2553.3
CV 14.02 13.85 19.33 31.51 29.67 20.07 28 29.04 34.25 24.24 24.37 36.37
1.7.8 Field Pea Preliminary Adaptation Trial

Seven recently released field pea varieties from Holetta Agricultural Research Center along with a regionally released Meti
by the University were used in the experiment conducted at Haramaya University research station during 2011 main
cropping season. The materials were conducted in RCBD design with two replications. All the necessary agronomic
practices were maintained as per the recommendation.
Results
The mean performance of thirteen traits is given in Table 1.51. The analysis of variance revealed significant difference
(P<0.05) among the tested varieties for the traits reaction to powdery mildew, thousand seed weight, biomass and seed
yield. This indicates that the tested varieties are genetically different in these traits. The highest seed yield was recorded
for Milky (3225) whereas the lowest for Burqitu (1725) (Figure 1.5), with the overall mean seed yield of 2625. The variety
Markos recorded highest thousand seed weight (234g) and the lowest (134g) was recorded for the variety Megeri
indicating the existence of genetic difference between the varieties, which can be utilized for further breeding,
experiments.
Work plan
Two superior varieties (Milky and Gume) will be further tested, multiplied, and distributed to farmers in the East and
West Hararghe Zones.
41
Figure 1.5. Variety over seed yield
Table 1.51. Mean performance of eight released field pea varieties (Fp-PADPT) during 2011 cropping season at
Haramaya
Trt DF DM STD AB mldw PH ppp spp sppl BMY TSW SYLDP SYLDH
Adi 45.0 63.0 736.0 3.0 5.0 157.0 10.8 3.2 35.2 18.5 217.2 4.9 2450.0
Tegengech 43.5 61.5 593.0 4.0 5.0 152.0 8.7 4.0 34.7 17.1 220.3 5.0 2500.0
Burqitu 44.0 64.5 543.5 4.0 5.0 147.0 8.3 4.0 33.4 13.5 217.4 3.5 1725.0
Megeri 43.0 63.0 649.0 5.0 3.0 145.5 9.3 3.8 35.6 15.1 134.2 5.4 2700.0
Gume 43.5 62.5 576.0 4.0 4.0 163.5 10.0 3.7 37.3 17.4 222.6 5.9 2950.0
Milky 44.5 63.5 629.5 4.0 3.0 161.0 8.9 3.7 32.9 18.5 191.4 6.5 3225.0
Markos 45.0 64.0 556.0 4.0 5.0 162.5 8.5 3.9 33.5 17.7 234.2 5.0 2500.0
Meti 45.0 62.0 642.0 3.0 3.0 162.0 8.9 4.2 37.8 18.0 215.0 5.9 2950.0
Mean 44.19 63.00 615.63 3.88 4.13 156.31 9.18 3.83 35.05 16.95 206.51 5.25 2625.00
LSD ns ns ns ns 1.15 ns ns ns ns 2.76 16.3 1.4 72
CV 2.63 3.65 14.64 30.46 12.12 7.15 13.09 12.68 20.89 8.34 3.67 12.59 12.59
1.7.9 Field Pea Breeder Seed Maintenance and Multiplication

One regionally released field pea variety, Meti, were maintained in a plot size of 10 m x 10 m at Haramaya University
research station during the 2011 main cropping season. All the necessary agronomic practice including close supervision
of the experimental plot and rouging the off-type was performed. All management practices were accomplished as per
the recommendations to maintain the genetic purity of the variety Meti.
Results
Some parameter for the crop was recorded and presented in Table 1.52. The purity of the variety was maintained by
discarding the off-type and 100 kg of breeder seed was produced from the plot with its thousand seed weight of 202g.
Work plan
Further purification and maintenance will continue and the produced seed will be delivered to the seed unit of the
University for pre-basic or basic seed production.
Table 1.52: Mean performance of released field pea variety (Meti) during 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
Range DF DM Blight Mldw PH PPPl Spp SPPl TSW SYLD

Mean 51.5 83.8 3.96 3.88 156.88 7.12 5.07 35.56 202.60 100.00
Max 54.0 89.0 5.00 5.00 190.00 15.00 7.80 69.00
Min 47.0 75.0 3.00 3.00 120.00 3.00 2.75 11.00
42
Acknowledgment
work is highly acknowledged. The authors also wish to thank the Office of the Vice President for Research Affairs of
the University for the invaluable support.
References
Amare, G., and M., Adamu, 1994. Faba bean and field pea agronomy research. P. 199-227. In: Asfaw Tilaye et al. (eds) Cool-
season Food legumes of Ethiopia. Proc. First National Cool-season Food Legumes Review conference, 16-20
December 1993, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ICARDA/IAR. IC ARDA: Alepo, Syria.
Asfaw Telaye, Beyene Demtsu and Tesfaye Getachew, 1994. Genetics and Breeding of field pea. P. 122-137. In: Asfaw Tilaye
et al. (eds) Cool-season Food legumes of Ethiopia. Proc. First National Cool-season Food Legumes Review conference,
16-20 December 1993, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ICARDA/IAR. IC ARDA: Alepo, Syria.
Cousin R, Messager A and Vingare A., 1985. Breeding for yield in combining peas. In: The pea crop. A basis for
improvement (Hebblethwaite PD, Heath MC and Dawkins TCK eds) Butherwokths, London, 115-129.
CSA (Central Statistical Authority), 2010. Agricultural sample survey, Report on area and production for major crops
(private peasant holdings, meher season). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Dereje Gorfu and Tesfaye Beshir, 1994. Field pea disease in Ethiopia, p. 317-327. In: Asfaw Tilaye et al. (eds) Cool-season
Food legumes of Ethiopia. Proc. First National Cool-season Food Legumes Review conference, 16-20 December 1993,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ICARDA/IAR. IC ARDA: Alepo, Syria.
FAO, 1998. The state of world Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. FAO, Rome, Frankle, OH (eds).1973.
Survey of genetic resources in their center of diversity. First report. FAO/IBP, Rome.
Girma Bekele, 2003. The state of grain marketing in Ethiopia: A paper presented at the EDRI/IFPRI 2020 network
policy forum on “Toward Sustainable Food Security in Ethiopia: Integrating the Agri-Food Chain.” May 15-16,
2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Hagedorn, D.J., 1984. Compendium of pea Diseases. University of Wisconism, Madison.
Million Fikreselassie, 2012. Variability, Heritability and Association of Some Morpho-agronomic Traits in Field Pea
(Pisum sativum L.) Genotypes. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 15: 358-366
Million Fikreselassie and Habtamu Seboka. Agronomic and Yield Performance of Major Highland Pulses in Eastern
Highlands of Ethiopia. Instasci J. of Agriculture and Ecology
Mussa Jarso, tezera Wolabu and Gemechu keneni.2003. Review of Field pea (Pisum sativum L.) Genetics and Breeding
Research in Ethiopia p. 67-79. In: Kemal Ali et al.(eds). Food and Forage Legumes of Ethiopia: Progress and
prospects Proc. Of the workshop on Food and Forage Legume22-26 September 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
IAR/ICARDA. ICARDA: Alepo, Syria.
Raghuvanshi, S.S., R.R. Singh, 1984. Genetics of yield and component characters in fenugreek. SABRAO Journal, 16: 1-7.
Haramaya University, Ethiopia
Tesfaye Getachew, 1999. Genetic variability and association of characters in some Ethiopian Field pea (Pisum sativum L.)
germplasm. M Sc. Thesis. Alemaya University of Agriculture, Ethiopia.
Tezera Wolabu, 2000. Genotype x Environment interaction in Field pea (Pisum sativum L.) for yield and other traits
across central and southern Ethiopia. M Sc. Thesis. Alemaya University of Agriculture, Ethiopia.
Vavilov, N.I., 1926. Centers of origin of cultivated plants. Trends Pract. Bot. Gener. Sel. 16:3–24.
43
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Abstract: The field experiment was conducted at Haramaya University research field during 2011
main cropping season to develop and promote high yielding, stress tolerant, and widely/specifically
adapted chickpea varieties with desirable agronomic and quality traits for Eastern Ethiopia. To
achieve the objective, three distinct experiments were conducted. In the Chickpea Preliminary
Adaptation Trial, significant difference (P<0.05) were observed among the tested varieties for date of
flowering and maturity, stand count, hundred seed weight, biomass and seed yield. The most out-
yielded varieties with yield and related traits such as Natoli will be multiplied and distributed to the
user/farmers through the University. From the second and third experiment which were National
Variety trial for Dessi and Kabuli type respectively, significant difference (P<0.05) were observed
among the tested varieties for different traits of interest. This variability indicated the possibility of
improving the chickpea for the concerned traits.
Keywords: Chickpea; Highland Pulse; Eastern Ethiopia; Cicer arietinum L.
Introduction
Chickpea is self-pollinated diploid (2n = 2x = 16) with a relatively small genome size of 740Mbp (Arumuganathan and
Earrle, 1991). It is one of the food legume crops grown in the tropics, sub-tropics and temperate regions of the world.
However, its production is concentrated in South, Central and West Asia, North and East Africa and Latin America.
Among the two types (Desi and Kabuli), Desi accounts for about 85% of the world’s chickpea production and is mainly
grown in South Asia, Iran, Ethiopia and Mexico (ICRISAT, 2000). Ethiopia is considered as a center of diversity for
chickpea and the wild relative of cultivated chickpea, Cicer cuneatum, is found in Tigrai region of Ethiopia (Kanouni et al.,
2011).
The principal uses of chickpea in Ethiopia is its use as food grain and it is a good source of protein (20% to 30%) as
compared with cereals (8% - 10 %). It contains about 40% of carbohydrates and 3-6% oil (Gil et al., 1996). It is also a
good source of calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorous, iron, zinc and manganese (Ibrikci et al., 2003). It requires
low input for production, maintain, and restore soil fertility. It can fix up to 60 kg N /ha/year, and can be used as a
rotation crop which improve both the soil structure and fertility. In addition, it is a high potential crop for domestic and
export market which fetches high revenue for farmers and producers. Despite its importance, the average national seed
yield of chickpea is generally low (1.3 ton/ha), unstable and less than its potential (>4 tons/ha), which is mainly due to
disease and poor management practices. On a global basis, annual yield losses in chickpea were estimated to be 4.8
million tons due to biotic stresses (Ryan, 1997). In line with these stresses, nowadays, influence of climate change
aggravates and favors the emergence of new diseases races which significantly threatening chickpea production than
before and becoming a major challenge to food security. Therefore, the objective of the chickpea research program was
to develop and promote high yielding, stress tolerant, and widely/specifically adapted chickpea varieties with desirable
agronomic and quality traits for Eastern Ethiopia.
For all experiments of chickpea, the field experiment was conducted at Haramaya University main campus research
field during 2011/12 main cropping season. Haramaya has an altitude of 1980 meter above sea level. It is in semi-arid
sub-tropical belt of Eastern Ethiopia. The area receives an average annual rainfall of 870 mm. The soil is characterized as
a fluvisol with a pH of 7.4 (Solomon, 2006). Highlight of the methodology and results for each experiment is given
hereunder.
1.7.10 Chickpea Preliminary Adaptation Trial

Fourteen released chickpea varieties from Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center were involved in the experiment
conducted at Haramaya University research station during 2011/12 main cropping season. The materials were laid on
RCBD with three replications. All the necessary agronomic practices were maintained as per the recommendation.
Results
The mean performance of eleven traits is given in Table 1.53. The analysis of variance showed significant difference
(P<0.05) among the tested varieties for date of flowering and maturity, stand count, hundred seed weight, biomass and
seed yield. Variety Mariyie requires 106 days for physiological maturity whereas Ejere matures earlier in 101 days. In terms
of seed yield, variety Natoli was the most out yielding variety (2665 kg/ha) and Acos-Dube the least (296 kg/ha) among
the tested varieties with over all mean of 1864 kg/ha (Figure 1.6). The low yield of the variety Acos-Dube was due to the
high susceptibility of the variety to moisture, which might be due to large seed type (hundred seed weight of 52.35g).
44
Work plan
The most out-yielded varieties like Natoli will be multiplied and distributed to farmers.
Figure 1.6. Chickpea variety versus seed yield
Table 1.53. Mean performance of 14 commercial chickpea varieties over 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
Trt DF DM STD PPL SPP SPPL PH BMY HSW SYLDP SYLDH

Worku 44.50 105.00 78.21 35.60 1.31 45.70 40.00 4.00 21.40 1428.35 1983.80
Chefe 41.00 102.00 56.07 38.00 1.23 46.10 39.00 4.50 32.25 1631.55 2266.05
Dubie 41.50 102.50 75.71 42.50 1.23 53.10 39.00 4.15 20.45 1418.30 1969.85
Shasho 45.50 106.00 79.64 28.50 1.22 34.80 38.50 3.40 24.55 1395.95 1938.80
Arerti 45.00 105.00 80.36 31.90 1.26 40.50 38.50 3.25 22.90 1524.85 2117.85
Natoli 45.00 105.50 76.43 25.00 1.43 35.70 34.50 4.10 28.90 1918.85 2665.05
Minjar 41.50 102.00 75.00 42.30 1.37 57.00 40.50 3.65 18.95 1578.75 2192.70
Dz-10-11 44.50 105.00 72.86 40.30 1.30 52.10 35.50 3.00 11.45 792.25 1100.35
Habru 42.00 102.00 53.57 33.00 1.18 38.80 39.50 4.00 32.00 1484.30 2061.55
Akaki 45.00 103.50 76.07 33.70 1.36 46.10 39.50 3.20 18.35 1490.40 2070.00
Dz-10-4 44.00 104.50 77.86 30.50 1.18 36.70 37.00 3.40 10.10 1105.70 1535.70
Mariyie 45.50 106.00 67.50 41.30 1.55 63.80 38.00 3.95 24.80 1698.60 2359.15
Acos-Dubie 44.00 104.00 18.57 39.20 0.95 36.90 43.50 1.35 52.35 213.35 296.30
Ejere 41.00 101.50 78.57 31.60 1.10 34.70 36.50 2.95 34.80 1110.95 1543.00
Mean 43.57 103.89 69.03 35.24 1.26 44.43 38.54 3.49 25.23 1342.30 1864.30
LSD 3.03 2.9 31.03 ns ns ns ns 0.79 3.7 491 686.1
CV 3.27 1.42 22.24 20.74 13.48 24.16 12.92 10.67 6.87 17.24 17.24
1.7.11 Chickpea National Variety Trial- Dessi Type

Eighteen chickpea genotypes were conducted along with two standards, Minjar and Natoli, and a local check at Haramaya
University research station during 2011/12 main cropping season. The materials were laid in RCBD with four
replications and all the necessary agronomic practice was maintained as per the recommendation.
Results
The mean performance of the eighteen genotypes for the ten traits is given in Table 1.54. The analysis of variance
revealed significant difference (P<0.05) among the tested varieties for stand count and hundred seed weight. Accession
ICCV-07108 gave the highest score for the trait stand count (87%) while the local gave the lowest among tested material
(49%). Regarding the trait hundred seed weight, accession ICCX-940002-F5-242p-1-1-1 gave the highest (38.3g) whereas
45
the local scored the lowest (10.38g) with the overall mean of 24.34g indicating the opportunity to improve the crop for
these traits of interest.
Work plan
Since the experiment will be repeated for one more season, further evaluation on yield and traits that contribute for yield
will be made.
Table 1.54. Mean performance of 18 chickpea (Dessi Type) accessions over 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
Trt DF DM STD PPl SPP Sppl Ph BMY HSW SYLD

ICCV-07108 41.50 79.75 86.75 54.50 92.40 1.83 35.75 1.23 27.38 2325.13
ICCV-04103 42.75 81.00 72.00 53.95 72.10 1.38 43.00 1.15 22.00 1969.58
ICCV-00104 42.75 81.00 66.75 49.45 68.55 1.35 35.25 1.38 24.83 2472.00
ICCV-04101 43.50 81.00 70.25 45.90 71.55 1.55 42.75 1.08 28.05 1820.13
BG-1101 44.00 82.25 76.75 47.15 73.30 1.55 36.75 1.28 25.48 2384.29
ICCV-97105 43.75 82.75 86.50 39.60 64.85 1.63 34.50 1.25 25.08 2176.58
ICCV-05110 42.50 83.50 74.00 54.70 88.20 1.58 35.25 1.03 25.93 2255.13
ICCX-940002-F5-88P-1-1-1 42.50 82.25 64.25 47.70 81.95 1.68 34.75 1.23 27.03 2102.00
ICCX-940002-F5-6P-1-1-1 44.00 84.25 64.00 57.75 77.50 1.38 35.00 1.23 24.20 2223.04
ICCV-00202 43.25 84.25 75.00 49.50 76.60 1.53 38.00 1.30 20.93 2556.79
ICCX-940002-F5-242P-1-1-1 44.25 85.25 83.50 54.50 99.10 1.90 37.50 1.40 38.30 2316.58
ICCX-940002-F5-335P-1-1-1 43.50 84.50 73.00 58.15 80.10 1.38 35.50 1.28 22.70 2362.83
ICCV-03203 43.50 84.50 76.25 54.95 82.20 1.50 34.75 1.13 22.45 1824.71
ICC-3195 42.25 83.50 60.00 52.85 73.55 1.43 37.75 1.43 21.25 1955.42
ICCX-910121-5 44.00 84.50 71.25 66.70 93.45 1.45 35.25 1.50 25.23 2510.21
Minjar 43.00 84.50 82.75 52.85 79.35 1.48 36.00 1.05 22.08 1892.63
Natoli 43.75 84.00 58.75 59.90 104.75 1.75 35.50 1.23 24.83 2021.79
Local check 42.00 82.50 49.50 66.80 102.10 1.58 36.75 1.10 10.38 1443.33
Mean 43.15 83.07 71.74 53.72 82.31 1.55 84.44 1.23 24.34 2145.13
LSD ns ns 28.1 ns ns ns ns ns 12.26 ns
CV 4.95 3.75 20.71 26.01 27.47 19.89 5,41 23.24 25.21 21.59
1.7.12 Chickpea National Variety Trial- Kabuli Type

Eighteen chickpea genotypes were planted along with three standards, Arerti, Habru, and Dz-10-4, and checks, which
were planted at Haramaya University research station during 2011/12 main cropping season. The materials were laid in
RCBD with four replications and all the necessary agronomic practice was maintained as per the recommendation.
Results
The mean performance of the eighteen genotypes for the ten traits is given in Table 1.55. The analysis of variance
showed significant difference (P<0.05 among the tested varieties for the traits days to flower and maturity, stand count,
plant height, hundred seed weight, and seed yield indicating existence of sufficient variability among the tested
genotypes. Among the tested materials, the standard check, Habru, was earliest to mature (77 days) with the highest
hundred seed weight (27.45g) while FLIP 01-58C was late mature type (82 days). The material FLIP 01-37C gave the
highest seed yield (467.6g/p) where as accession FLIP 03-127C gave the lowest (184) yield with the overall mean seed
yield of 332g/pod.
Work plan
will be made.
46
Table 1.55. Mean performance of 18 chickpea (Kabuli Type) accessions during 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
University
Trt DF DM STD PPl SPP Sppl Ph BMY TSW SYLD

FLIP02-24C 49.00 79.75 55.00 37.50 55.70 1.49 39.50 1.05 22.88 1489.17
FLIP03-127C 51.00 81.75 38.00 44.45 60.80 3.23 37.25 0.90 23.73 768.46
FLIP00-20C 49.25 80.00 46.50 45.50 53.35 1.18 34.50 1.15 26.43 1366.17
FLIP01-37C 49.75 80.25 55.25 36.55 46.95 1.28 45.00 1.20 24.30 1948.25
FLIP01-77C 51.50 81.25 52.25 56.15 73.50 1.29 43.00 1.38 24.83 1772.08
FLIP01-24C 50.75 81.25 46.25 44.85 59.30 1.31 35.25 1.18 24.75 1263.46
FLIP03-114C 48.25 81.75 37.25 46.15 62.00 1.35 36.75 0.98 24.88 816.88
FLIP03-125C 51.25 81.75 42.50 43.65 51.05 1.18 40.00 1.00 25.55 970.21
FLIP01-57C 48.50 80.00 64.50 40.85 50.45 1.24 40.50 1.08 22.40 1488.13
FLIP01-52C 50.50 80.50 61.00 32.40 41.65 1.29 42.25 1.43 24.63 1838.75
FLIP01-40C 48.50 79.50 67.50 38.95 49.50 1.28 43.00 1.03 24.63 1414.92
FLIP01-7C 49.25 80.00 50.25 43.30 58.65 1.34 41.00 1.03 24.20 1364.38
FLIP01-46C 48.00 79.50 54.25 50.60 66.50 1.29 39.00 1.23 22.80 1489.17
FLIP01-12C 49.50 80.50 57.25 37.30 49.45 1.31 39.75 1.05 20.20 1667.63
FLIP01-58C 51.25 82.25 59.25 42.40 45.80 1.09 42.25 1.33 26.20 1771.17
Arerti 47.75 79.50 54.50 45.05 57.05 1.26 33.75 1.03 20.28 1520.83
Habru 45.75 77.25 55.00 32.55 42.40 1.31 36.75 0.98 27.45 1192.29
DZ-10-4 50.25 81.00 52.75 37.15 47.70 1.30 38.00 0.93 7.45 791.38
Mean 49.44 80.43 52.74 41.96 53.99 1.39 39.31 1.11 23.20 1385.17
LSD 3.9 3.1 21 ns ns ns 8.6 ns 3.81 191
CV 4.06 2.03 20.86 32.47 33.53 66.77 11.92 21.51 8.62 29.59
Acknowledgment
the University for the invaluable support.
Reference
Arumuganathan, K. and Earrle, E.D., 1991. Nuclear DNA content of some important plant species. Plant Mol. Biol.
Rep., 9:208-218.
Gil, j., Nodal, S., Luna, D., Moreno, M.T. and de Haro, A., 1996. Variability of some physic-chemical characters in desi
and kabuli chickpea types. J. Sci. Food Agric., 71: 179-184.
Ibrikci, H., Knewtson, S. and Grusak, M.A., 2003. Chickpea leaves as vegetable green for humans: Evolution of mineral
composition. J.Sci. Food Agric., 83:945-950.
ICRISAT, 2000. Archival Report: Global Theme Biotechnology. ICRISAT, Patancheru, AP, India, pp31-35.
Kanouni H., Taleei, A. and Okhovat, M., 2011. Aschchyta blight (Ascochyta rabiei (Pass.) Lab.) of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum
L.): Breeding Strategies for Resistance. International Journal of plant Breeding and Genetics 5:1-22.
Ryan, J., 1997. A Global Perspective on Pigeon Pea and Chickpea Sustainable Production Systems: Present Status and
Future Potential. In: Recent Advances in Pulses Research in India, Asthana, A. and A.M. Kanpur (Eds.). Indian
Society for Pulses Research and Development, Kalyanpur, Kanpur, pp: 1-31.
47
Lentil (Lens culinaris Medic)
Million Fikreselassie, Mekuanent Belay and Mekonen Dagne
Abstract: An experiment was conducted in 2011 at Haramaya University research station, Ethiopia,
to develop and promote high yielding, stress tolerant, and widely/specifically adapted lentil varieties
with desirable agronomic and quality traits for Eastern Ethiopia. Two distinct experiments were
conducted at Haramya University main campus research station. In the experiment Lentil National
Variety Trial, significant difference (P<0.05) was observed among the tested varieties for the trait
reaction to the Wilt dieses. The genotype EXOTIC# DZ/2008 AK was more susceptible to wilt
whereas accession FILP 97-16L was more tolerant among the tested entries. In the experiment lentil
Preliminary adaptation trial, nine released lentil varieties were used and significant difference (P<0.05)
were observed among the tested varieties for days to physiological maturity and seed yield. The variety
Derash will be multiplied and distributed to the user/farmers through the University.
Keywords: Lentil; Pulse Crops; Eastern Ethiopia; Lens culinaris Medic
Introduction
The age of domestication of Lentil crop (Lens culinaris Medik) dates back to 6000-8000 B.C. (Dawit et al., 1994). The
Lidia-Kurdistana region (in southern Turky-north Iraq) is perhaps the place of domestication and center of origin of the
crop (Cubero, 1981). It is an important cool season food legume in Ethiopia. It is one of the grain legume listed by
Harlan (1968) that moved to Ethiopia from Asia, although the exact date of introduction is unknown. It is mainly grown
in the central, northwest, south and eastern highlands of the country (Asfaw et al., 1994). Lentil is cultivated mostly for
domestic consumption, which is an important source of protein accounting for 22.6% in the human diet (Agren and
Gipson, 1968). Moreover, the demand and request for both whole and split red cotyledon lentil is very high particularly
in Lebanon (EEPA, 2003a), India (EEPA, 2002a, b, c, and 2003b), Sri Lanka (EEPA, 2003c) and Bangladesh (EEPA,
2002a). It is almost a cash crop because it fetches very high prices compared with all other feed legumes and main cereal
crops in the country.
Despite the above facts, the national average seed yield of these crops is very low which is 1.0 ton/ha (CSA, 2010) as
compared to the crops potential yield which is 2.5 ton/ha for lentil in large-scale production. The formal and informal
baseline surveys, backup research results, national reports and stakeholders' feedback, reveal several constraints that limit
production and productivity of the crop. Among these, the low genetic potential and poor market quality of farmers'
varieties, biotic (diseases, insects and weeds) and abiotic (high and low moisture stresses, low soil fertility and other soil
related problems such as acidity and salinity, high and low temperature and inappropriate crop management practices)
are the major ones. To mitigate these problems, numerous improved varieties were released, but only few of them are
under production. Currently, improved varieties occupy less than 10% of the total cultivated area allotted to this crop
(CSA, 2010).
Generation and promotion of lentil technologies are essential to improve agricultural productivity and thereby the
livelihood of farmers living in potential and moisture stress growing environments. Thus, further development of
improved technologies and their popularization in a concerted effort is necessary to ensure sustainable production with
greatly increased productivity and export market. In line with this, the objective of the study was to develop and
promote high yielding, stress tolerant and widely/specifically adapted lentil varieties with desirable agronomic and quality
traits for Eastern Ethiopia. The field experiments were conducted at Haramaya University main campus research field
during 2011/12 main cropping season. The area receives an average annual rainfall of 870 mm. The soil is characterized
as a fluvisol with a pH of 7.4 (Solomon, 2006). Highlights of specific methodologies and results for each experiment are
indicated hereunder.
1.7.13 Lentil Preliminary Adaptation Trial

Nine released lentil varieties collected from Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center were planted at Haramaya
University research station during 2011/12 main cropping season. The materials were arranged in RCBD with three
replications. All the necessary agronomic practices were maintained as per the recommendation.
Results
The mean performance of the commercial varieties for the twelve traits is given in Table 1.56. Analysis of variance
indicated significant difference (P<0.05) among the tested varieties for days to physiological maturity and seed yield. The
variety Chalew matures earlier (65 days) than the entire varieties and Alemtena became the late maturing type (76 days).
48
Among the tested varieties, Derash gave the highest yield whereas the variety El-142 gave the lowest (Figure 1.7)
indicating the possibility of differential adaptability of the crop to the particular environment.
Table 1.56. Mean performance of 9 released lentil varieties (Ln=PADPT) over 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
WIL RUS ML VIG

Trt DF DM STD ROT T T DW OR PH BMY TSW SYLD
Alemtena 44.33 76.67 414.33 1.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 52.67 2.84 2.97 1628.22
Chalew 43.67 66.00 320.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 0.00 1.67 41.67 3.99 3.53 1978.34
Ada’a 46.00 68.00 319.00 1.00 3.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 45.00 3.09 2.97 1609.47
Derash 45.33 70.33 342.67 0.00 3.00 1.00 2.00 1.67 45.33 3.90 3.13 1848.22
Chekol 46.33 66.67 354.33 2.00 1.00 3.00 0.00 2.00 45.00 3.12 3.07 1939.06
El-142 45.67 66.00 320.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.67 44.00 2.27 3.33 2080.63
R-186 47.33 66.67 301.67 1.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 1.33 40.33 2.53 3.53 2083.97
Alemaya 44.67 66.67 348.33 2.00 0.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 41.67 3.00 3.07 1668.53
Teshale 41.33 70.00 342.33 2.00 2.00 3.00 1.00 1.67 44.00 2.66 4.17 1751.03
Mean 44.96 69.89 340.30 1.11 1.78 1.78 1.22 1.67 44.41 3.04 3.31 1843.06
LSD 2.65 4.24 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 56.4
CV 2.78 4.01 12.39 141. 73.5 81.1 114. 34.64 10.1 23.59 20.69 29.84
11 2 9 49
Work plan
The most out-yielding variety like Derash will be multiplied and distributed to the farmers.
Figure 1.7. Lentil varieties versus seed yield
1.7.14 Lentil National Variety Trial

Sixteen lentil genotypes were planted along with two standards, Alemaya and Derash, and local checks at Haramaya
University research station during 2011/12 main cropping season. The materials were laid in RCBD with four
replications and all the necessary agronomic practice was maintained as per the recommendation.
Results
The mean performance of the sixteen genotypes for the twelve traits is given in Table 1.57. From the analysis of
variance, significant difference (P<0.05) was observed among the tested varieties for the trait reaction to the Wilt
diseases. In line with this, accession EXOTIC #2 DZ /2008, AK was more susceptible to wilt where as accession FILP
97-16L was more tolerant among the tested accessions. This variability opens the opportunity for researcher to develop
the resistant variety to the concerned disease.
Work plan
will be made.
49
Acknowledgment
the University for their invaluable support.
Table 1.57. Mean performance of 16 lentil accessions during 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
WIL RUS MLD VIG TS

Trt DF DM STD ROT T T W OR PH BMY W SYLD
X2002S-161-20 46.75 99.00 335.75 0.75 1.50 1.50 0.00 1.50 40.50 2.44 3.80 3153.13
ILL-8008 X ILL-6025-5 45.75 100.0 323.75 0.75 1.50 1.50 2.25 1.50 39.25 2.79 3.80 1833.38
FLIP 2006-20L 46.50 100.5 318.75 0.75 2.25 2.25 0.75 1.50 39.00 2.61 4.48 2150.78
FLIP 2004-50L 47.75 99.25 303.25 0.00 0.75 1.50 0.75 1.25 39.50 2.26 3.55 2032.44
Exotic#2 DZ/2008 AK 47.75 99.25 317.50 0.75 3.00 0.75 1.50 1.75 36.00 2.06 3.48 1621.03
FLIP 97-16L 46.75 99.25 316.25 0.00 0.00 0.75 1.50 1.25 39.50 2.30 3.60 1876.88
Chekol X R-186-2 47.00 98.50 333.75 0.75 1.50 1.50 2.25 1.25 40.75 2.19 3.65 1487.34
R-186 X FLIP 86-38L-10 46.75 99.00 334.00 0.00 2.25 1.50 0.75 1.75 39.50 2.01 3.20 2476.41
R-186X FLIP 86-38L-24 46.75 99.00 316.25 0.75 3.00 1.50 0.75 1.50 39.75 2.79 3.70 1670.47
ILL-358XILL-2573-/2000 47.25 99.75 321.25 1.50 3.00 0.75 0.75 2.00 40.50 2.24 3.40 1866.72
Cechol X R-186-8-1 47.00 98.25 331.00 1.50 0.75 1.50 1.50 1.75 38.25 2.16 3.55 1490.41
R-186 X FLIP 86-38L-4 47.25 98.75 277.00 0.00 0.75 0.75 1.50 1.50 39.00 2.25 3.73 1745.47
EL-142 X R-186-3 46.00 99.00 359.00 0.75 1.50 0.00 0.00 1.75 37.75 1.95 3.15 1825.78
Alemaya 46.25 100.25 298.75 1.50 3.00 0.00 0.75 1.75 37.25 2.16 3.90 1476.09
Derash 46.75 98.75 295.75 0.00 1.50 1.50 0.00 1.25 42.50 2.09 3.53 1856.41
Local check 46.25 99.00 351.50 0.00 1.50 0.00 0.00 1.50 37.75 2.33 3.95 1950.72
Mean 46.78 99.22 320.84 0.61 1.73 1.08 0.94 1.55 39.17 2.29 3.65 1808.56
LSD ns ns ns ns 2.60 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
CV 2.57 1.02 16.38 167. 79.2 137. 147. 31.5 9.89 19.3 21.5 34.87
40 8 28 99 3 9 1
Reference
Agren G. and R. Gipson, 1968. Food composition table for use in Ethiopia. ENI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Asfaw Telaye, Beyene Demtsu and Tesfaye Getachew. 1994. Genetics and Breeding of field pea. P. 122-137. In: Asfaw Tilaye
et al. (eds) Cool-season Food legumes of Ethiopia. Proc. First National Cool-season Food Legumes Review conference,
16-20 December 1993, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ICARDA/IAR. IC ARDA: Alepo, Syria.
Cubero JI., 1981. Origin, Taxonomy and Domestication. In: Webb C., Hawtin G (eds) Lentils. CAB. Slough, UK, pp 15-
38.
Dawit T., Asfaw, T., and Geletu B., 1994. Genetic Resource in Ethiopia. P.79-96. In: Asfaw Tilaye et al. (eds) Cool-season
Food legumes of Ethiopia. Proc. First National Cool-season Food Legumes Review conference, 16-20 December 1993,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ICARDA/IAR. IC ARDA: Alepo, Syria.
EEPA, 2002a. Pulse for India. Trade point newsletter. Oct. 2002. Vol 5 (18):4.
EEPA. 2002b. Pulse (bean, peas and lentil) for India. Dec. 2002. Vol. 5 (20):3.
EEPA, 2002c. Pulses for India. Trade point newsletter. Vol. 5 (21):2.
EEPA. 2003a. Red lentils for Lebanon. Trade point newsletter. Jan. 2003. Vol. 6(2):2.
EEPA. 2003b. Chickpea, red split lentils, green mung beans and white kidney beans for India. Jan. 2003. Vol. 6(2):3.
EEPA, 2003c. Split lentils for Sri Lanka. June 2003. Vol. 6(7):3.
50
1.7.15 Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.)

Abstract: The necessity of improving fenugreek landraces for Eastern Ethiopia is unquestionable.
One hundred forty four accessions including the commercial variety challa were used in this study
with the objectives of developing and promoting high yielding, stress tolerant and widely/specifically
adapted fenugreek varieties with desirable agronomic and quality traits for western and eastern
Ethiopia. The field experiment was conducted at Haramaya University research station during 2011
main cropping season. Treatments were arranged in a 12 x 12 simple lattice design. Significant difference
(P<0.05) was observed among the tested accessions for the traits such as days to physiological
maturity, reaction to the dieses powdery mildew, hundred seed weight and seed yield. High seed yield
bearing accessions were those collected from northwest and central part of Ethiopia than accessions
collected from eastern and northwestern Ethiopia. This variability would provide a basis for
improving the crop in breeding program. From the experiment, twenty-five fenugreek accessions,
which were superior in seed yield, and traits that contribute to yield are promoted to Regional Variety
Trial for further multi-location evaluation.
Keywords: Improvement; Pulse Crops; Eastern Ethiopia; Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Introduction
Grain legumes not only provide variety to human diet but also supply dietary proteins for vegetarians that abstain animal
and fish proteins in their diet. Furthermore, considering the rapidly growing human population and associated demand
for more food especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, use of legume species as a source of high-protein food is an amicable
option. Moreover, legumes are also capable of symbiotic nitrogen fixation and thereby enriching the soil conditions that
become suitable for crops following it (Bromfeild et al., 2001).
Fenugreek is a chemurgic cash crop, usually cultivated as a break crop for cereal, and it is considered as a good soil
renovator (McCormick, 2004). The whole plant is used as forage and vegetable, while the seeds (whole, powdered into
flour, or roasted) are used as human food and animal feed (Mir and Smith, 1993), spice, dyeing, flavoring, as well as for
medical (Westphal, 1974; Sharma, 1990) and industrial purposes (Sharma et al., 1991). The aim of plant breeder is to
develop improved varieties with increased yield and an acceptable grain quality and stability. This is the major breeding
objective for fenugreek, as reported by Edison (1995) in countries such as India.
Systematic breeding efforts on this crop have so far been neglected and the presence of variability in this crop offers
much scope for its improvement. Only little of such vital information on fenugreek landraces is present under Ethiopian
conditions. In view of filling up such knowldge gap, this research work was conceived to address the objective of
developing and promote high yielding, stress tolerant and widely/specifically adapted fenugreek varieties with desirable
agronomic and quality traits for western and eastern Ethiopia.

One hundred forty-three random samples of fenugreek accessions along with a commercial variety, Challa, were
considered in this study. The accessions were collected from the most important production complexes of Ethiopia
representing different agro-ecologies of varying altitude, rainfall, temperature, and soil type (Figure 1.8).
1
2 1
3 5
4
1
North
East
Figure 1.8 Map of Ethiopia showing geographical locations from where accessions of fenugreek were collected.
Ethio
pia
2: 51
North
West
Ethio
The field experiment was conducted at Haramaya University research station which is located at 9o24’ N latitude and
42o03’ E longitude, during 2011 main cropping season. Haramaya has an altitude of 1980 meter above sea level. It is
located in semi-arid sub-tropical belt of eastern Ethiopia. The area receives an average annual rainfall of 870 mm. The
soil is characterized as a fluvisol with a pH of 7.4 (Solomon, 2006). Treatments were arranged in a 12 x 12 simple lattice
design. Seeding was done in a plot of four rows with 2 m length and regular spacing of 10 cm between plants and 25 cm
between rows. The layout and randomization were as per the standard procedure set by Cochran and Cox (1957). Two seeds
per hole were placed carefully to ensure the first germination. Thinning was made at the true leaf stage. Weeding and
other cultural practices were done as per the recommendations.
Results
The mean performance of hundred forty-four fenugreek accessions for the eleven traits is given in Table 1.58. Analysis
of variance showed significant difference (P<0.05) among the tested accessions for traits such as days to physiological
maturity, reaction to the diseases powdery mildew, hundred seed weight and seed yield. In line with this, the commercial
variety, Challa , ranked 59th for thousand seed weight (18.29g), 72nd for earliness in days to flowering (47.96 days), 122 nd
for biomass yield and 61st for seed yield (1503.2 kg/ha) indicating the opportunity to improve the crop from diverse
genetic resource with these traits of interest.
Work plan
Twenty-five fenugreek accessions with superior seed yield and traits contributing to yield will be promoted to Regional
Variety Trial for further multi-location evaluation in Regional Variety trial to fulfill the DUS criteria.
Table 1.58. Mean performance of 144 fenugreek accessions during 2011 cropping season at Haramaya
Trt DF ML ppp sppl SPP PB SB PH BM TSW SYLDH

FgColl53007 46.67 DW
4.00 25.95 248.55 9.90 4.02 2.35 60.50 Y
0.33 16.97 2241.25
FgColl53010 46.33 2.00 25.67 242.15 9.53 4.29 2.03 56.33 0.51 15.12 2677.07
FgColl215261 45.88 2.50 16.36 200.25 11.69 2.92 2.18 54.42 0.45 16.15 2263.46
FgColl213109 46.79 3.00 19.26 194.58 8.95 4.06 1.60 53.46 0.38 16.02 2240.22
FgColl213110 47.04 3.00 21.96 204.29 9.47 3.48 1.81 51.71 0.33 14.56 2081.23
FgColl213111 46.83 4.00 21.30 210.46 9.23 3.19 1.82 53.46 0.33 12.47 2102.01
FgColl213112 47.58 4.00 25.87 281.24 10.83 3.58 2.40 58.54 0.46 16.50 2339.45
FgColl213114 46.04 3.00 18.57 229.74 12.20 3.53 1.24 58.25 0.35 15.78 2235.66
FgColl213115 46.54 3.00 28.36 349.61 12.44 3.75 1.88 60.21 0.50 20.15 1878.58
FgColl53014 45.50 2.50 18.80 212.43 10.80 3.02 0.65 57.00 0.02 8.28 1192.27
FgColl53102 47.21 3.00 14.54 183.93 12.75 3.67 0.93 54.50 0.24 22.18 2107.29
FgColl53104 45.04 3.00 17.44 201.40 10.10 3.21 1.02 47.83 0.43 16.35 1069.70
FgColl53105 46.88 4.00 32.95 205.61 8.73 3.43 1.73 64.29 0.60 19.02 1955.04
FgColl212658 47.04 3.00 23.96 236.41 10.15 6.51 2.11 56.63 0.48 18.07 2700.00
FgColl212656 47.08 4.00 23.85 284.97 12.37 3.63 2.26 59.71 0.42 16.05 2259.75
FgColl212657 47.00 4.00 25.26 240.74 9.68 3.68 1.89 57.25 0.45 16.32 2075.61
FgColl213117 47.75 4.00 21.91 177.85 8.00 2.30 2.50 64.00 0.50 18.26 1738.37
FgColl215729 47.04 4.00 25.30 243.82 9.15 3.71 3.16 54.75 0.35 17.02 1959.90
FgColl215731 45.79 3.00 14.56 168.80 6.16 2.10 0.89 26.83 0.28 9.35 944.04
FgColl226090 46.75 3.00 20.16 239.00 11.73 3.45 2.43 63.54 0.28 19.18 1882.70
FgColl53012 46.75 4.00 21.96 208.77 9.22 2.87 1.86 59.50 0.62 24.95 1689.07
FgColl53013 47.21 3.00 19.40 205.60 10.83 3.53 1.04 66.79 0.44 18.13 1991.06
FgColl53019 45.42 4.00 20.84 208.29 9.13 3.38 1.72 60.29 0.51 23.33 2115.23
FgColl53103 43.75 5.00 7.64 128.66 7.03 1.33 0.80 21.63 0.30 7.85 912.63
FgColl234027 46.21 3.00 18.97 163.53 8.95 5.28 1.60 52.33 0.53 19.10 1345.18
FgColl234028 46.88 4.00 16.88 172.43 10.33 3.65 1.18 55.17 0.46 16.80 1391.89
FgColl234030 45.92 2.00 18.58 223.34 11.79 3.08 1.73 57.25 0.35 17.33 1534.09
FgColl234031 45.83 4.00 18.38 227.16 12.05 2.72 1.05 46.79 0.53 17.65 1695.80
52

FgColl234032 46.58 DW
3.00 14.78 144.27 9.12 2.94 1.36 42.54 Y
0.38 19.84 1509.36
FgColl234033 45.88 4.00 16.82 243.24 13.38 3.85 1.37 63.79 0.38 16.15 1671.84
FgColl235133 46.63 4.00 30.38 259.13 8.43 4.14 1.75 63.38 0.41 15.48 2190.08
FgColl234034 46.58 3.00 18.48 253.33 12.95 2.89 2.09 59.08 0.60 16.21 2022.94
FgColl237511 46.58 2.00 17.88 188.09 9.79 2.71 1.43 56.54 0.45 21.68 1856.70
FgColl207359 47.54 4.00 16.42 162.02 9.25 3.38 1.40 57.33 0.47 16.06 1869.60
FgColl207360 46.25 2.50 11.76 137.31 10.85 2.13 1.68 54.83 0.69 21.61 1441.22
FgColl207599 45.58 3.00 15.16 210.18 12.50 2.37 1.47 48.17 0.38 15.53 1069.52
FgColl215585 47.00 3.00 15.47 162.27 10.81 3.53 1.60 53.33 0.53 20.07 1284.17
FgColl234023 46.67 2.00 17.58 173.17 9.34 3.10 2.38 52.67 0.56 17.52 1231.68
FgColl234024 46.71 3.00 26.08 263.67 9.80 3.53 2.33 56.25 0.35 17.00 1533.03
FgColl234025 46.13 2.00 22.08 195.39 8.16 3.97 1.66 54.29 0.43 16.17 1341.49
FgColl234026 46.88 2.00 18.78 162.20 8.83 3.59 2.07 53.04 0.34 16.66 1798.30
FgColl234029 1.00 17.32 187.58 9.59 3.50 2.48 48.79 0.33 16.22 1654.93
FgColl235134 1.50 18.78 175.36 8.70 2.99 2.16 53.38 0.42 16.80 1337.32
FgColl53008 46.88 3.00 19.98 193.56 9.16 2.64 1.00 53.08 0.61 14.48 1535.18
FgColl53009 46.88 3.00 20.08 194.03 9.95 3.16 2.73 48.04 0.45 20.55 1219.00
FgColl53062 47.83 3.00 19.12 188.45 9.61 3.43 1.91 43.33 0.37 19.28 1993.54
FgColl53061 47.54 1.00 23.16 212.34 8.26 3.48 2.59 49.33 0.39 19.53 1351.06
FgColl53071 45.38 3.00 25.06 231.82 8.06 3.22 1.58 48.67 0.54 14.05 1633.51
FgColl236621 46.92 2.00 18.76 168.23 9.16 3.59 0.96 48.50 0.52 17.14 2006.85
FgColl53080 46.58 3.00 14.77 156.23 9.94 3.17 1.24 53.83 0.35 12.89 1887.71
FgColl53096 46.63 2.00 15.56 170.63 10.35 2.89 1.09 68.42 0.34 14.33 2162.41
FgColl5309746. 2.00 23.4 237.55 9.81 2.73 1.02 46.4 0.72 16.8 1707.5
54 7 6 9 2
FgColl53107 47.29 2.00 14.77 148.26 10.18 3.16 0.63 52.21 0.38 18.98 2080.23
FgColl53108 46.58 3.00 20.30 200.83 8.84 3.37 1.44 56.46 0.37 14.49 1935.96
FgColl53109 46.83 5.00 15.47 193.42 12.10 3.96 1.32 55.04 0.25 16.17 1860.90
FgColl212775 46.29 2.00 19.87 247.62 11.86 2.81 1.46 55.25 0.25 14.55 2110.46
FgColl212776 46.29 3.00 24.82 203.38 7.75 3.13 2.79 54.71 0.14 19.67 1599.28
FgColl212779 48.25 2.00 16.40 184.41 10.86 5.09 1.27 50.50 0.41 18.10 1878.72
FgColl226091 46.96 0.50 25.65 232.80 8.76 3.54 2.15 57.50 0.28 20.80 1402.09
FgColl236622 46.29 3.00 21.85 246.28 9.76 3.28 1.93 53.33 0.33 14.52 1741.19
FgColl239065 47.13 3.00 25.51 214.49 9.03 4.19 2.42 60.25 0.43 17.73 2296.70
FgColl239066 46.79 3.00 19.83 180.59 8.75 3.67 1.20 59.58 0.56 16.23 2879.22
FgColl239068 47.83 3.00 22.82 270.09 11.31 2.49 1.95 57.17 0.35 16.37 2373.11
FgColl53005 47.25 1.00 24.48 251.11 9.67 3.13 1.88 52.71 0.48 14.08 1899.02
FgColl 53021 46.50 4.00 25.73 237.48 8.75 2.96 1.78 54.46 0.54 15.67 2302.53
FgColl53026 46.79 5.00 11.56 145.30 9.85 3.07 1.90 51.71 0.33 14.88 2223.31
FgColl53050 47.04 4.00 25.23 270.68 11.16 3.06 1.48 58.29 0.47 14.76 2109.95
FgColl53063 47.00 5.00 17.03 183.08 10.37 4.01 0.92 57.50 0.46 14.84 2126.11
FgColl53078 46.50 3.00 17.33 163.25 9.22 2.73 1.35 56.46 0.40 18.36 1623.28
FgColl53079 46.46 2.00 22.76 215.07 8.62 3.29 3.23 61.25 0.52 15.74 2136.92
FgColl53098 46.67 5.00 28.00 287.06 9.77 3.64 1.11 56.25 0.34 18.70 1950.29
FgColl53099 46.50 2.50 18.70 178.84 8.27 3.08 1.49 53.58 0.24 15.66 2191.05
FgColl205176 47.67 4.00 20.71 197.88 10.13 3.38 1.52 55.79 0.58 16.52 2777.43
FgColl207356 46.33 5.00 18.23 251.18 13.36 4.46 1.00 46.13 0.51 15.32 2195.74
53

FgColl207365 45.38 DW
5.00 6.82 96.29 6.42 1.58 0.85 28.71 Y
0.20 8.30 1178.84
FgColl207367 46.29 4.00 19.22 197.11 10.13 3.33 1.18 48.75 0.58 14.12 1909.75
FgColl207376 47.54 3.00 22.22 284.02 13.35 3.25 1.88 56.50 0.54 16.61 2514.11
FgColl207370 47.33 4.00 17.76 220.99 11.41 3.36 0.80 58.25 0.53 16.62 1956.54
FgColl207391 47.08 2.00 27.33 260.78 9.82 3.75 2.28 43.33 0.52 16.45 2756.48
FgColl212777 47.04 3.00 19.83 247.98 12.23 3.60 1.12 49.54 0.56 13.98 1978.49
FgColl215334 47.04 3.00 16.42 183.64 11.03 3.82 1.05 56.00 0.30 20.40 2249.80
FgColl215335 47.50 1.50 16.86 208.97 12.38 3.88 2.13 57.29 0.42 16.53 2194.30
FgColl239061 46.21 4.00 20.00 243.86 11.98 4.23 1.41 55.79 0.59 22.43 2480.17
FgColl239064 47.04 3.00 25.50 308.53 10.83 3.08 1.69 55.13 0.49 17.55 1951.77
FgColl239062 46.67 4.00 22.79 222.01 10.84 3.73 2.23 55.96 0.53 9.18 2293.64
FgColl237982 46.83 2.50 15.51 141.41 8.92 3.30 1.21 54.79 0.45 5.48 2234.45
FgColl229245 46.88 3.00 16.80 186.31 10.73 3.43 1.16 58.38 0.70 5.96 2170.85
FgColl229246 47.79 3.00 24.90 224.43 8.54 3.07 1.18 54.92 0.67 5.63 1775.91
FgColl229247 48.04 4.00 12.60 133.65 10.51 3.29 1.39 52.17 0.38 10.77 1014.42
FgColl53003 46.83 5.00 15.54 136.02 8.22 3.10 0.50 51.42 0.52 3.38 1580.20
FgColl53002 47.08 2.00 16.51 195.20 12.93 3.49 1.18 52.50 0.46 3.96 1933.49
FgColl53023 47.54 3.00 17.91 210.10 11.14 3.74 2.23 58.71 0.70 3.64 1913.00
FgColl53086 47.04 3.00 22.10 217.67 9.53 3.66 1.36 56.17 0.34 68.90 1490.12
FgColl53087 46.50 4.00 15.84 173.99 10.64 3.23 1.63 55.46 0.51 7.19 1618.81
FgColl53088 47.21 5.00 19.58 240.38 12.04 3.38 2.02 55.46 0.58 67.89 1217.18
FgColl53106 47.04 1.50 14.58 172.06 9.94 3.12 1.00 49.29 0.38 6.35 2061.23
FgColl212549 46.96 2.00 19.93 183.03 10.73 3.75 2.30 49.33 0.46 19.30 1736.13
FgColl212550 46.63 3.00 18.55 221.23 11.80 4.03 0.78 58.17 0.49 18.30 2176.09
FgColl212552 46.67 3.00 21.84 241.94 11.22 2.95 1.03 56.75 0.73 17.93 1058.34
FgColl214942 48.58 3.00 19.45 193.66 10.18 3.59 0.66 51.79 0.61 17.49 1860.90
FgColl215096 47.33 4.00 21.25 237.37 12.30 3.52 0.97 56.54 0.47 17.33 1313.61
FgColl239073 46.63 3.00 15.88 157.74 9.80 2.93 0.78 59.79 0.51 17.54 1577.69
FgColl230072 47.88 3.00 23.75 290.53 12.36 4.02 1.66 59.88 0.60 17.53 2329.28
FgColl53064 47.33 5.00 19.45 252.33 12.83 3.87 1.90 55.58 0.34 17.30 1382.14
FgColl53091 47.33 4.00 23.35 249.29 11.22 3.78 1.03 52.54 0.38 19.72 1381.80
FgColl53100 46.79 2.00 13.18 118.82 9.28 3.85 1.11 52.83 0.45 18.30 1982.15
FgColl212876 47.00 4.00 16.53 175.51 11.03 3.70 0.99 55.83 0.57 20.61 1605.52
FgColl212877 46.33 4.00 6.93 77.38 4.63 0.74 - 25.17 0.32 8.77 354.57
FgColl212878 46.92 5.00 21.60 217.46 10.74 3.65 0.33
0.75 58.71 0.65 17.94 2479.29
FgColl215405 46.08 2.00 14.02 153.26 10.91 3.53 1.23 48.04 0.43 17.24 1982.66
FgColl215406 46.13 3.00 18.01 219.06 11.23 3.25 1.68 52.13 0.48 15.83 1863.20
FgColl53072 47.04 3.00 26.21 233.58 9.13 2.99 2.00 53.67 0.55 17.29 1914.06
FgColl53074 46.79 3.00 20.21 218.90 11.21 3.22 0.81 63.92 0.36 18.63 1620.18
FgColl53075 45.08 3.00 2.55 29.07 5.26 1.33 - 26.17 0.20 7.49 740.90
0.58
FgColl216897 46.33 2.00 15.02 154.05 10.67 3.22 0.90 56.75 0.59 17.02 2639.15
FgColl216898 46.29 1.00 17.92 186.35 10.48 3.67 1.84 56.46 0.53 15.90 1857.00
FgColl216899 46.79 2.00 16.01 134.42 9.33 2.78 1.18 53.42 0.57 23.82 1515.02
FgColl230073 47.25 2.00 16.35 134.84 8.58 3.25 1.05 54.21 0.49 18.05 2103.71
FgColl232194 47.46 0.50 14.99 143.13 10.23 3.00 2.03 53.21 0.56 23.35 2666.18
FgColl236992 47.29 4.00 12.79 137.71 9.98 2.64 0.82 48.54 0.41 17.57 2011.94
FgColl237984 46.96 3.00 22.50 191.23 11.24 4.25 2.80 65.79 0.63 18.59 1736.29
54

FgColl239727 45.63 DW
3.00 13.32 106.23 5.86 2.63 0.73 39.13 Y
0.26 11.89 1836.30
FgColl53006 47.17 4.00 26.31 205.24 9.23 4.95 1.88 63.71 0.70 19.97 2436.85
FgColl53085 46.08 4.00 13.91 128.06 6.63 2.09 1.20 33.25 0.43 11.13 996.96
FgColl230070 48.33 3.00 27.91 268.57 11.46 5.12 3.21 66.00 0.39 20.03 2362.97
FgColl232195 47.13 5.00 21.55 290.84 15.36 4.43 1.53 58.25 0.48 16.63 2277.10
FgColl219250 46.88 3.00 22.32 245.93 12.87 4.42 2.00 73.33 0.67 20.82 2706.99
FgColl223349 46.83 4.00 25.42 292.13 13.38 4.87 2.65 69.54 0.66 19.35 1790.70
FgColl53016 46.33 2.00 14.41 108.09 5.23 1.88 1.28 35.50 0.35 15.41 1201.17
FgColl53017 46.29 3.00 12.85 140.02 7.53 2.15 1.05 37.79 0.27 11.05 1498.21
FgColl53018 45.50 0.50 13.69 91.61 5.08 2.60 0.54 40.29 0.44 15.15 888.18
FgColl208679 46.33 3.00 9.49 72.48 5.18 1.54 0.12 33.63 0.34 9.81 1346.48
FgColl208680 47.58 6.00 20.60 195.88 10.48 4.49 1.45 66.00 0.68 19.12 3139.76
FgColl53016 46.75 3.00 32.01 332.48 10.85 4.37 1.63 55.33 0.50 15.52 2298.88
FgColl223350 47.29 3.00 19.10 263.19 14.02 3.19 1.78 61.92 0.70 16.65 1757.77
FgColl223351 46.21 4.00 28.50 308.81 10.93 3.73 1.80 51.46 0.47 17.51 1869.48
FgColl223352 47.46 4.00 22.40 271.82 12.05 3.86 1.51 55.71 0.38 19.05 1766.39
FgColl223353 45.75 5.00 5.44 86.49 6.65 2.07 0.32 23.96 0.27 8.21 846.32
FgColl230536 46.50 2.00 20.31 218.08 10.71 2.96 0.90 57.54 0.56 16.05 2259.56
FgColl230540 45.96 2.00 8.71 103.58 5.93 1.81 1.04 24.25 0.35 7.58 944.12
FgColl230880 47.46 3.00 35.30 328.54 9.22 4.03 2.18 62.71 0.59 24.19 1187.89
FgColl230883 47.42 3.00 18.54 142.97 8.18 3.19 1.25 57.00 0.51 17.98 2132.43
FgColl241140 47.13 1.50 33.18 218.36 7.18 3.54 2.13 63.50 0.48 22.98 2355.80
Challa 47.96 4.00 23.18 259.43 10.28 3.08 1.72 56.83 0.53 18.29 1503.20
Mean 46.75 3.11 19.53 202.80 10.01 3.35 1.53 53.49 0.45 16.79 1842.96
LSD ns 0.72 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 11.14 876.91
CV 1.89 46.4 35 36.88 30.22 29.94 53.7 23.22 40.4 7.33 13.08
7 2 2
Acknowledgment
The financial assistance from Haramaya University for the research work is highly acknowledged. The authors also wish
to thank the Office of the Vice President for Research Affairs of the University for its invaluable support.
References
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55
1.8 Natural Resources Management and Environmental Sciences
1.8.1 Production of Vermicompost from Khat (Catha edulis) Wastes Using Eisenia foetida
Earthworms
Eyasu Mekonnen, Anteneh Argaw and Hiranmai Yadav
Abstract: Khat (Catha edulis) is a flowering evergreen plant used since ancient times as a recreational
and religious stimulant in different parts of eastern Africa. It is a cash crop harvested everyday for the
use of young fresh leaves with small twigs. The young leaves are chewed and the older leaves and
twigs are dumped as a waste material. The city of Awaday is known for its Khat market and it
produces enormous waste everyday, which is either dumped as a waste or used as firewood. Organic
farming using compost is an eco- friendly technology that can be used to improve the soil conditions
and crop production. The wastes can be composted and used as an organic fertilizer. The present
work was an attempt to vermicompost khat waste collected from Awaday and analyzing its nutrient
content and observing its suitability to be used as manure. The earthworm used was Eisenia foetida,
the red worm. The results of the compost analysis reported to be improving the quality of the
product by increasing the macro and micronutrients.
Keywords: Catha edulis; Waste Material; Vermicomposting; Eisenia foetida; Macro and Micro
Nutrients
Introduction
Catha edulis commonly called as khat is a commonly grown plant around Oromiya, Hararghe region of East Ethiopia.
The plant serves the economy as an export material. It is part of the social and cultural life of people. The processing
and packaging of the leaves and export marketing is a yearround business that occurs in this region. The chewing of khat
is commonly observed in this region. The processing of the plants and the chewing of the leaves produces a large
quantity of waste material that is dumped into the environment. The solid waste material that is dumped can be collected
and utilized for the production of manure. This will benefit farmers and improve soil fertility as well as environmental
sanitation. Awaday market produces approximately 15-20 tons of waste each day. The production is more in the summer
as compared to the winter times. Kobo and Awaday towns form the main market place for khat. Though Awaday is also
market for vegetables and fruits, it is more renowned for the khat marketing due to more accessible to the international
air port at Dire Dawa, asphalt road connection to Harari region, Addis Ababa city and Jigjiga (Somali National Regional
state), and some towns of Somali Land.
The attention given to the processing or proper disposal of waste from khat is currently much less as compared to the
level of use of khat. The packaging material for khat to maintain its freshness also adds to the solid waste. The packaging
material and processing for export even adds more waste leaves. Often thick and older part of the plant is cut while
exporting it. The utilization of khat twigs as firewood is practiced but the quantity of that generated and the utilization
are not matching. Thus, the solid waste is accumulated in the environment in enormous quantity. Therefore, simple and
efficient method of processing of these waste substances into useful product is necessary.
Vermicomposting is the process by which worms are used to convert organic materials (usually wastes) into a humus-
like material. The goal is to process the material as quickly and efficiently as possible. It is a low cost technology used to
convert different solid waste materials of biodegradable nature to valuable farm manure. The resultant product is a very
good source of nutrients to the crops as well as the soil. The positive effects of the biofertilizer add to its importance for
using it in agriculture to improve soil fertility and thus enhance crop production (Cristina and Jorge, 2011). The
vermicompost is a nutrient rich amendment with microbiological activity that conditions the soil. The activity of
earthworms and microorganisms during the biodecomposition process is important in improving the organic matter of
the soil. The vermicompost is a stable peat like material with low C:N ratio, high porosity, high water holding capacity
and readily available form of nutrients (Dominguez, 2004). The action of earthworms in soil makes them mechanical
blenders fragmenting the organic matter and increasing the surface area for microbial activity. They improve the physical
and chemical status of the soil. The activity of earthworms results in earthy appearance of the substrate with good
organic matter and heterogeneous appearance of the product of decomposition (Dominguez et al., 2010, Ndegwa and
Thompson, 2001, Tognetti et al., 2005). The present study was carriedout with an objective of decomposing the solid
waste generated from khat market and converting it into useful manure using Eisenia foetida earthworms.
56

Description of the Study Area
East Hararghe zone is located in eastern part of the regional state of Oromia. In East Hararghe zone, there are twelve
urban centers having their own municipal authorities. Awaday is one of urban centers. The town is located in the
Eastern Hararghe zone of Oromia region at 419 km from Adama, and about 510 kilometers from Addis Ababa. Awaday
town was established in 1946 E.C. According to informants, the name of the town was “Didimtu” which means red and
sandy top soil. The main and important factors that contribute to the town’s establishment were the geographical
location of the town between Harar city and Haramaya town. Awaday town is the center of trade. Moreover, it has
strategic location for khat trade and good climate condition for the preservation of khat. Awaday is bordered with Harar
city to the southeast, Haramaya town to the north-west, Fadis and Gara Mulata Woredas to the south-west and
Kombolcvha Woireda to the northeast. The location of this town is in the center of the above Waradas, which have high
potential of khat production, and the town developed domestic and international market.
Research field of Haramaya University campus is located in East Hararghe zone of Oromiya National Regional state.
The experimental field is located at 9o 26’N latitude and 42o 3’E longitude. The average altitude is about 1980 m.a.s.l. It is
located in the semi arid tropical belt of eastern Ethiopia and is characterized by a sub humid type of climate with mean
annual rainfall of 777 mm. The site receives bimodal rainfall that occurs between March – April and June to September.
The mean monthly temperature ranges from 9.2 to 23.2 oC.
Process of Vermicomposting
Khat waste was collected from Awaday and composted using earthworms at Rare research site, Haramaya University.
The vermicomposting process was carriedout in pits of 1 m x 1 m x 0.3 m, and all were arranged in triplicates. Each pit
was stocked with 28 kg of two different forms of feedstock: Treatment 1 (Tr.1): Feedstock exclusively composed of khat
residue (100%), Treatment 2 (Tr.2): Feedstock composed of khat residue (70%) and leafy twigs of Eucalyptus species
(30%). The vermipits were thinly bedded with 6 kg of fresh cow dung together with each form of the feed stocks,
chopped into smaller pieces to enhance rate of the composting process (Borah et. al., 2006), and then uniformly stacked
to 15 cm depth. After four weeks of thermophilic stage, 350 matured earthworms (E. foetida) were released into the pits
with some humic materials. The worms were abundantly multiplied. Throughout the process, pits were aerated and the
residues were thoroughly mixed up once a week. In addition, moisture content was closely checked so that water is
added whenever required. Then, all pits were covered with gunny cloth to avoid excessive moisture loss. After 17 weeks
of the process, the ending product was harvested, air-dried, passed through 2 mm sieve, and weighted. Throughout the
process, the daily range of temperature was 5 – 25 ºC.
Analysis of Physical and Chemical Properties of the Vermicompost

Some physical parameters such as moisture content, particle size (texture), bulk density, and water-holding capacity were
determined following the standard procedures. The water holding capacity (WHC) (% volume) was calculated as [(wet
weight - dry weight)/volume] x 100 (Inbar et al., 1993). The moisture content was determined after drying at 70°C for 24
hours. Sieved samples were packed in paper bags and stored at 5 ºC. The vermicompost produced was tested at
Haramaya University soil laboratory. Chemical parameter such as pH was determined using compost:water ratio (w/v)
1:15 (Inbar et al., 1993) and the same suspension were used for measuring electrical conductivity using a conductance
meter after being standardized with 0.1M KC1. Total nitrogen (%) was measured by Kjeldhal method (Jackson, 1973).
Available phosphorous was measured using the method described by Olsen et al. (1954). Basic cat ions (Ca, Mg, K and
Na) were analyzed using a flame photometer, micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu) by DTPA method (Lindsay and
Norvell, 1978). Organic carbon (%) was determined by wet oxidation method.
Data were analyzed by descriptive statistics using the coefficient of variation (CV), linear regression analysis, and mean
values. CV (%) is the best measure of comparing the variability or consistency of two or more samples or varieties of
distributions. The smaller the coefficient of variation, the greater is its consistency. SAS ver. 9 (SAS Institute, Inc.) was
used for statistical analysis.

The main physical and chemical properties of the khat residue based vermicompost are summarized in Table 1.59.
Statistical analysis shows no significant difference between the treatments (P > 0.05) in the different parameters
maesured, may be due to the relatively low composting khat residues in both treatment materials (100% and 70% in Tr.1
and Tr.2, respectively). Since it is realized that certain elements are needed by plants in trace amounts (Fe, Zn, Mn and
Cu), the processed products may be valuable in this regards.
Based on the analytical results, pH values of both treatments are within the optimum range of 6.5-7.5. Within this
range, most of the micronutrients exhibit maximum availability though metallic ions are generally less available above pH
7. It has been shown by repeated research that when compost is added to the soil, it acts as a chemical buffer, increasing
the plant’s tolerance to pH; and adding compost to a slightly alkaline soil will bring it towards neutral. In this regard, the
khat residue based vermicompost may be used as bio-manure under such limitation (www.ranchomondo.com). The EC
57
level was very low in both treatments. For example, the tolerable salt level for fruits and vegetables equals to 6 dS/m,
and 1dS/m for salt sensitive species (Leslie, 2004). Therefore, the result revealed that there is no risk of salinity when
vermicompost is used as organic fertilizer.
Micronutrients are moderately available in the khat residue based vermicompost when their mean values are compared
with the standard compost quality (TMECC, 2001; Nagavallemma, 2004). Several field experiments have proven that
plant available nitrogen increases with time after harvesting vermicompost (Vermicompost Research Update, 2009). The
C:N ratio (= 11) also shows that khat residue made vermicompost can be stabilized and become matured within the
specified time (17 weeks). The C:N of stable humus in fertile soils is generally in the range of 10-15 (Nagavallemma,
2004). Regarding water holding capacity of the compost, it is very high (198 % and 210 % for Tr.1 and Tr.2,
respectively). This might be due to spongy nature of the vermicompost, which implies that khat residue based
vermicompost may be effective to potential reductions in irrigation amount and frequency. Gezahegn et al. (2012) has
reported that the vermicomposting of khat wastes with Eisenia andrei was found to increase the macro and micro nutrient
contents making it suitable manure.
Table 1.59. Nutrient value of Khat residue based vermicompost
S.no Parameters Mean values CV (%)

Treatment-1 (Tr.1) Treatment-2 (Tr.2)
1 pH (H2O) 7.4 7.3 1.69
2 EC (ds/m) 0.65 0.68 6.4
3 Mg (cmol(+)/kg) 4.29 4.18 2.64
4 Ca (cmol(+)/kg) 20.2 20.7 3.54
5 K (cmol(+)/kg) 0.89 0.96 14.3
6 Na (cmol(+)/kg) 0.48 0.53 15.05
7 Zn (ppm) 39.5 39.6 2.09
8 Mn (ppm) 34.1 39.6 13.04
9 Fe (ppm) 27.9 28.9 5.49
10 Cu (ppm) 13.1 12.5 12.2
11 Total nitrogen (%) 1.1 1.4 19.1
12 Available phosphorus (%) 0.56 0.57 21.43
13 Organic Matter (%) 21.7 28.0 -
14 Organic Carbon (%) 12.6 16.2 -
15 Ash content (%) 38 43 -
16 C:N ratio 11.4 11.5 -
17 Particle size 2mm 2mm -
18 Bulk density(g/cm3) 0.60 0.63 -
19 Water holding capacity (%) 198 210 -
During the process of composting, the volume of khat waste has reduced significantly. The volume reduction is
attributed to the decomposition of organic substances and compaction. Thus, simple and traditional way of composting
is considered cost effective and environmentally friendly method of waste reduction and removal unlike the technology
based factory level composting which requires maintaining the C: N ratio feed stocks. The temperature of the piles was
found to pick up to a maximum of 64°C. Subsequently the temperature starts declining to a daily average temperature of
25°C as the compost in the center of pile is cooled or reaches its maturity. The analytical results of the nutrients contents
of eight samples of composts were 0.9-1.40% for nitrogen, 532-803 ppm available phosphorus, and 6775.72-12445.24
ppm for available potassium. The volume of waste piles have been reduced from 1m3 to 0.40 m3 (Mahabub, 2008).
Decomposing of strawboard manufacturing waste was found to reduce the volume of waste and the nutrient contents
were improved significantly in the composted material (Chapman and McCartney, 2005).Vermicompost is a nutritive
‘organic fertilizer’ rich in NKP (nitrogen 2-3%, potassium 1.85-2.25% and phosphorus 1.55-2.25%), micronutrients,
beneficial soil microbes like ‘nitrogen-fixing bacteria’ and ‘mycorrhizal fungi’ and are scientifically proving as ‘miracle
growth promoters & protectors’(Sinha et al., 2009). Annual applications of adequate amount of vermicompost also result
in significant increase in soil enzyme activities such as ‘urease’, ‘phosphomonoesterase’, ‘phosphodiesterase’ and
arylsulphatase’. The soil treated with vermicompost has significantly more electrical conductivity (EC) and near neutral
pH (Tiwari et al., 1989).
58
References
Alyi Ahmed Hassen, 2005. Solid waste management in Awaday, an institutional analysis, thesis for MA degree in urban
management, His/Erasmus University, the Netherlands Rotterdam
Chapman, S and d. Mc Cartney.2005. Composting residuals from a Strawboard manufacturing facility. Compost Science
and Utilization, 13(2):90-97
Cristina L and Jorge D. 2011. The use of vermicompost in sustainable agriculture: Impact on plant growth and soil
fertility. In: soil nutrients (Ed. Mohammed miransari) Nova Publishers Inc.,
Domínguez, J. (2004). State of the art and new perspectives on vermicomposting research. In: C.A. Edwards (Ed.). Earthworm
Ecology (2nd edition). CRC Press LLC. Pp. 401-424.
Domínguez, J., Aira, M. and Gómez Brandón, M. (2010). Vermicomposting: earthworms enhance the work of microbes. In: H.
Insam, I. Franke-Whittle and M. Goberna, (Eds.), Microbes at Work: From Wastes to Resources (pp. 93-114).
Springer, Berlin Heidelberg.
Gezahegn D, Seyoum m and Jorge D.2012 Vermicomposting as a sustainable practice to manage coffee husk, Enset
waste(Enset ventricosum), Khat waste(Catha edulis) and vegetable waste amended with cow dung using an epigeic
earthworm Eisenia andrei(Bouch 1972).International Journal of Pharm Tech Research, 4(1): 15-24
Jackson, M.L. 1973. Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 10-50, 461-464
Leslie Cooperband, 2004. Compost Quality Considerations by End Use. Midwest compost school. Department of Soil
Science, UW-Madison
Lindsay WL, Norvell WA (1978). Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper, soil, Sci. Soc.
Am., 7(42): 421-428.
M.C Borah, P. Mahanta, S.K Kakoty, U.K.Saha and A.D.Sahasrabude, 2006. Study of quality parameter in
vermicompost. Indian Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 6 July 2007 pp. 410-413
Mahabub Yusuf, 2008.Composting of khat and related materials as solid waste management option in Awaday town. A
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science: Department of Chemical Engineering, Technology Faculty,
A.A.U.
Nagavallemma KP, Wani SP, Stephane Lacroix, Padmaja VV, Vineela C, Babu Rao M and Sahrawat KL. 2004.
Vermicomposting: Recycling wastes into valuable organic fertilizer. Global Theme on Agro-ecosystems Report no.
8. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 20
pp.
Nagavellamma KP, Wani SP, Stephane Lacroix, Padmaja VV, Vineela C, Babu Rao M, Sahrawat KL. 2004.
Vermicomposting: Recycling wastes into valuable organic fertilizer. Global theme on Agro ecosystems report no.8:
20pp
Ndegwa, P.M. and Thompson, S.A. (2001). Integrating composting and vermicomposting in the treatment and
bioconversion of biosolids. Bioresource Technology 76, 107-112.
Olsen,S.R., C.V. Cole, F.S. Watanabe, and L.A Dean. 1954. Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction
with sodium bicarbonate. USDA Circular 939:1-19. Gov. Printing Office Washington D.C.
Sinha, Rajiv K., Sunil Herat, Gokul Bharambe, Swapnil Patil, P.D. Bapat, Kunal Chauhan and Dalsukh Valani, 2009.
Vermiculture Biotechnology: The Emerging Cost-effective and sustainable Technology of the 21st Century for
Multiple Uses from Waste and Land Management to Safe and Sustained Food Production,Environmental Research
Journal, NOVA Science Publishers, NY, USA, Invited Paper, Vol: 3 (2/3).
Tejada, M., Gonzalez, J.L., Hernandez, M.T. and Garcia, C., (2008). Agricultural use of leachates obtained from two
different vermicomposting processes, Bioresource Technology, 99, 6228-6232.
Test Methods for the Examination of Compost and Composting developed by the US Composting Council, to be
published through the General Printing Office by USDA. The TMECC is a living, peer-reviewed document; please
check www.compostingcouncil.com/tmecc/ for periodic updates\
Tiwari, S.C., B.K. Tiwari and R.R. Mishra, 1989. Microbial populations, enzyme activities and nitrogen phosphorus-
potassium enrichment in earthworm casts and in surrounding soil of a pineapple plantation. J. of Biology and
Fertility of Soils; 8: 178-182.
TMECC, 2001available @www.compostingcouncil.com/tmecc/ peer-reviewed document
Tognetti, C., Laos F., Mazzarino, M.J. and Hernández, M.T. (2005). Composting vs. vermicomposting: A comparison of
end product quality. Compost Science and Utilization, 13, 6-13.
59
1.8.2 Assessment and Evaluation of Need of Inoculation of Effective Rhizobia Isolates on

Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Ethiopia Soils
Anteneh Argaw, Bulti Tesso, Ayele Akuma

Common bean is widely cultivated in areas with altitude range of 1400-2000, as a sole crop or inter cropped with
sorghum, maize and other crops. The Rift valley contributes 48% out of the total land of 163,688ha covered with
common bean in the country. It also produces 55% of the total yield of 1,384,216 quintals of the country (Teshale
Assefa et al., 2006). The Hararghe highland is also one of the major common bean producing areas in the country
(Wortmann and Allen, 1994). It is estimated to cover 267,069 ha of land with a production of 1 ton per ha (CSA, 2009).
It is becoming important as short duration crop because of the recurrent late onset and early termination of rainfall in
these areas.
The yield is extremely low due to low soil fertility, smallholder farming and limited access to external inputs (Amare
Abebe 1987; EARO, 2000). One of the most important factors of soil fertility is nitrogen (N) deficiency of most
Ethiopian soils (Desta Beyene and Angaw Tsigie, 1986). Most farmers in the developing countries such as Ethiopia are
resource poor and cannot afford the required inputs, mainly in the form of chemical N fertilizers. Legume-Rhizobium has
been exploited elsewhere as a substitute for the N fertilizers (Aynabeba Adamu et al., 2001). Inoculation with highly
effective rhizobia, a common practice in agricultural production (Catroux et al., 2001), requires survival and
establishment of inoculated rhizobia in the soil environment (Da and Deng, 2003). Therefore, biological nitrogen
fixation should be more exploited to increase nitrogen for common bean cultivation in Ethiopia. To our knowledge, two
preliminary studies have reported the presence of rhizobia nodulating common bean in Ethiopian soils (Anteneh, 2007;
Belaineh, 2009). Moreover, Anteneh (2007) indicated the presence of highly effective rhizobia nodulating common bean
in Eastern Ethiopia soils. Identification of effective locally adapted strains could be useful in the development of
inoculant strains, which can survive longer in agricultural soil and hence reduce the need for inoculant application each
growing season.
General objective
 To assess and evaluate symbiotic effectiveness of effective rhizobia isolates on yield and yield components of
common bean cultivated in eastern Ethiopian soils
Specific Objectives
 To isolate and characterized effective strain of rhizobia nodulating Common bean.
 To evaluate the symbiotic effectiveness of selected strain of rhizobia at Haramaya, Fedis, Babille and Hirna
experimental sites.

Source of bacterial isolates
Well characterized rhizobia nodulating common bean under greenhouse condition on sand and soil cultures was
obtained from Haramaya University, Biofertilizer Research and production centre. The isolates have been verified under
laboratory and greenhouse condition at Haramaya University.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of inoculation on common bean growth was conducted at Fedis and Haramaya experimental
fields. These are located in eastern Ethiopia, Hararghe Highland.
Soil Sampling and Analysis

Soil samples from a depth of 0-30cm were collected at random from each experimental site before and after planting. A
subsample of the composite was air-died, sieved through a 2 mm sieve and analysed for important soil physico-chemical
properties such as soil pH, EC, available P, Total N, exchangeable bases (Na, Ca, Mg ,K), B, Mo, Total P (inorganic and
organic P), CEC, and soil texture following the procedure indicated in Sahlemedhin and Taye (2000). The native
rhizobial population nodulating common bean was estimated using a fresh soil subsample according to the most
probable number (MPN) method (Vincent, 1970).
Seed sources and Biofertilizer preparation

Seeds of improved common bean cultivars were obtained from Melkasa Agricultural Research Centre and Haramaya
University lowland pulses improvement project. Whereas, the local varieties currently cultivated by local farmer’s was
used as local cultivars. Biofertilizer from highly effective rhizobia were prepared one month prior to seeding by adding
60
30ml rhizobial culture (grown to lag phase in yeast extract Manitol broth containing 10 8 of bacterial ml-1 of culture) to
200g sterile vermicompost prepared from parthinium weeds. These were well mixed and incubated for 14 days at 27oC
(pryor et al., 1970). Then seeds were planted manually to a depth of 1 cm.
Field experiment
In each experimental field, trials were carried out using selected highly effective eight rhizobia nodulating common bean
isolates. The experiments were laid out in RCBD fashion. All treatments were replicated three times. There are ten (10)
treatments, and the treatments consisted of T1- Rhizobium inoculums 1, T2 Rhizobium inoculums 2, T3- Rhizobium
inoculums 3, T4- Rhizobium inoculums 4, T5- Rhizobium inoculums 5, T6- Rhizobium inoculums 6, T7- Rhizobium
inoculums 7, T8- Rhizobium inoculums 8, T9- positive control (with starter nitrogen i.e. 20kgN/ha); T10-Negative
control (with no chemical and biofertilizer application). All seeds were surface sterilized with alcohol followed by 5%
H2O2 to avoid contamination and then washed five times using sterilized water as indicate in Vincent (1970). Seed
inoculation was performed before sowing using 10gm/kg of seed (to make approximately 1x10 6bacterial cells/seed). For
inoculated treatment, biofertilizers were separately mixed with the seeds with sucrose solution to increase adherence. All
plots were fertilized with phosphorus fertilizer at rate of 46kg P 2O5/ha as TSP whereas 20 KgN/ha as Urea was applied
for positive control plots.
Results
Eight isolates of rhizobia were selected based on their symbiotic effectiveness under control environment (Tables 1.60,
1.61, and 1.62). The data indicated that isolates showed significant effect on grain and biomass yield of three tested
cultivars of common bean at Haramaya experimental site. These isolates are being evaluated under field condition at
Haramaya, Fedis, Babile and Hirna experimental sites. So far, nodulation data and plant tissue samples for tissue analysis
were collected from each experiment.
Table 1.60. The effect of rhizobia spp. on yield of Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) var. Kufanzik at Fedis and
Haramaya experimental sites
Biomass yield (ton/ha) Grain yield (kg/ha)

Treatment Haramaya Fedis Haramaya Fedis
Isolate 1 4.8898d 5.543abc 3131.4bc 2938.8
Isolate 2 5.9758bcd 5.414abc 3832.6abc 3714.0ab
Isolate 3 4.9506d 5.520abc 2969.9bc 4178.3a
Isolate 4 5.3447cd 3.966c 2979.9bc 2197.6d
Isolate 5 7.4945a 4.437abc 3984.1ab 2719.3bcd
Isolate 6 6.7087abc 4.710abc 2990.5bc 2199.9d
Isolate 7 4.6341d 6.539a 2769.1c 3380.0abc
Isolate 8 5.5837bcd 6.153ab 3654.7abc 3714.0ab
Positive control (46kg N/ha) 6.8880ab 4.143bc 4400.2a 2312.9d
Negative control 4.8486d 4.913abc 2966bc 2594cd
CV (%) 18.10 27.7 15.34 19.82
LSD (0.05) 1.4977 2158.8 1089.8 999.35
Table 1.61. The effect of rhizobia spp. on yield of Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) var. Dursitu at Fedis and
Haramaya experimental sites
Biomass yield (ton/ha) Grain yield (kg/ha)

Treatment Haramaya Fedis Haramaya Fedis
Isolate 1 5.005c 4.391b 1957.0c 1837.7b
Isolate 2 10.679a 8.895a 4117.9a 2755.3a
Isolate 3 5.800c 2.148cd 2695.5bc 999.5def
Isolate 4 6.102bc 3.759bc 2496.6bc 1338.2cdef
Isolate 5 7.308bc 2.434cd 2447.4bc 661.9f
Isolate 6 7.408bc 2.473cd 2191.5c 1178.7cdef
Isolate 7 8.703ab 3.465bc 3257.4ab 1585.4bcde
Isolate 8 5.600c 2.919bcd 2480.8bc 1696.7bc
Positive Control (46kg N/ha) 6.844bc 1.806d 2762.3bc 825.6f
Negative control 5.065c 1.665d 2553.7bc 709.7f
CV (%) 23.5 28.26 22.6 25.63
LSD(0.05) 2.7412 1634.3 1035.8 593.25
61
Table 1.62. The effect of rhizobia spp. on yield of Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) var. Gofta at Fedis and Haramaya
experimental sites
Treatment Biomass yield( ton/ha) Grain yield (kg/ha)

Haramaya Fedis Haramaya Fedis
Isolate 1 5.6804b 3.577bc 3430.5d 2243.2bc
Isolate 2 6.1483 ab 5.232bc 3574.3 cd 3117.0ab
Isolate 3 6.0852 ab 4.304bc 3410.7 d 2488.5bc
Isolate 4 7.4254 ab 5.020ab 4809.0 b 2947.0b
Isolate 5 6.0680 ab 6.763a 3554.3 cd 3906.3a
Isolate 6 7.4003ab 2.403c 6049.3a 1604.4cd
Isolate 7 7.9060a 4.280bc 5120.7ab 2597.3b
Isolate 8 5.7694b 5.327ab 4481.6bc 3119.5ab
Positive Control (46kg N/ha) 6.3930ab 2.403c 3088.0d 1143.3d
Negative control 5.8893b 4.343bc 3788.1cd 2765.6b
CV (%) 17.52 28.29 13.31 21.64
LSD(0.05) 1.9331 1.634 936.08 955.57
Conclusion (overall assessment)

Isolates under control environment were performed better than the control. The technology is available at HARC
microbiology research section only. The trial has to be repeated for another year in order to provide conclusive results.
References
Amare Abebe (1987). Effect of inoculation and nitrogen fertilization on yield of common bean in Ethiopia. In:
Proceedings of a Workshop on Bean Research in Eastern Africa. Mukono, Uganda, June 22-25, CIAT African Workshop
Series 152-159.
Anteneh Argaw. (2007). Symbiotic and Phenotypic characterization of rhizobia nodulating Common bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris L.) isolated from Eastern Ethiopia Soils. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Ayneabeba Adamu, Fassil Assefa, Asfaw Hailemariam and Endashaw Bekele. (2001). Studies of Rhizobium inoculation
and fertilizer treatment on growth and production of Faba bean (Vicia faba) in some ‘yield-depleted’ and ‘yield-
sustained’ regions of Semien Shewa. SINAT: Ethiop. J. Sci. 24(2):197-211.
Belaineh Mekonnen, (2009). Characterization of acid soil tolerant common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) rhizobia isolated
from Jimma soils. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Catroux, G., Hartmann, A. and Revellin, C. (2001). Trends in rhizobial inoculants production and use. Plant soil 230: 21-
30.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA). (2009). Estimation of area production and yield of crops for 2007/2008 and
2008/2009 Meher season. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Da H. N. and Deng, S. P. (2003). Survival and persistence of genetically modified Sinorhizobium meliloti in soil. Appl. Soil
Ecol. 22: 1-14.
Desta Beyene and Angaw Tsige (1986). The response of pulse crops to N and P fertilizers.In: Soil Science Research.
Proceedings of the First Soil Science Research Review Workshop, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 11-14 Feb.
Teshale Assefa, Habtu Assefa and Paul Kimani (2006). Development of Improved Haricot bean Germplasm for the Mid
and Low-altitude sub-humid Agro-ecologies of Ethiopia. In: Workshop on Food and Forage Legumes of
Ethiopia, pp 87-94, (Kemal Ali, Seid Ahmed, Surendra Beniwal, Gemechu Kenneni, Rajandra S. Malhotra and
Khaled Makkouk eds). ICARDA, Aleppo,Syria.
Wortman, C. W. and Allen, D. J. (1994). African bean production environments: their detention, characteristics,
and constraints. In: Net work on bean research in Africa. Occasional paper series number 11, Dare salaam, Tanzania,
CIAT. p.47.
62
1.8.3 Evaluation of the Effect of Integrated Application of Nitrogen Fertilizer With and
Without Inoculation of Effective Rhizobia Isolates on Yield and Yield Components of
Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Eastern Ethiopia Soils
Anteneh Argaw, Bulti Tesso, Ayele Akuma

Common bean is widely cultivated in Ethiopia with attitude range of 1400-2000, as a sole crop or inter cropped with
sorghum, maize and other. The Rift valley contributes 48% out of 163,688ha and 55% of 1,384,216 quintals production
of the country (Teshale Assefa et al., 2006). The Hararghe highland is also one of the major common bean producing
areas in the country (Wortmann and Allen, 1994). It is estimated to cover 267,069 ha of land with a production of 1 ton
per ha (CSA, 2009).
The yield is extremely low due to low soil fertility, smallholder farming and limited access to external inputs (Amare,
1987; EARO, 2000). One of the most important factors of soil fertility is nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) deficiency of
most Ethiopian soils (Desta and Angaw, 1986). Nitrogen requirement of legumes can be met by both mineral N
assimilation and symbiotic N2-fixation (George and Singleton, 1992). Most beans are produced by smallholder farmers
who rarely neither inoculate with Rhizobia nor apply fertilizers. Most farmers in the developing countries such as
Ethiopia are resource poor and cannot afford the required inputs, mainly in the form of chemical fertilizers. Legume-
Rhizobium has been exploited elsewhere as a substitute for the N fertilizers (Anteneh, 2007; Asefaw and Angaw, 2006;
Belaineh, 2009 and Aynabeba et al., 2001).
Unlike many legumes, bean often does not derive much plant N from the atmosphere under low input conditions
although biological N fixation can be enhanced by P application (Giller, 2001). Because bean N fixation levels are
commonly low, there is often grain yield response to N and P application (Wortmann, 2006). Bean yield was increased
with application of up to 80 kg ha−1 N in Malawi, largely associated with increased pods plant−1 (Edje et al., 1975).
General objective
 To evaluate different levels of nitrogen fertilizer with and without selected effective strain of Rhizobium sp. at
Haramaya, Fedis, Babillea and Hirna experimental sites
Results
This experiment has been conducted to evaluate the effect of different levels of nitrogen with and without inoculation
on common bean. This experiment is being evaluated under field condition at Haramaya, Fedis, Babile and Hirna
experimental sites. So far, nodulation data and plant tissue samples for tissue analysis were collected from each
experiment. Preliminary result indicated that isolates under control environment were performed better than the control.
The trial has to be repeated for another year in order to provide conclusive results.
References
Series 152-159.
Anteneh Argaw. (2007). Symbiotic and Phenotypic characterization of rhizobia nodulating Common bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris L.) isolated from Eastern Ethiopia Soils. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Asefaw Hailemariem and Angaw Tsige (2006). Biological Nitrogen Fixation Research on Food Legumes in Ethiopia. In:
Workshop on Food and Forage Legumes of Ethiopia, pp 172-176, (Kemal Ali, Seid Ahmed, Surendra Beniwal,
Gemechu Kenneni, Rajandra S. Malhotra and Khaled Makkouk eds). ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria.
Belaineh Mekonnen, (2009). Characterization of acid soil tolerant common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) rhizobia isolated
from Jimma soils. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
30.
Ecol. 22: 1-14.
63
Edje, O.T., Mughogho, L.K., Ayonoadu, U.W.O., (1975). Responses of dry bean to varying nitrogen levels. Agron. J. 67,
251–255.
Giller, K.E., (2001). Nitrogen Fixation in Tropical Cropping Systems, 2nd edition. CAB International, Wallingford,
UK.
Mitiku Haile (1990). Preliminary studies of biological nitrogen fixation by haricot bean on two soil types in Hararghe,
Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of the Second Regional Workshop on Bean Research in Eastern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.
Teshale Assefa, Habtu Assefa and Paul Kimani (2006). Development of Improved Haricot bean Germplasm for the Mid
and Low-altitude sub-humid Agro-ecologies of Ethiopia. In: Workshop on Food and Forage Legumes of Ethiopia,
pp 87-94, (Kemal Ali, Seid Ahmed, Surendra Beniwal, Gemechu Kenneni, Rajandra S. Malhotra and Khaled
Makkouk eds). ICARDA, Aleppo,Syria.
Wortman, C. W. and Allen, D. J. (1994). African bean production environments: their detention, characteristics,
and constraints. In: Net work on bean research in Africa. Occasional paper series number 11, Dare salaam, Tanzania,
CIAT. p.47.
Wortmann, C.S., 2006. Phaseolus vulgaris L. (common bean). In: Brink, M., Belay, G. (Eds.), Plant Resources in Tropical
Africa I. Cereals and Pulses. PROTA Foundation/Backhuys Publishers/CTA, Wageningen, Netherlands, pp. 146–
151.
1.8.4 Assessment and Evaluation of Need of Inoculation of Effective Rhizobia Isolates on

Groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) in Eastern Ethiopia Soils
Anteneh Argaw, Yemane Girma, Ayele Akuma

Groundnut is a recent introduction to Ethiopia. It is widely grown in the eastern part of the country i. e. Hararghe
(Yebio et al., 1987). Gradually it is well produced in the eastern, western and northwestern lowlands of Ethiopia (Getinet
and Nigussie, 1992), and to some extent in the south (Elias, 1992). In Ethiopia, Groundnut is cultivated predominantly
by the traditional and undeveloped farming community under rain-fed conditions. It occupies about 41,761 hectares of
land with a corresponding gross annual production of about 46, 887 metric ton (CSA, 2009). The yields of groundnut in
Ethiopia compared to other countries are very low i.e. below 1.1 ton ha -1 as compared to average yields on a global scale
i.e. 1.52 ton ha-1 but with good management practices, yields can be increased to 3.0 ton ha -1 (CSA, 2009; FAOSTAT,
2009). This shows the yield in Ethiopia is extremely low mainly due to low soil fertility, smallholder farming and limited
access to external inputs (Amare, 1987; EARO, 2000). One of the most important factors of soil fertility is nitrogen (N)
deficiency of most Ethiopian soils (Desta and Angaw, 1986).
Most farmers in the developing countries such as Ethiopia are resource poor and cannot afford the required inputs,
mainly in the form of chemical N fertilizers. Legume-Rhizobium has been exploited elsewhere as a substitute for the N
fertilizers (Aynabeba, 2001). Inoculation with highly effective rhizobia, a common practice in agricultural production
(Catroux et al., 2001), requires survival and establishment of inoculated rhizobia in the soil environment (Da and Deng,
2003). Studies carried out by the National Soil Survey Project (NSSP 1990); by the Alemaya University of Agriculture
(Mitiku, 1990) and Asfaw and Angaw (2006) clearly revealed that inoculations with rhizobia have improved the yield of
legumes in Ethiopia. Therefore, biological nitrogen fixation should be more exploited to increase nitrogen for pulses
cultivation in Ethiopia. The result of Okito et al. (2004) using the natural 15N abundance techniques, estimated that the
contribution of symbiotic nitrogen fixation (SNF) was 40.9 kg ha-1 for groundnut and the proportion of N derived from
SNF (%Ndfa) ranged between 49 and 58%.
Identification of effective locally adapted strains with wide application could be useful in the development of inoculant
strains, which can survive longer in agricultural soil and hence reduce the need for inoculant application each growing
season. Ayele (2010) indicated the presence of highly effective bradyrhizobia nodulating groundnut in Eastern Ethiopia
soils. Inoculation recommendations may be made depending on the populations, competitiveness, and effectiveness of
the indigenous rhizobia in the soil. Therefore, we have characterized more than 60 isolates collected from Hararghe soil
under control condition, of which the top eight symbiotically highly effective bradyrhizobia isolates have been selected
for further symbiotic effectiveness characterization under field conditions
General objectives
 To assess and evaluate symbiotic effectiveness of effective bradyrhizobia isolates on yield and yield
components of groundnut cultivated in eastern Ethiopian soils.
Specific objective
 To isolate and characterize effective strain of rhizobia nodulating groundnut.
 To evaluate the symbiotic effectiveness of selected strain of rhizobia at Fedis and Babillea experimental sites.
64

Source of bacterial isolates
Well characterized rhizobia nodulating groundnut under greenhouse condition on sand and soil cultures was obtained
from Haramaya University, Biofertilizer Research and production centre. The isolates have been verified under
laboratory and greenhouse condition at Haramaya University.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of inoculation on groundnut growth was conducted at Fedis and Haramaya experimental fields.
These are located in eastern Ethiopia, Hararghe Highland.
Soil Sampling and Analysis

Soil samples from a depth of 0-30cm were collected at random from each experimental site before and after planting. A
subsample of the composite was air-died, sieved through a 2mm sieve and analysed for important soil physico-chemical
properties such as soil pH, EC, available P, Total N, exchangeable bases (Na, Ca, Mg ,K), B, Mo, Total P (inorganic and
organic P), CEC, and soil texture following the procedure indicated in Sahlemedhin and Taye (2000). The native
rhizobial population nodulating groundnut was estimated using a fresh soil subsample according to the most probable
number (MPN) method (Vincent, 1970).
Seed sources and Biofertilizer preparation

Seeds of improved groundnut cultivars were obtained from Werer agricultural research center and Haramaya University
lowland oil crops improvement project. Whereas, the local varieties currently cultivated by local farmer’s was used as
local cultivars. Biofertilizer from highly effective Bradyrhiobia were prepared one month prior to seeding by adding 30ml
rhizobial culture (grown to lag phase in yeast extract Manitol broth containing 10 8 of bacterial ml-1 of culture) to 200g
sterile vermicompost prepared from parthinium weeds. These were well mixed and incubated for 14 days at 27 oC (pryor
et al. 1970). Then seeds were planted manually to a depth of 1 cm.
Field experiment
In each experimental field, trial was carried out using selected highly effective eight Bradyrhizobia nodulating groundnut
isolates. The experiment was laid out in RCBD fashion. All treatments were replicated three times. There are ten (10)
treatments, and the treatments consisting of: T1- Bradyrhizobium Rhizobium inoculum 1; T2- Bradyrhizobium
Rhizobium inoculum 2; T3- Bradyrhizobium Rhizobium inoculum 3; T4- Bradyrhizobium Rhizobium inoculum 4; T5-
Bradyrhizobium Rhizobium inoculum 5;; T6- Bradyrhizobium Rhizobium inoculum 6; T7- Bradyrhizobium Rhizobium
inoculum 7; T8- Bradyrhizobium Rhizobium inoculum 8; T9- positive control (with starter nitrogen i.e. 20kgN/ha); T10-
Negative control (with no chemical and biofertilizer application). All seeds were surface sterilized with alcohol followed
by 5% H2O2 to avoid contamination and then washed five times using sterilized water as indicated in Vincent (1970).
Seed inoculation was performed before sowing using 10gm/kg of seed (to make approximately 1x10 6bacterial
cells/seed). For inoculated treatment, biofertilizers were separately mixed to the seeds with sucrose solution to increase
adherence. All plots were fertilized with phosphorus fertilizer at rate of 46kg P 2O5/ha as TSP and 20 KgN/ha Urea was
applied for positive control plots.
Results
Eight isolates of rhizobia were selected based on their symbiotic effectiveness among 56 isolates collected from eastern
Ethiopia under control environment (Tables 1.63 and 1.64). The result showed significant improvement of grain and
biomass yield of two tested cultivars (Sedi and Werer 962) on both locations. These isolates were evaluated under field
condition at Fedis and Babille experimental sites. So far, nodulation data and plant tissues samples for tissue analysis
65
Table 1.63. The effect of Bradyrhizobia spp. innoculation on yield of Groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) var. Sedi at Fedis
and Babille experimental sites
Biomass yield( ton/ha) Grain yield (kg/ha)

Treatment Babille Fedis Babillea Fedis
Consortium of 7 isolates 6.5976abc 4.881ab 930.3cd 906.3b
Isolate 1 5.3097c 4.819ab 920.4dc 907.7b
Isolate 2 7.7392ab 4.559ab 1498.5a 1077.4ab
Isolate 3 8.0567a 4.889ab 1489.8ab 1158.3ab
Isolate 4 4.7797c 5.519a 994.4dc 1165.7ab
Isolate 5 4.8762c 5.821a 991.8cd 1308.5a
Isolate 6 5.7242c 5.522a 1106.6bcd 1266.9ab
Isolate 7 6.6571abc 5.842a 1307abc 1306.1a
Positive Control (46kg N/ha) 6.1088bc 4.677ab 1089.3cd 1302.2a
Negative control 5.8274c 4.121b 742.4d 1217.5ab
CV (%) 17.95 15.30 20.54 19.3
LSD(0.05) 1.89 1.320 387.37 381.25
Table 1.64. The effect of Bradyrhizobia spp. on yield of Groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) var. Werer-962 at Fedis and
Babillea experimental sites
Treatment Biomass yield( ton/ha) Grain yield (kg/ha)

Babillea Fedis Babillea Fedis
Consortium of 7 isolates 8.837d 12.543ab 2163.6ab 1460.0a
Isolate 1 14.28 a 9.467b 2331.0 a 1717.8a
Isolate 2 11.83 bc 10.254b 2196.0 a 1310.0a
Isolate 3 8.64 d 11.492ab 1816.4 ab 1497.8a
Isolate 4 11.88 bc 13.932a 1951.4 ab 1844.6a
Isolate 5 10.27dc 10.849ab 2064.9ab 1301.0a
Isolate 6 11.30bc 10.808ab 1841.2ab 1617.2a
Isolate 7 9.66cd 10.778ab 2118.3ab 1332.7a
Positive Control (46kg N/ha) 13.50 ab 12.620ab 2297.2 a 1638.4a
Negative control 8.19 d 10.542b 1575.0 b 1564.9a
CV (%) 12.92 17.25 17.69 28.44
LSD(0.05) 2.385 3.33 592.62 740.44

Isolates under control environment performed better than the control. The trial has to be repeated for another year in
order to provide conclusive results.
References
Series 152-159.
Asefaw Hailemariem and Angaw Tsige (2006). Biological Nitrogen Fixation Research on Food Legumes in Ethiopia. In:
Workshop on Food and Forage Legumes of Ethiopia, pp 172-176,(Kemal Ali, Seid Ahmed, Surendra Beniwal,
Gemechu Kenneni, Rajandra S. Malhotra and Khaled Makkouk eds). ICARDA, Aleppo,Syria.
Ayele Akuma (2010). Evaluation of Symbiotic effectiveness Rhizobia with Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) in Eastern
Hararghe, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Haramaya University, Ethiopia.
30.
Ecol. 22: 1-14.
66
EARO (2000). Lowland pulses research strategy. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp.1-39.
Getnet Alemaw and Nigussie Alemayehu. (1992). Production and Research on Oilseeds in Ethiopia. In: Oilseeds
research and Development in Ethiopia. Proceeding of the first National Oilseeds workshop. 3-5 December 1991,
IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 5-12.
Mitiku Haile, (1990). Preliminary studies of biological nitrogen fixation by haricot bean on two soil types in Hararghe,
Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of the Second Regional Workshop on Bean Research in Eastern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.
Okito, A., Alves, B., Urquiaga. S. and Boddey, R. M. (2004) Isotopic fractionation during N 2 fixation by tour tropical
legumes. Soil Biol Biochem 36:1179–1190
Yebio, W., Seme, D., Asfaw, Z., Amare, A., Abebe, T. and Beniwal, B. (1987). Research on Groundnut Pigeonpea and
Chickpea in Ethiopia. In Summary Proc. Consultative Group Meeting for Eastern and Central African Regional
Research on Grain Legumes (Groundnut Pigeonpea and Chickpea), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. http://faostat.fao.org/,
verified in December 06, 2009.
1.8.5 Evaluation of Selected Isolates of Rhizobium Leguminosarum bv. Vicea Nodulating

Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) in Hararghe Highland
Anteneh Argaw, Million Fikiresillassie, Ayele Akuma

Faba Bean and field pea are some of the most important cool-season pulses grown in Ethiopia. They are essential part of
the dietary protein requirement of most Ethiopians. Faba bean is the first most important pulse in Ethiopia in terms of
production and area coverage. According to the report of CSA (2009), from about 1,585,236 of land under pulses
538,820 ha was occupied by faba bean, which is about 34% of the land under pulses with annual production of
6,959,837 quintals. Despite its importance, however, the productivity of the pulse crop is below 1 ton/ha, which
fluctuates and is far below the potential. This is due to low soil fertility, smallholder farming and limited access to
external inputs (Amare, 1987; EARO, 2000). One of the most important factors of soil fertility is nitrogen (N) deficiency
of most Ethiopian soils (Desta and Angaw, 1986). Most farmers in the developing countries such as Ethiopia are
been exploited elsewhere as a substitute for the N fertilizers (Aynabeba Adamu et al., 2001). Inoculation with highly
effective rhizobia, a common practice in agricultural production (Catroux et al., 2001), requires survival and
establishment of inoculated rhizobia in the soil environment (Da and Deng, 2003). Therefore, we have characterized
more than 72 isolates collected from major faba bean growing area of Ethiopia under control condition, of which, the
top eight symbiotically highly effective rhizobia isolates have been selected for further symbiotic effectiveness
characterization under field conditions.
General objectives
 To assess and evaluate symbiotic effectiveness of effective rhizobia isolates on yield and yield components of
faba bean cultivated in eastern Ethiopian soils
Specific objectives
 To isolate and characterized effective strain of rhizobia nodulating faba bean.
 To evaluate the symbiotic effectiveness of selected strain of rhizobia at Haramaya experimental sites.
Material and methods

Sources of bacterial isolates
Well characterized rhizobia nodulating faba bean.under greenhouse condition on sand and soil
Cultures was obtained from Haramaya university, Biofertilizer research and production center.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of inoculation of rhizobia on faba bean growth and yield was conducted at Haramaya
experimental field.
Soil sampling and analysis

A soil sample (0-30) was collected at random from each experimental site before and after planting. A sub sample of the
composition was air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm screen and analyzed for important soil physico-chemical properties.
The native rhizobial nodulating faba bean was estimated using a fresh soil sub-sample according to the most probable
67
Seed source and bio –fertilization

Seed of improved faba bean (var. Gachana) were obtained from Haramaya university highland pulses improvement
project.
Field experiment
In each experimental, field trial was carried out using selected highly effective eight rhizobia noduling faba bean isolates.
The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design. All treatments were replicated three times. There
were 10 treatments which consists of T1-Rhizobium inoculums-1, T2-Rhizobium inculum-2, T3-Rhizobium inoculums-
3, T4-Rhizobium inoculums-4, T5-Rhizobium inoculums-5, T6- Rhizobium inoculums-6, T7-Rhizobium inoculums-7,
T8- Rhizobium inoculums-8, T9-positive control (with starter nitrogen i.e. 20 kg N/ha), T10-negative control (with no
chemical and biofertilizer application).
Results
Eight isolates of rhizobia were selected based on their symbiotic effectiveness among the 85 isolates collected from
major growing areas of Ethiopia under control environment (Table 1.65). Isolates 1 and Isolate 2 produced significantly
higher grain and biomass yield as compared to internationally recommended isolate (TAL-1305) and the nitrogen
fertilizer treated plot. These isolates were evaluated under field condition at Haramaya experimental site. So far,
nodulation data and plant tissues samples for tissue analysis were collected from each experiment.
Table 1.65. The effect of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. Vicea on yield of Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) at Haramaya
experimental site
Treatment Biomass yield (ton/ha) Grain yield (kg/ha)

Isolate 1 13.845a 6439.0a
Isolate 2 12.366ab 6572.3a
Isolate 3 12.195ab 5521.5ab
Isolate 6 10.092b 4739.7ab
Isolate 7 9.857b 5576.4ab
TAL-1305 11.523ab 5676.4ab
Positive Control (46kg N/ha) 9.829b 4215.6b
Negative control 10.3004b 3993.6b
CV (%) 15.5 21.2
LSD(0.05) 2.985 1915.1

Isolates under control environment performed better than the control. The trial will be completed after two months in
References
Amare Abebe(1987). Effect of inoculation and nitrogen fertilization on yield of common bean in Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of a
Workshop on Bean Research in Eastern Africa. Mukono, Uganda, June 22-25, CIAT African Workshop Series 152-159.
Ayneabeba Adamu, Fassil Assefa, Asfaw Hailemariam and Endashaw Bekele. (2001). Studies of Rhizobium inoculation and
fertilizer treatment on growth and production of Faba bean (Vicia faba) in some ‘yield-depleted’ and ‘yield-sustained’
regions of Semien Shewa. SINAT: Ethiop. J. Sci. 24(2):197-211.
Catroux, G., Hartmann, A. and Revellin, C. (2001). Trends in rhizobial inoculants production and use. Plant soil 230: 21-30.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA). (2009). Estimation of area production and yield of crops for 2007/2008 and 2008/2009
Meher season. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Da H. N. and Deng, S. P. (2003). Survival and persistence of genetically modified Sinorhizobium meliloti in soil. Appl. Soil Ecol.
22: 1-14.
Desta Beyene and Angaw Tsige (1986). The response of pulse crops to N and P fertilizers.In: Soil Science Research. Proceedings of
the First Soil Science Research Review Workshop, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 11-14 Feb.
68

Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) in Hararghe Highland
Anteneh Argaw, Million Fikiresillassie, Ayele Akuma

Field pea is the third most important pulse crop in Ethiopia after faba bean and chickpea, in terms of both area and total
annual production. According to CSA (2009), field pea covers about 230,749 ha of the total arable land with a total
production of 267,093 tons. Despite its importance, however, the productivity of the field pea is below 1 ton/ha, which
external inputs (Amare, 1987; EARO, 2000). One of the most important factors of soil fertility is nitrogen (N) deficiency
of most Ethiopian soils (Desta and Angaw, 1986). Most farmers in the developing countries such as Ethiopia are
been exploited elsewhere as a substitute for the N fertilizers (Aynabeba et al., 2001). Inoculation with highly effective
rhizobia, a common practice in agricultural production (Catroux et al., 2001), requires survival and establishment of
inoculated rhizobia in the soil environment (Da and Deng, 2003). Therefore, we have characterized more than 55
isolates collected from major field pea growing areas of Ethiopia under control condition, of which, the top eight
symbiotically highly effective rhizobia isolates have been selected for further symbiotic effectiveness characterization
under field conditions.
General objectives
 To isolate and characterized effective strain of rhizobia nodulating field pea.
 To evaluate the symbiotic effectiveness of selected strain of rhizobia at Haramaya experimental site.

Well characterized rhizobia nodulating field pea under greenhouse condition on sand and soil
Cultures was obtained from Haramaya university, Biofertilizer research and production center.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of inoculation of rhizobia on field pea growth and yield was conducted at Haramaya
experimental field.

composition was air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm screen, and analyzed for important soil physico-chemical properties.
The native rhizobial nodulating field pea was estimated using a fresh soil sub-sample according to the most probable

Seed of improved field pea (var. metti) were obtained from Haramaya university highland pulses improvement project.
Field experiment
A field trial was carried out using selected highly effective eight rhizobia noduling field pea isolates. The experiment was
laid out in a randomized complete block design. All treatments were replicated three times. There are ten treatments
which consists of : T1- Rhizobium inoculums-1, T2- Rhizobium inculum-2, T3 Rhizobium inoculums-3, T4- Rhizobium
inoculum-4, T5- Rhizobium inoculums-5, T6- Rhizobium inoculums-6, T7- Rhizobium inoculums-7, T8- Rhizobium
inoculums-8, T9-positive control (with starter nitrogen i.e. 20kg N/ha), T10-negative control (with no chemical and
biofertilizer application).
Results
Eight isolates of rhizobia were selected based on their symbiotic effectiveness among the 67 isolates collected from
major field pea growing areas of Ethiopia under control environment. Isolate 3 scored significantly higher grain and
biomass yield than the other inoculated plants and the nitrogen treated plants (Table 1.66). These isolates were evaluated
under field condition at Haramaya experimental site. So far, nodulation data and plant tissues samples for tissue analysis
69
Table 1.66. The effect of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. Vicea on yield of Field pea (Pisum sativum L.) at Haramaya
experimental site

Isolate 1 7.2bc 2806.8abc
Isolate 2 6.472c 2452.2bc
Isolate 3 10.517a 3686.9a
Isolate 4 7.937bc 2955.2ab
Isolate 5 5.876c 3092.5ab
Isolate 6 7.092c 2739.8abc
Isolate 7 6.318c 2373.2bc
Isolate 8 9.331ab 3570.1a
Positive Control (46kg N/ha) 5.959c 1874.0c
Negative control 5.720c 1821.0c
CV (%) 18.05 22.4
LSD(0.05) 2.227 1044.5

Isolates under control environment performed better than the control. The trial will be completed after two months in
References
Series 152-159.
30.
Ecol. 22: 1-14.

Lentil (Lens culinaris) in Hararghe Highland
Anteneh Argaw and Million Fikiresillassie

Lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus subsp. culinaris) is a lens-shaped grain legume well known for its nutritional value. India is
the major lentil producing country, followed by Canada and Turkey, which collectively accounts for 68% of global
production (FAO, 2008). Ethiopia is also the leading producer of lentil in Africa and accounts for 68% of lentil
produced (CSA 2007). Lentil stands fifth both in acreage and in production after faba bean; field pea, chickpea, and
common bean and occupy about 95,000 hectares of area with a gross annual production of about 94,773 metric tons
(CSA 2009).
The productivity of lentil in Ethiopia is 0.7 t/ha which is very low compared to other neighboring countries such as
Egypt where productivity is about 1.7 t/ha (FAO 2008; CSA 2009). This is mainly due to low soil fertility (Angaw and
Asnakew, 1994). Nitrogen (N) deficiency is one of the most important factors that limit soil fertility in most Ethiopian
soils (Desta and Angaw 1986). Stoorvogel and Smaling (1990) estimated soil nutrient losses from the highlands of
Ethiopia to be in excess of 80 kg of N per cultivated hectare.
Application of chemical fertilizers have played a significant role to increase the productivity of soils, however,
unbalanced use of fertilizers has led to reduction in soil fertility and environmental degradation. Moreover, the cost of
chemical fertilizers have been increased many folds and made unaffordable in developing countries such as Ethiopia.
70
Therefore, the need to take advantage of inexpensive means of soil fertility enhancement through biological nitrogen
fixation is becoming vital for increasing crop productivity and ensuring food security in the region.
General Objectives
 To evaluate the symbiotic effectiveness of selected strain of rhizobia at Haramaya experimental site.
Results
Eight isolates of rhizobia were selected based on their symbiotic effectiveness among 72 isolates collected from central
and northern part of Ethiopia under control environment. These isolates wre evaluated under field condition on four
promising verities of lentil at Haramaya experimental site. So far, nodulation data and plant tissues samples for tissue
analysis were collected from each experiment.

References
Angaw Tsigie, Asnakew Woldeab. 1994. Fertilizer response trial on highland food legumes. In: Asfaw Telaye, Geletu
Bejiga, Saxena MC, SolhMB, editors. Cool-season food legumes of Ethiopia. Proceeding of the National Cool-
Season Food Legumes Review Conference; December 16–20, 1993; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. p. 279–292.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2008. FAOSTAT statistical database of the United Nations. Rome (Italy):
FAO. Available from: http://faostat.fao.org/site/567.
Stoorvogel J.J., Smaling EMA. 1990. Assessment of soil nutrient depletion in sub-Saharan Africa, 1983–2000. Report 28.
Wageningen (The Netherlands): DLO Winand Starring Center for Integrated Land, Soil and Water Research (CSC-
DLO).
1.8.8 Evaluation of Selected Isolates of Rhizobia Nodulating Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) in

Hararghe Highland
Anteneh Argaw, Million Fikiresillassie

Chickpea is one of the food legume crops grown in the tropics, sub-tropics and temperate regions of the world. The
average national chickpea yield in Ethiopia is less than one ton per hectare. The low yield is mainly due to low soil
fertility (Angaw Tsigie and Asnakew Woldeab, 1994). Nitrogen (N) deficiency is one of the most important factors of
limiting soil fertility in most Ethiopian soils (Desta Beyene and Angaw Tsigie 1986). Stoorvogel and Smaling (1990)
estimated soil nutrient losses from the highlands of Ethiopia to be in excess of 80 kg of N per cultivated hectare.
Application of chemical fertilizers have played a significant role to increase the productivity of soils, however,
unbalanced use of fertilizers has led to reduction in soil fertility and environmental degradation. Moreover, the cost of
chemical fertilizers have been increased many folds and made unaffordable in developing countries such as Ethiopia.
Therefore, the need to take advantage of inexpensive means of soil fertility enhancement through biological nitrogen
fixation is becoming vital for increasing crop productivity and ensuring food security in the region.
General objective
 To characterize symbiotically effective isolates of rhizobia nodulating Chickpea isolated from major growing
areas of Ethiopia.
Specific objective
 To isolate and characterized effective strain of rhizobia nodulating chickpea.
 To evaluate the symbiotic effectiveness of selected strain of rhizobia at Fedis, Haramaya and Hirna
experimental sites.
71
Results
More than 150 isolates of bacteria were isolated from chickpea nodules collected from central and northern Ethiopia.
Authentication and evaluation of symbiotic efficiencies of the isolates were done under control environment using acid
treated and autoclaved sand.
The trial has to be done under field condition for two years in order to provide conclusive results.
References
Angaw Tsigie, Asnakew Woldeab., 1994. Fertilizer response trial on highland food legumes. In: Asfaw Telaye, Geletu
Bejiga, Saxena MC, SolhMB, editors. Cool-season food legumes of Ethiopia. Proceeding of the National Cool-
Season Food Legumes Review Conference; December 16–20 1993; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. p. 279–292.
Desta Beyene and Angaw Tsige, 1986. The response of pulse crops to N and P fertilizers.In: Soil Science Research.
Stoorvogel J.J., Smaling E.M.A., 1990. Assessment of soil nutrient depletion in sub-Saharan Africa, 1983–2000. Report
28. Wageningen (The Netherlands): DLO Winand Starring Center for Integrated Land, Soil and Water Research
(CSC-DLO).
1.8.9 Effect of Co-inoculation of Rhizobium Leguminosarum bv. viciae and Phosphate

Solubilizing Bacterium on Faba Bean (Viciae faba L.) Production in Eastern Ethiopia
Highland
Anteneh Argaw, Million Fikiresillassie and Ayele Akuma

the dietary protein requirement of most Ethiopian’s. Faba bean is the first most important pulse in Ethiopia in terms of
production and area coverage. According to the report of CSA (2009), from about 1,585,236 ha of land under pulses,
6,959,837 quintals. Despite its importance, however, the productivity of the pulse crop is below 1ton/ha, which
external inputs (Amare, 1987; EARO, 2000). The most important factor of soil fertility is nitrogen and phosphorus
deficiency of most Ethiopian soils. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are essential nutrients required by both plants and
microorganisms. Their major physiological roles are the accumulation and release of energy during cellular metabolism.
Phosphorus is generally deficient in most natural soils, because it is fixed as water insoluble iron and aluminum
phosphates in acidic soils or calcium phosphate in alkaline soils. Similarly, the low productivity of crops, in acidic soils in
Ethiopia, can mainly be attributed to the deficiency of phosphorus (Taye and Hofer, 1993). In order to solve such
problems in order to achieve high yields require chemical fertilizers. Continuous and excess use of chemical fertilizers
and other agrochemicals to increase yield may lead to ground water contamination and depletion of soil nutrients,
eventually resulting in reduction of crop yield. The extensive use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture is currently under
debate due to environmental concern and fear for consumers’ health. Consequently, there has recently been a growing
level of interest in environmentally friendly sustainable agricultural practices and organic farming systems. As a result,
emphasis has been paid to the possibility of greater utilization of unavailable P forms by the action of biological
organisms. Bacteria and fungi have been reported to be active in solubilizing insoluble inorganic phosphate with high
efficiency (Gaur, 1990). Asfaw (2003) noted that acidic soils of Ethiopia harbored with highly efficient phosphate
solubilizing microorganisms.
General Objectives
 To evaluate the effect of integrated application of Rhizobium and phosphate solubilizing Bacterium (PSB) on yield
and yield components of Faba bean at Haramaya site.

Rhizobium (Rhizobium leguminosarum bv.viciae) nodulating Faba bean and PSB were obtained from Haramaya University
Biofertilizer research and production center. PSB isolates have been proved as highly efficient inorganic PSB under
laboratory and greenhouse experiment. Whereas, highly efficient rhizobia nodulating faba bean have been verified under
laboratory and field condition at Haramaya University, Experimental site.
72
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of dual application of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv.viciae and PSB on faba bean growth was
conducted separately at Boreda, Girawa and Arbarekete field condition. These are located in eastern Ethiopia,
Hararghe highland.
Soil sampling and analyses

composition was air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm screen and analyzed for important soil physico-chemical properties
such as soil pH, EC, available P, Total N, exchangeable bases (Na, Ca, Mg ,K), B, Mo, Total P (inorganic and organic P),
CEC, and soil texture following the procedure indicated in Sahlemedhin and Taye (2000). The native rhizobial
nodulating faba bean was estimated using a fresh soil sub-sample according to the most probable number (MPN)
method (Vincent, 1970). The number of resident inorganic phosphate solubilizing microorganism was evaluated using
pikovysikaya’s medium following Somasergane and Hoben (1994).
Seed source and bio-fertilization

Seed of improved faba bean cultivars were obtained from Kulumsa Agricultural research center and Haramaya
University Highland pulses improvement project. Whereas, the local varieties currently cultivated by farmers’ were used
as local cultivars. Both Rhizobium leguminosarum bv.viciae and PSB biofertilizer were prepared 1 month prior to seeding
by adding 30ml bacterial culture (grown to log phase in appropriate broth containing 108 of bacterial ml-1 of culture) to
200g sterile vermicompost prepared from parthinium weeds. These were well mixed and incubated for 14 days at 27 oC
(pryor et al. 1998). Then seeds were planted manually to a depth of 1 cm.
Field experiment
In each experimental field, a trial was carried out using selected highly effective Rhizobium leguminosarum bv.viciae and
PSB biofertilizer isolates. The experiment was laid out in a split plot design. All treatments were replicated three times
with inoculation and chemical fertilizer treatments in the main plot whereas improved and local varieties as subplot.
There were eight treatments, and the treatment consists of T1- PSB inoculum; T2- recommended phosphate fertilizer
(46 kgP2O5/ha); T3 Rhizobium inoculums, T4-Recommended starter Nitrogen fertilizer (20 KgN/ha); T5- PSB
inoculums + Rhizobium inoculums; T6- PSB inoculums + Recommended starter Nitrogen fertilizer (20KgN/ha); T7-
Rhizobium inoculums + 100 Kg TSP/ha; T8- with no chemical and biofertilizer application. All seed were surface
sterilized with alcohol followed by 5% H2O2. Inoculations were performed before sowing using 10 gm/kg of seed (to
make approximately 1x106 bacterial cells/seed). For dual inoculated treatments, both Phosphate and Rhizobium
biofertilizers were mixed at the same time to the seeds with 15% (W/V) sucrose solution to increase adherence.
Fertilizer at the rate of 46kg P2O5/ha as TSP whereas 20 kgN/ha as Urea was applied according to the treatment layout.
Results
One effective isolate of Rhizobium and PSB bacteria has been evaluated with chemical fertilizer with different
combination at Haramaya site. These experiments were evaluated under field condition at Haramaya experimental site.
So far, nodulation data and plant tissue samples for tissue analysis were collected from each experiment.

References
Amare Abebe (1987). Effect of inoculation and nitrogen fertilization on yield of common bean in Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of
a Workshop on Bean Research in Eastern Africa. Mukono, Uganda, June 22-25, CIAT African Workshop Series, 152-159
Asfaw Hailemariam (2003). Isolation, identification and characterization of phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM) from
Ethiopian soils. EJAS 5(1):57-68.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA). (2009). Estimation of area production and yield of crops for 2007/2008 and 2008/2009
EARO (2000). Lowland pulses research strategy. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp.1-39.
Gaur A C (1990). Phosphate Solubilizing Micro-Organisms as Bio Fertilizers. Omega scientific publishers, New Delhi, India 11 pp.
Sahlemedhin Sertsu and Ahmed Ali (1983). Phosphorus sorption characteristics of some Ethiopian soils. EJAS 34:28-40.
Somasegaran, P. and Hoben, H. J. (1985). Hand Book for Rhizobia – Methods in Legume Rhizobium Technology. Springer-Verlag,
Heidelberg, Germany.
Taye Bekele and Hofner, W. (1993). Effects of different P-fertilizers on yield of barley and rapeseed on reddish brown soils of
the Ethiopian highlands. Fertilizer Research 34:243-250.
73
1.8.10 Effect of Co-inoculation of Rhizobium Leguminosarum bv. viciae and Phosphate

Solubilizing Bacterium on Field Pea (Pisum sativum) Production in Eastern Ethiopia
Highland
Anteneh Argaw, Million Fikiresillassie and Ayele Akuma

Field pea is the third most important pulse crop in Ethiopia after faba bean and chickpea, in terms of both area and total
annual production. According to CSA (2009), field pea covers about 230,749 ha of the total arable land with a total
production of 267,093 tons. Despite its importance, however, the productivity of the field pea is below 1ton/ha, which
external inputs (Amare, 1987; EARO, 2000). The most important factor of soil fertility is nitrogen and phosphorus
deficiency of most Ethiopian soils. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are essential nutrients required by both plants and
microorganisms, their major physiological roles are the accumulation and release of energy during cellular metabolism.
Phosphorus is generally deficient in most natural soils, because it is fixed as water insoluble iron and aluminum
phosphates in acidic soils or calcium phosphate in alkaline soils. Similarly, the low productivity of crops, in acidic soils in
Ethiopia, can mainly be attributed to the deficiency of phosphorus (Taye and Hofer, 1993). In order to solve such
problems and achieve high yields, application of chemical fertilizers is required. Continuous and excess use of chemical
fertilizers and other agrochemicals to increase yield may lead to ground water contamination and depletion of soil
nutrients, eventually resulting in reduction of crop yield. The extensive use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture is
currently under debate due to environmental concern and fear for consumers’ health. Consequently, there has recently
been a growing level of interest in environmentally friendly sustainable agricultural practices and organic farming
systems. As a result emphasis has been given to the possibility of greater utilization of unavailable P forms by the action
of biological organisms. Bacteria and fungi have been reported to be active in solubilizing insoluble inorganic phosphate
with high efficiency (Gaur, 1990). Asfaw (2003) found that acidic soils of Ethiopia are harbored with highly efficient
phosphate solubilizing microorganisms.
General objective
 To evaluate the effect of integrated application of Rhizobium and phosphate solubilizing Bacterium (PSB) on yield
and yield components of field pea at Haramaya site.

Rhizobium (Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae) nodulating Field pea and PSB were obtained from Haramaya University
Biofertilizer research and production center. PSB isolates have been proved as highly efficient inorganic PSB under
laboratory and greenhouse experiment. Whereas, highly efficient rhizobia nodulating Field pea have been verified under
laboratory and field condition at Haramaya University Experimental site.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of dual application of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv.viciae and PSB on Field pea growth was
conducted at field condition at Haramaya site.
Soil sampling and analyses

A soil sample (0-30) was collected at random from each experimental site before and after planting. A sub sample was
air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm screen and analyzed for important soil physico-chemical properties such as soil pH,
EC, available P, Total N, exchangeable bases (Na, Ca, Mg ,K), B, Mo, Total P (inorganic and organic P), CEC, and soil
texture following the procedure indicated in Sahlemedhin and Taye (2000). The native rhizobial nodulating faba bean
was estimated using a fresh soil sub-sample according to the most probable number (MPN) method (Vincent, 1970).
The number of resident inorganic phosphate solubilizing microorganism was evaluated using pikovysikaya’s medium
following Somasergane and Hoben (1994).

Seed of improved Field pea cultivars were obtained from Kulumsa Agricultural research center and Haramaya University
Highland pulses improvement project. Whereas, the local varieties currently cultivated by farmers’ were used as local
cultivars. Both Rhizobium leguminosarum bv.viciae and PSB biofertilizer were prepared 1 month prior to seeding by
adding 30ml bacterial culture (grown to log phase in appropriate broth containing 10 8 of bacterial ml-1 of culture) to
200g sterile vermicompost prepared from parthinium weeds. These were well mixed and incubated for 14 days at 27 oC
(Pryor et al., 1998). Then seeds were planted manually to a depth of 1 cm.
74
Field experiment
In each experimental field, a trial was carried out using selected highly effective Rhizobium leguminosarum bv.viciae and
PSB biofertilizer isolates. The experiment was laid out in a split plot design. All treatments were replicated three times
with inoculation and chemical fertilizer treatments in the main plot whereas improved and local varieties as subplot.
There were eight treatments, which consists of T1- PSB inoculum; T2- recommended phosphate fertilizer
(46kgP2O5/ha); T3 Rhizobium inoculums, T4-Recommended starter Nitrogen fertilizer (20KgN/ha); T5- PSB
inoculums + Rhizobium inoculums; T6- PSB inoculums + Recommended starter Nitrogen fertilizer (20KgN/ha); T7-
Rhizobium inoculums + 100Kg TSP/ha; T8- with no chemical and biofertilizer application. All Seed were surface
sterilized with alcohol followed by 5% H 2O2 to avoid performance of inoculation before sowing using 10gm/kg of seed
(to make approximately 1x106 bacterial cells/seed). For dual inoculated treatments, both Phosphate and Rhizobium
biofertilizers were mixed at the same time to the seeds with 15% (W/V) sucrose solution to increase adherence.
Fertilizer at the rate of 46kg P2O5/ha as TSP and 20 kgN/ha as Urea was applied according to the treatment layout.
Results
One effective isolate of Rhizobium and PSB bacteria has been evaluated with chemical fertilizer with different
combination at Haramaya site. These experiments were conducted under field condition at Haramaya experimental site.
So far, nodulation data and plant tissues samples for tissue analysis were collected from each experiment.

Isolates under control environment were performed better than the control. The trial has to be repeated for another year
in order to provide conclusive results.
References
Amare Abebe, 1987. Effect of inoculation and nitrogen fertilization on yield of common bean in Ethiopia. In:
Proceedings of a Workshop on Bean Research in Eastern Africa. Mukono, Uganda, June 22-25, CIAT African
Workshop Series 152-159
Asfaw Hailemariam, 2003. Isolation, identification and characterization of phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM)
from Ethiopian soils. EJAS 5(1):57-68.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA), 2009. Estimation of area production and yield of crops for 2007/2008 and
EARO, 2000. Lowland pulses research strategy. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp.1-39.
Gaur A. C., 1990. Phosphate Solubilizing Micro-Organisms as Bio Fertilizers. Omega scientific publishers, New Delhi, India 11
pp.
Sahlemedhin Sertsu and Ahmed Ali, 1983. Phosphorus sorption characteristics of some Ethiopian soils. EJAS 34:28-40.
Somasegaran, P. and Hoben, H. J., 1985. Hand Book for Rhizobia – Methods in Legume Rhizobium Technology. Springer-
Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany.
Taye Bekele and Hofner, W., 1993. Effects of different P-fertilizers on yield of barley and rapeseed on reddish brown
soils of the Ethiopian highlands. Fertilizer Research 34:243-250.
1.8.11 Effect of Integrated Application of Bradyrhzibium sp. and Iron Fertilizer on Two
Varieties of Soybean at Shinile Demonstration Site Using Drip Irrigation
Anteneh Argaw

Soybean (Glycine max L. (Merr.)) is a subtropics member of the Leguminosae family, an erect bushy annual crop with
considerable morphological diversity. Grain legumes are a good source of protein. The protein content in the pulses seed
is high, ranging from 17-42%. In Ethiopia, soybean occupies around 95 thousand hectares of land with a corresponding
gross annual production of approximately 94, 773 metric tons (CSA, 2009). Despite the importance of the crop in the
world as a rich source of protein and oil, the yield is generally very low in Ethiopia, i.e. below 1-ton ha-1 (CSA, 2009) as
compared to the USA and Asian soybean producing countries. Poor soil fertility status is considered as one of the
factors contributing to low yield. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), in that order, are the two plant growth limiting soil
fertility factors in many soil types including those in Ethiopia. Moreover, Iron deficiency is a common problem when
soybean is grown on calcareous soil (Goos and Johanson, 2000). Considerable differences exist among soybean
genotypes for susceptibility to iron deficiency in calcareous soils.
75
Objectives
 To evaluate the effectiveness of local and imported isolates of bradyrhizobia of soybean with different level of
Iron fertilizer at Shinile demonstration site.
Results
Two imported isolates from UK and USA with one locally isolated Bradyrhizobium sp. are being evaluated for symbiotic
effectiveness with three levels of Iron fertilizer (Fe-EDTA) on two varieties of Soybean at Shinile demonstration site. So
far, nodulation data and plant tissues samples for tissue analysis were collected from each experiment.

Isolates under control environment were performed better than the control. The trial has to be repeated in order to
provide conclusive results.
References
Central Statistical Authority (CSA), 2009. Agricultural Sample Survey. 2008/9 Report on Area and Production for Major
Crops (Private Peasant Holdings, Main Season). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, PP.45-47.
Goos, R. J. and Johanson, B. E., 2000. A comparison of three methods for reducing iron-deficiency chlorosis in
soybean. Agronomy Journal 92: 1135- 1139.
1.8.12 Integrated Application of Rhizobium Leguminosarum bv. Vicea and Vermicompost

on Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) in Hararghe Highland

Lack of nutrients, such as N and P, are the principal constraints to crop production under low input agricultural systems
of Ethiopia. Agronomic practices aimed at reducing the dependence on chemical fertilizers need to incorporate crop
residues or other forms of organic material, thus providing nutrients thereby improving soil structure while maintaining
soil fertility (Prasad et al., 1999). It is difficult to increase soil organic matter or even maintain it in the sub-tropics and
tropics as organic matter turnover is high and crop residues are removed from the field, or used as fodder by roaming
animals or burned.
Several studies show that organic farming improves soil fertility over time. However, lack of systematic research on
organic farming and unavailability of package of practices for different crops limit the realization of higher yields under
organic farming. As a result, its yield has frequently been reported to be lower than that with chemical farming (Aryal et
al., 2003). Rhizobia biofertilizer alone may not completely and effectively improve the crop yield and therefore they
should be used as one of the components of the integrated soil fertility management strategies. Therefore, organic
farming requires refining, and there is a serious need for consortium of biological methods of farming to create more
productivity and competitiveness.
General objective
 To evaluate the effect of integrated application of Rhizobium and vermicompost on yield and yield components
of Faba bean at Haramaya site.
Results
One effective isolate of Rhizobium with different level of vermicopost has been evaluated at Haramaya site. Six tons/ha
vermicompost without inoculation scored significantly higher grain and biomass yield than all other treatments (Table
1.67). So far, nodulation data and plant tissues samples for tissue analysis were collected from each experiment.
76
Table 1.67. The effect of Rhizobium inoculation with and without different rate of vermicompost on yield of faba bean
(Vicia faba L.)

Rhizobium + 2 ton vermicompost/ha 8.199bc 4274.5b
Rhzibium + 4 ton vermicompost/ha 10.011bc 4876.6b
Rhzibium 7.539c 4665.7b
2 ton vermicompost/ha 9.632bc 4945.3b
4 ton vermicompost/ha 10.922ab 5201.5b
6 ton vermicompost/ha 13.039a 7191.2a
8 ton vermicompost/ha 9.842bc 4775.7b
No amendment/ha 9.371bc 5568.2ab
CV (%) 17.2 21.5
LSD (0.05) 2.835

The trial has to be repeated for another year in order to provide conclusive results.
References
Aryal, U. K., Xu H. L. and Fujita. M., 2003. Rhizobia and AM fungal inoculation improves growth and nutrient uptake
of bean plants under organic fertilization. J. Sustain. Agri. 21(3): 29-41.
Prasad, R., Gangaiah, B. and Aipe, K.G., 1999. Effect of crop residue management in a rice–wheat cropping system on
growth and yield of crops and on soil fertility. Experi. Agri. 35: 427–435.
1.8.13 Evaluation of Rhizobium Inoculation and Bone Phosphate (Orga fertilizer)

Application on Nodulation and Yield of Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.)

Lack of nutrients, such as N and P, are the principal constraints to crop production under low input agricultural systems
of Ethiopia. Agronomic practices aimed at reducing the dependence on chemical fertilizers need to incorporate crop
residues or other forms of organic material, thus providing nutrients thereby improving soil structure while maintaining
soil fertility (Prasad et al., 1999). It is difficult to increase soil organic matter or even maintain it in the sub-tropics and
tropics as organic matter turnover is high and crop residues are removed from the field, and used as fodder by roaming
animals or burned.
Several studies show that organic farming improves soil fertility over time. However, lack of systematic research on
organic farming and unavailability of package of practices for different crops limit the realization of higher yields under
organic farming. As a result, its yield has frequently been reported to be lower than that with chemical farming (Aryal et
al., 2003). Rhizobia biofertilizer alone may not completely and effectively improve the crop yield, and therefore they
should be used as one of the components of the integrated soil fertility management strategies. Therefore, organic
farming requires refining. Moreover, there is a serious need to consortium biological methods of farming to increase
productivity and competitiveness.
Objectives
 To evaluate the effect of integrated application of Rhizobium and bone meal on yield and yield components of
Field pea at Haramaya site.
Results
One effective isolate of Rhizobium with different level of bone meal has been evaluated at Haramaya site. 200kg orga with
inoculation of Rhizobium sp. scored significantly higher grain and biomass yield than the other treatments. So far,
nodulation data and plant tissues samples for tissue analysis were collected from each experiment.
77

Isolates under control environment performed better than the control (Table 1.68). The trial has to be repeated for
another year in order to provide conclusive results.
Table 1.68. The effect of Rhizobium inoculation with and without different rate of Orga (bone phosphate) on yield of
field pea (Pisum sativum L.)

Rhizobium + 100 kg orga/ha 4.079abc 2285.6bc
Rhzibium + 150 kg orga/ha 4.664ab 2615.5b
Rhzibium + 200kg orga/ha 4.080abc 1527.1c
Rhzibium + 200kg orga/ha 6.198a 3596.8a
Rhzibium 4.013bc 2292.9bc
100 kg orga/ha 3.843bc 2229.6bc
150 kg orga/ha 4.532abc 2315.5bc
200kg orga/ha 3.480bc 1851.8bc
200kg orga/ha 2.514c 2237.1bc
No amendment/ha 3.408bc 1928.3bc
CV (%) 30.8 22.5
LSD (0.05) 2.1426 876.5
References
Aryal, U. K., Xu H. L. and Fujita. M., 2003. Rhizobia and AM fungal inoculation improves growth and nutrient uptake
of bean plants under organic fertilization. J. Sustain. Agri. 21(3): 29-41.
Prasad, R., Gangaiah, B. and Aipe, K.G., 1999. Effect of crop residue management in a rice–wheat cropping system on
growth and yield of crops and on soil fertility. Experi. Agri. 35: 427–435.
1.8.14 Evaluation of the Effect of Inoculated Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) and Field Pea (Pisum
Sativum L.) Precursor cCops and Different Rate of Bone Phosphate (Orga) on Yield of
Maize (Zea mays L.) and Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) at Haramaya Experimental Site
Anteneh Argaw

The benefits of the pulse and oilseed grain legumes in cropping systems are well established. They can fix substantial
amounts of atmospheric N2, which allows them to be grown in N-impoverished soils without fertiliser N inputs.
Growing concern about the sustainability of rice- based cropping systems, coupled with increasing prices for N fertilisers
in relation to rice has led to renewed interest in biological nitrogen fixation (Becker et al., 1995). The positive effects
associated with the inclusion of mainly tropical legume crops, in particular legume green manures, into tropical rice-
based cropping systems have been well documented. Mineral N in root-zone soil following grain legumes is often 30–60
kg N/ha higher than after cereal crops in the same environment (Badaruddin and Meyer, 1994; Dalal et al., 1998).
Rotation experiments involving sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and maize (Zea mays) indicated grain yield responses to
previous legume crops of 0.5–3.7 t/ha, or 30–350% (Gakale and Clegg, 1987; Armstrong et al., 1999; Varvel, 2000).
Responses were equivalent to applications of fertiliser N of 40–170 kg/ha.
Objectives
 To evaluate the effect of residue of faba bean and field pea and different rate of bone meal on yield and yield
components of Sorghum and Maize at Haramaya site.
Results
This experiment was conducted on field previously cultivated with faba bean and field pea inoculated with effective
Rhizobium sp. Different rate of bone meal (orga) was tested and used as phosphorus sources. The treatments showed
significant effect on grain and biomass yield of maize but not on sorghum. None of the treatments, including those with
application of chemical fertilizer, did not show any significant effect on sorghum on previously faba bean and field pea
cultivated plots (Table 1.69).
78
Table 1.69. The effect of inoculated faba bean (Vicia faba L.) and field pea (Pisum Sativum L.) precursor crops and
different rate of Bone phosphate (Orga) on yield of sorghum (Sorghum bicolar L.) at Haramaya Experimental site

After faba bean After Field pea After faba bean After Field pea
200Kg orga/ha 45.040a 46.794ab 4166.1b 6121.9a
400kg orga/ha 36.891 b 53.104a 5421.0 ab 5657.8a
600kg orga/ha 36.565 b 43.652b 5411.7 ab 5821.2a
150DAP+100 Urea 32.878bc 38.933b 6101.3a 5936.6a
Control 27.253 c 27.163c 4616.4 b 4414.3b
CV (%) 9.2 11.73 13.84 7.63
LSD (0.05) 5.978 8.948 1295 776.35
Table 1.70. The effect of inoculated faba bean (Vicia faba L.), field pea (Pisum Sativum L.) precursor crops, and different
rate of Bone phosphate (Orga) on yield of maize (Zea mays L.) at Haramaya Experimental site
Treatment Grain yield (kg/ha)

After faba bean After Field pea
200 Kg orga/ha 9826a 9826a
400 kg orga/ha 9661a 8083a
600 kg orga/ha 9571a 7911a
150 DAP + 100 Urea 10909a 8887a
Control 8892a 8484a
CV (%) 24.2 14.22
LSD (0.05) 4301 2228

Inoculation of legume improved the yield of subsequent crop in crop rotation. The trial has to be repeated for another
year in order to provide conclusive results.
References
Armstrong, R.D., McCosker, K., Millar, G., Kuskopf, B., Johnson, S., Walsh, K., Probert, M.E., Standley, J., 1999.
Legume and opportunity cropping systems in central Queensland. 2. Effect of legumes on following crops. Aust. J.
Agric. Res. 50, 925–936.
Badaruddin, M., Meyer, D.W., 1994. Grain legume effects on soil nitrogen, grain yield, and nitrogen nutrition of wheat.
Crop Sci. 34, 1304–1309.
Becker, M., Ladha, J.K., Ali, M., 1995. Green manure technology: potential, usage and limitations. A case study for
lowland rice. Pl. Soil 174, 181-194.
Dalal, R.C., Strong, W.M., Doughton, J.A., Weston, E.J., Cooper, J.E., Wildermuth, G.B., Lehane, K.J., King, A.J.,
Holmes, C.J., 1998. Sustaining productivity of a vertisol at Warra, Queensland, with fertilisers, no-tillage or legumes.
5. Wheat yields nitrogen benefits and water-use efficiency of chickpea–wheat rotation. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 38, 489–
501.
Gakale, L.P., Clegg, M.D., 1987. Nitrogen from soybean for dry land sorghum. Agron. J. 79, 1057–1061.
Varvel, G.E., 2000. Crop rotation and nitrogen effects on normalized grain yields in a long-term study. Agron. J. 92,
938–941.
79
1.8.15 Evaluation of Selected and Environmental-friendly Improved Biofertilizer (Rhizobium

leguminosarum bv. viciae) for Highland Pulse Crops and Scaling out/up the
Technology to Eastern Ethiopia
Million Fikiresillassie, Anteneh Argaw, Hiranmai Yadav, Ayele Akuma

the dietary protein requirement of most Ethiopian’s. Faba bean is the first most important pulse in Ethiopia in terms of
production and area coverage. According to the report of CSA (2009), from about 1,585,236 of land under pulses
6,959,837 quintals. Field pea is the third most important pulse crop in Ethiopia after faba bean and chickpea, in terms of
both area and total annual production. According to CSA (2009), field pea covers about 230,749 ha of the total arable
land with a total production of 267,093 tons. Despite its importance, however, the productivity of the field pea is below
1ton/ha, which fluctuates and is far below the potential.
The yield is extremely low due to low soil fertility, smallholder farming and limited access to external inputs (Amare,
1987; EARO, 2000). One of the most important factor of soil fertility is nitrogen (N) deficiency of most Ethiopian soils
(Desta, and Angaw, 1986). Most farmers in the developing countries such as Ethiopia are resource poor and cannot
afford the required inputs, mainly in the form of chemical N fertilizers. Legume-Rhizobium has been exploited elsewhere
as a substitute for the N fertilizers (Aynabeba et al., 2001). Inoculation with selected rhizobia can improve the yield and
yield components of legume plants. Asfaw and Angaw (2006) clearly revealed inoculations with Rhizobium leguminosarus
bv. viciae have significantly improved the N2-fixation, yield and yield components of faba bean and field pea in Ethiopia.
Research carried out at Haramaya university experimental station revealed that rhizobia treated faba bean and field pea
increased the grain yields up to 53% and 32% over the untreated plant, respectively (Anteneh, Unpublished data).
General objective
 To study the effect of rhizobial inoculation on the nitrogen nutrition and yield of faba bean and field pea and
to teach/train the local farmers this novel and best alternative technology to improve their crop production by
using this cost effective and renewable technology.
Specific objective(s)
 To evaluate the N2 fixation and the potential to improve the pool of soil N by faba bean and field pea grown in
three locations in eastern Ethiopia through measurement of the %N derived from the atmosphere (%Ndfa)
using the 15N isotope dilution technique.
 To observe the number of rhizobia nodulating faba bean and field pea in major growing area of Eastern
Ethiopia using plant infection methods.
 To assess the impact of soil physical and chemical properties on indigenous population of rhizobia nodulating
faba bean and field pea.
 To determine the influence of number of indigenous rhizobia on N2 fixation and net N2 fixed from atmosphere
by faba bean and field pea.
 To popularize inoculant preparation (biofertilizer production) to rural farmers found in Eastern Hararghe
Zone of Ethiopia.
Based on the success, to scale up the production at large scale at Haramaya University Research Center (Rare) and
distribute the product to nearby farmers or throughout the country as supportive organic fertilizer that can be applied
together with the synthetic one.
Materials and Method

Phase I
Well characterized rhizobia nodulating faba bean and field pea were obtained from Haramaya University, Biofertilizer
Research and Production Center. These isolates have been verified as superior isolates which have been inoculated on
test crop and improved the grain yield of faba bean and field pea by 53% and 32% over the uninoculated plant at
Haramaya experimental site.
Experimental sites
The study of the effect of inoculation of rhizobia on faba bean and field pea growth was carried out at Boreda,
Garamuleta and Alberekete. These are located in Eastern Ethiopia, Hararghe Highland.
80

Soil samples (0-30 cm) will be collected at random from each experimental site before and after harvesting. A sub sample
of the composite will be air-dried, sieved through a 2 mm screen and analyzed for important soil physico-chemical
properties such as soil pH, EC, available P, total N, exchangeable bases (Na, Ca, Mg, K), B, Mo, total P (organic P and
inorganic P), CEC and soil texture following the procedure indicated in Sahlemedhin Serstu and Taye Bekele (2000).
Inventory of number of rhizobia nodulating faba bean and field pea

The indigenous population of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae were estimated using the most probable number (MPN)
method based on a 10-fold dilution series with faba bean and field pea as the trap host (Vincent, 1970). Plants were
grown in sterile acid treated river sand with the addition of N-free nutrient solution during the experiment. For each
dilution series, pots were established in quadruplicate plus a control. Surface sterilized and pregerminated seedlings were
placed in each pot (three seedlings per pot) and each pot inoculated with 1 ml of soil solution. Pots were placed in a
controlled environmental growth chamber with light-dark cycles of 14/10 h day/night at 25/20°C. Nodulation will be
recorded after 3 weeks and examined again on the fourth week when the experiment will be terminated. The number of
Rhizobium will be calculated using the MPNES computer program (Woomer et al., 1990).
Seed sources and biofertilizer preparation

Seeds of improved faba bean ( var. Gachena) and field pea (var. Metti) were obtained from Haramaya University
highland Pulses Improvement Project. The local varieties currently used for cultivation by local farmers were used as
local cultivar. Biofertilizer from highly effective rhizobia were prepared 1 month prior to seeding by adding 30 ml
rhizobial culture (grown to log phase in Yeast extract Mannitol broth containing 108 of bacteria ml-1 of culture) to 200 g
sterile vermicompost prepared from Parthinium weeds. These was mixed and incubated for 14 days at 27 oC (Pryor et al.,
1998). Then seeds were planted manually to a depth of 1 cm.
Multi-locational inoculum experiment

Multilocational field trials were carried out using selected highly effective rhizobia nodulating faba bean and field pea.
These isolates have been characterized as very effective isolates earlier and they have increased the grain yield of faba
bean and field pea by 53% and 32% over uninoculated plant at Haramaya experimental Site. The experiment was laid out
in a randomized complete block design. All treatments were replicated three times. There were three treatments, which
consisted:
 T1-Rhizobium inoculum1
 T2-Positive control (with starter nitrogen i.e. 20 KgN ha-1)
 T3-Negative control (with no chemical and biofertilizer application)
All seeds were sterilized with alcohol followed by 5% H2O2 to avoid rhizobial contamination and then washed five times
using sterilized water as indicated in Vincent (1970). Seed inoculation was performed before sowing, using 10gm Kg -1
seed (to make approximately 1 x 106 bacterial cells/seed). For inoculated treatment, rhizobia biofertilizers were
separately mixed to the seeds with a 15% (w/v) sucrose solution to increase adherence. All plots were fertilized with
phosphorus fertilizer at the rate of 46 KgP2O5 ha-1 as TSP whereas 20 KgN ha-1 for positive control plots. A week before
planting faba bean or field pea and reference plants, 15N were applied as ammonium sulphate at a rate of 10 kg N ha -
1(10.2 atom %15N) in solution mixed with sugar at a C: N ratio of 10:1 in order to immobilize the 15N more rapidly into
the soil microbial biomass (Giller and Witty, 1987).
Sampling preparation and analyses

Nodulation were assessed at late flowering stage of faba bean and field pea. Randomly selected five plants from border
rows of each plot were uprooted. Soil adhering to the roots was removed by washing with tap water. Nodules attached
to each plant were removed and the nodule color, nodule number, nodule fresh and dry weight, and nodule volume were
separately recorded. At physiological maturity, plants were harvested, so that the outer rows are not used for analysis.
Plants were separated into straw and pods or heads. These plant parts were oven-dried at about 70oC for 48hr. The dried
plant materials were grounded to pass through a 0.5 mm sieve. Total N and % 15N atomic excess (a.e.) of plant samples
were analyzed following the procedure stated in Jensen (1991). Plants obtained from 1 m2 were analyzed for grain yield
and total biomass determinations and the results expressed in kg ha -1.
Evaluation of BNF using 15N –dilution method

The proportion of N in the faba bean and field pea derived from N2 fixation were calculated by the 15N-dilution
methods, using wheat as a reference crop. Based on the assumption that the non-fixing reference plant takes up a similar
proportion of soil-N: fertilizer-15N as the fixing plant the proportion of N derived from the atmosphere can be
calculated as suggested by McAuliffe et al., (1958):
%Ndfffaba bean or field pea/reference =100 x [(%15N a. e. (faba bean or field pea/reference)/ %15N a. e. (fertilizer)],
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%Ndfa= 100 (1- %15N a. e. faba bean or field pea)

%15N a. e. reference plant
N2 fixed (Kg ha-1) = [(%Ndfa x total N in faba bean or field pea (Kg ha-1)]/ 100,
%Ndfs faba bean or field pea = 100 - %Ndff faba bean or field pea - %Ndfa,
B = (Nf + N2 fixed) - Ng
Where: %Ndff is the percentage of N derived from fertilizer, %Ndfa is the percentage of N derived from the
atmosphere, %Ndfs is the percentage of N derived from the soil, and B is soil N balance. The subscripts f and g denote
applied fertilizer (Kg ha-1) and the N removed by faba bean or field pea grains or reference plant straw and grains,
respectively.
Data to be collected
Composite soil samples before planting was collected for soil physico-chemical analysis and enumeration of resident
rhizobia nodulating common bean.
At late flowering and early pod setting stage: numbers of nodule/plant, nodule dry weight/plant, nodule color, leaf
color, shoot dry weight; total plant nitrogen and total plant phosphorus were recorded.
The following parameters were collected at harvesting time: total biomass ha -1, grain yield ha-1, number of seed pod-1 and
number of pod plant-1
Days to emergency, flowering and maturity were recorded.
Six months after harvesting, soil samples were collected separately from each plot, then important soil physic-chemical
and soil biological properties were analyzed following the procedure indicated above.
Results
Six high yielding varieties of Faba bean and field pea were tested at two location (Haramaya and Albereket) using elite
exotic and indigenous isolates of Rhizobia. These experiments were evaluated under field condition at Haramaya
experimental site. So far, nodulation data and plant tissues samples for tissue analysis were collected from each
experiment.

Isolates under control environment and at Haramaya experimental site were performed better than the control. The trial
will be completed after one year in order to provide conclusive results.
References
Amare Abebe, 1987. Effect of inoculation and nitrogen fertilization on yield of common bean in Ethiopia. In:
Proceedings of a Workshop on Bean Research in Eastern Africa. Mukono, Uganda, June 22-25, CIAT African
Workshop Series, 152-159.
Asefaw Hailemariem and Angaw Tsige, 2006. Biological Nitrogen Fixation Research on Food Legumes in Ethiopia. In:
Workshop on Food and Forage Legumes of Ethiopia, pp 172-176,(Kemal Ali, Seid Ahmed, Surendra Beniwal, Gemechu
Kenneni, Rajandra S. Malhotra and Khaled Makkouk eds). ICARDA, Aleppo,Syria.
Ayneabeba Adamu, Fassil Assefa, Asfaw Hailemariam and Endashaw Bekele, 2001. Studies of Rhizobium inoculation and
fertilizer treatment on growth and production of Faba bean (Vicia faba) in some ‘yield-depleted’ and ‘yield-sustained’
regions of Semien Shewa. SINAT: Ethiopia J. Scie. 24(2): 197-211.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA), 2009. Estimation of area production and yield of crops for 2007/2008 and
Desta Beyene and Angaw Tsige, 1986. The response of pulse crops to N and P fertilizers.In: Soil Science Research.
EARO, 2000. Lowland pulses research strategy. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp.1-39.
82
1.8.16 Effect of Integrated Pest and Soil Fertility Management On Nodulation and Grain
Yield of Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) in Eastern Ethiopia
Anteneh Argaw, Mashilla Dejene, Million Fikiresillassie, Ayele Akuma

Groundnut is a recent introduction to Ethiopia, and is widely grown in the eastern part of the country, i. e. Hararghe
(Yebio et al., 1987). Gradually it is well produced in the eastern, western and northwestern lowlands of Ethiopia (Getinet
and Nigussie, 1992), and to some extent in the south (Elias, 1992). In Ethiopia, groundnut is cultivated predominantly
by the traditional and undeveloped farming community under rainfed conditions. It occupies about 41,761 hectares of
land with a corresponding gross annual production of 46, 887 metric tons (CSA, 2009). The yield of groundnut in
Ethiopia compared to other countries is very low i.e. below 1.1 ton ha -1 as compared to average yield on a global scale
i.e. 1.52 ton ha-1 but with good management practices the yield could reach about 3.0 ton ha-1 (CSA, 2009; FAOSTAT,
2009). This shows that the yield in Ethiopia is extremely low mainly due to low soil fertility, prevalence of soilborne
diseases, smallholder farming and limited access to external inputs. Groundnut root rot, caused by different soilborne
pathogenic fungi is one of the important diseases resulting in heavy losses both in quantity and in quality (Amare,
personal communication).
Control of soilborne pathogen requires an integrated approach that includes rotation with non-hosts, planting resistant
cultivars, and applications of fungicides. However, the repeated use of such chemicals encourages the development of
resistance in the target pathogen (Goldman et al., 1994), and has a negative effect on beneficial organisms and their
physiological activities, which is important to soil fertility (Wani et al., 2005). An alternative for protecting crops from
diseases is biocontrol with organic amendments. Organic amendments are applied to induce the production of
fungitoxic compounds such as organic acids or ammonia.
General objective
 To evaluate the effect of integrated pest and soil fertility management on prevalence of soil-borne pathogens,
nodulation, grain yield and physico-chemical and biological properties of soils.
Specific objective(s)
 To assess the plant growth-promoting bacteria including rhizobia of groundnut and their antagonistic
properties against soil-borne fungal pathogen;
 To investigate the interaction of fungicide seed treatment and rhizobia inoculation in the management of fungal
root rot and their effects on nodulation and dry matter accumulation of ground nut;
 To determine the effect of carbamate fungicides on the incidence of soilborne fungal pathogens and
microflora at Babille, and Gursum areas;
 To evaluate the effect of integrated crop management on soil-borne fungal pathogen, nodulation and grain
yield of ground nut;
 To assess the effect of integrated crop management on soil total number of bacteria, fungal populations, total
actinomycetes, aerobic N-fixing bacteria, denitrifying bacteria and nitrifying bacteria;
 To determine the suppressiveness of an array of composts against soil borne fungal pathogens of groundnut
and to select compost characteristics that predict suppressiveness against soil-borne diseases.
Materials and Method

Phase-I
Screening of plant growth promoting microorganisms
Pathogenic Fungal strains
Fungal strain will be isolated from the naturally infested groundnut growing areas from Babile and Fedis, where
groundnut infestation has been serious for several years. The fungus will be grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA)
medium at 28±2oC in the dark. Fungal outgrowth will be subcultured in fresh media to obtain pure culture.
Collection of rhizosphere soils, nodule and plant specimens
Nodules samples were collected from Babille, Bisidimo, Gellemso and Fedis. Rhizosphere soil and plant specimen’s
samples were collected from peanut growing fields when the crop was 45 days old and brought to the laboratory in
polythene bags. Root nodules were collected from field standing plants when available in the respective locations and
stored in labeled McCartney bottles containing silica gel for later isolation of rhizobia following Somasegaran and Hoben
(1994).
83
Isolation of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria

Rhizosphere microbes were isolated from rhizosphere soils using the method of Glick et al. (1995). Bacteria, fungi and
actinomycete were isolated using nutrient agar, potato dextrose agar (PDA) and GLM [yeast extract 3 g l –1, malt extract 3
g l–1, peptone 5 g l–1, glucose 10 g l–1, agar 20 g l–1 at pH 7.2] media, respectively. Inocula consisting of 0.1 ml of dilutions
10–3, 10–4 and 10–5 in the physiological water (NaCl 9g l–1) of the samples of soil were spread over the surface of the
three culture media. The plates were incubated at 28±2oC. The GLM medium with inocula were incubated and observed
after 2–4 weeks. The remaining plates were incubated. The colonies of actinomycetes and fungi were recognized
according to their macroscopic characteristic aspect by light microscopy (magnification × 100), then purified, and
transferred to GLM and PDA slants, respectively, and preserved at 4 oC.
The 2-month old crops of groundnut were dugout carefully and placed in sterile polythene bags, taken to the laboratory
and processed within 2 days after collection. For isolation of endophytic microbes, 5 g of leaves were separated by
excising the leaf, stem and root to represent the sample to whole plant. Putative endophytic microbial strains were
isolated separately from leaf, root, and stem of each groundnut plant by following the method of Zinniel et al. (2002).
The plant parts were surface sterilized, 5 g of leaf, stem, and root sections were macerated individually with sterile
mortar and pestle. The tissue extracts were diluted in 12.5 mm potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.1) and plated on
nutrient agar and potato dextrose agar media for isolation of endophytic microbes. The plates were maintained at
28±2oC for 48 –72 h, total colonies were enumerated and pure cultured on slants. Rhizobia were isolated from the
preserved nodules following Somasegaran and Hoben (1994). All the isolates were sub-cultured at monthly intervals and
maintained as stabs at 4oC in a refrigerator.
Nodulation and nitrogen fixation assay

The nodulation experiment was carried out on groundnut using the methods previously described by Somasegran and
Hoben (1994). Surface-sterilized groundnut seeds were germinated axenically in Petri dishes. Seedlings were transferred
to sterilized growth pouches and watered with N-free nutrient solution. Three plants on each growth pouch were
inoculated with 1 ml of a bacterial suspension of each strain containing 8 × 10 8 cells/ml. The inoculated plants were
placed for two months in a plant growth chamber. Finally, all-important parameters were evaluated.
Quantification of plant growth promoting attributes

Selected isolates, which resulted in the enhancement of root growth, was further tested for their ability to produce
siderophore in CAS agar plates, typed, and quantified in broth, IAA-like substances, solubilization of tri-calcium
phosphate and ammonification. Siderophore production was detected by observing orange halos around bacterial
growth on CAS agar plates (Schwyn and Neilands, 1987) after 72 h of growth. Catechol type of siderophore was
quantified by the method of Arnow (1937), modified by Carson et al. (1992) in iron-free liquid medium.
Production of IAA
The presence of IAA-like substances was detected and quantified following the method of Sarwar and Kremer (1995) in
L-tryptophan agar. A 1ml each of 24 h growth of the isolates in Kings’ B (King et al., 1954) broth was pour plated into
L-tryptophan agar in triplicate and incubated at 28±2oC for 24h in the dark. After incubation, the agar growth beads
(three beads, approximately 0.24cm3) was placed in freshly prepared Salkowsky reagent (Sarwar and Kremer, 1995) in
triplicate, from each Petri dish and incubated in the dark for 30 min for development of pink colour and measured
spectrophotometrically at 595 m using IAA as standard. The amount of IAA produced was expressed as mg l -1.
Phosphate solubilization
Solubilization of tri-calcium phosphate was quantified in Pikovskaya’s (1948) broth. Each flask containing 100 ml of
Pikovskaya broth having 500 mg of tri-calcium phosphate was inoculated with 0.5 ml of 24 h broth culture of each
isolate in triplicate and incubated in a rotary shaker (240 rpm) at 28±2 oC for 4 days. The culture was centrifuged at
15,000 rpm for 10 min and the supernatant collected in 100 ml volumetric flasks. Volume of the supernatant was filled
to 100 ml with distilled water. Water-soluble phosphorus in the supernatant was determined by the chloromolybdic acid
method of King (1932) modified by Jackson (1967). Spectrophotometric measurement was taken at 660 m.
Ammonia production
For the detection of ammonia production, all the isolates were grown in test tubes containing peptone water: 10.0 g
peptone; 5.0 g NaCl; 1000 ml distilled water; 7.0 pH (Dye, 1962). The tubes were inoculated with 100 ml of 24 h grown
cultures in broth and incubated at 30oC for 4 days. The accumulation of ammonia was detected by adding Nessler’s
reagent (0.5 ml tube-1). A faint yellow colour indicated a small amount of ammonia, and deep yellow to brownish colour
indicated maximum production of ammonia.
84
Cyanide production
Cyanide production was detected as described by Castric (1975). Petri plates containing 10% Trypticase soy agar
supplemented with 4.4 g of glycine per liter was inoculated with the microbe and inverted after a piece of filter paper,
impregnated with 0.5% picric acid and 2% sodium carbonate, placed in the lid of each Petri dish. The plates were
incubated at 28oCfor 3 to 5 days. A change in color from yellow to orange-brown on the filter paper indicated cyanide
production.
Volatile antifungal compounds

The production of volatile antifungal compounds by the isolate will be assayed by a sealed plate method as described by
Fiddman and Rossal (1993). As a control, a Petri dish containing agar medium without antagonistic isolate will be placed
over the PDA medium inoculated with the fungal pathogen. Fungal growth will be measured as increases in radial
growth of the test fungus over 24h intervals for a period of 5 days. Each test was replicated 3 times.
Enzyme assays
The culture was centrifuged at 10,000g for 10 min and the culture supernatant used as a source of enzymes. Protease,
chitinase and glucanase activities was determined as described by Oceguera-Cervantes et al. (2007), Vyas and Deshpande
(1989) and Gohel et al. (2007), respectively. One unit of protease, chitinase and glucanase activity was defined as the
amount of enzyme required to liberate 1 mmole of tyrosine, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and glucose, respectively, per hour
at 55 oC (protease) or 50 oC (chitinase and glucanase activity).
In vitro antagonism against soil borne fungal pathogenic

Inhibition of fungal pathogen by collected microbes was determined in vitro on PDA following Huanga et al. (2006).
Plugs of 5-mm diameter mycelia was removed from the colony margin (5- to 7-dold cultures), inverted, and placed in the
centre of the PDA plates. Four plugs of 5-mm diameter mycelia of four different antagonstic fungal colonies from each
treatment was inverted and placed around fungal pathogen 24 h later. For antagonstic actinomycetes and bacteria, four
agar plugs about 1–2mm from four different microbes placed around pathogenic fungi. As the control, pathogen was
inoculated in the centre of the plates without any antagonstic microorganisms around it. Treatments were replicated
three times. The plates were incubated for 5–7 d at 28±2oC. A test was considered positive when a clear inhibition zone
(>2 mm) was observed around the plugs of rhizosphere microorganisms in three replicate plates.
Growth curve of plant growth promoting microbes (PGPM) isolates capable of utilizing seed leachates as the
sole source of Carbon and Nitrogen
For determining the ability of the selected PGPM in utilizing the seed leachate as the sole source of C and N, seed
leachate was extracted from 1 kg of peanut seed soaked overnight in 3 l of deionized water. The entire amount was
sterilized by passage through membrane filter assembly (0.22 mm). The seed leachate (50 ml, pH 7.0) was taken in 250
ml Erlenmeyer flask. The PGPM isolates was grown overnight in Kings’ B broth and 100 ml of each isolate (OD 1.2 at
600 µm) was used for inoculating the seed leachate, in triplicate. The flasks were incubated at 28±2 oC in a rotary shaker
(240 rpm). The OD of each isolate, in triplicate, was measured in a spectrophotometer at 0, 20, 26, 44 and 68 h of
growth at 600 µm. The growth curve was prepared by plotting OD against time.
In vitro survival of rhizobia with fungicide

Recommended Groundnut variety seeds were surface sterilized according to Vincent (1970). The experiment was
conducted with two treatments [Rhizobium (R), mancozeb + Rhizobium] in a complete randomized design (CRD). Each
treatment has four replications. Sterilized seeds were treated with the fungicide mancozeb followed Rhizobium inoculant.
In the Rhizobium alone treatment, 1 X 107 cells g-1 of charcoal-based inoculant will be applied to sterilized seeds. Seeds
were air dried for 15 min and stored at 4oC. After 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 h of inoculation, 40 seeds were picked
randomly from each treatment aseptically and divided into four subsamples of 10 seeds. Each subsample were
transferred to test tubes containing 10 ml of sterile water and shaken vigorously on a vortex for 30 s to wash the
inoculum from seeds. One millilitre of the resultant suspension from each treatment was diluted serially and 0.1 ml of
aliquout from each dilution was pipetted on yeast extract mannitol agar (YEMA) plates. Rhizobium colonies was counted
after incubation at 28 ± 28oC for 7 days.
Phase-II
Preparation of compost and in vitro assessment of its antagonism against pathogenic fungi
Preparation of compost and vermicopost
The preparation of composts and vermicomposts will be processed locally available organic wastes (Parthenium
hysterophorus) with different animal manure (cow dung, poultry manure and goat manure). The Parthenium plants will be
collected before flowering to avoid the health consequences resulting from the pollen and also prevent an effective
germination of the parthenium seeds during a favorable condition. These plants will be cut into smaller parts for easy
degradation process. Water will be applied to the composts by sprinkling to maintain optimum moisture content. The
85
African earthworm (Eudrillus eugeniae) will be introduced to materials after thirty days of degradation. Sampling for
analysis of the vermicomposts and composts will be done in different stages of composting. The experiment will be
processed with the following treatment:
 T1- Organic waste + cow-dung

 T2- Organic waste + poultry manure
 T3- Organic waste + goat manure
 T4- Organic waste + cow-dung + Eudrillus eugeniae
 T5- Organic waste + poultry manure + Eudrillus eugeniae
 T6- Organic waste + goat manure + Eudrillus eugeniae
In vitro inhibition assays of pathogenic fungi by water extracts from compost and vermicompost
Water extracts from different compost and vermicompost will be prepared using the following procedure: 10 g of dry
compost or vermicopost powder will be suspended in 300 ml distilled water and the suspension will be boiled for 10
min, shaken for 24 h at 100 rpm. It will be briefly centrifuged and filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The
filtrate will be then sterilized by a bacterial filter and stored as stock solution at 4 0C. In vitro inhibition assay will be
assessed following the procedure of Huanga et al., (2006).
Compost and vermicompost quality assessment

The different composts and vermicomposts will be analyzed for their physico-chemical, macro and micronutrient
contents, and microbial status and compared with their fresh form. The microorganisms will be enumerated by the
standard 10-fold dilution method. Soil suspensions at appropriate dilution rates will be inoculated onto plates containing
appropriate media. Agar media for growing bacteria and to actinomycota, fungi will be beef extract peptone, (soluble
starch 20 g, KNO3 1 g, NaCl 0.5 g, K2HPO4 0.5 g, MgSO4 0.5 g, FeSO4 0.01 g, agar 20 g, distilled water 1000 ml, pH
7.2), Martin medium (glucose 10 g, peptone 5 g, KH2PO4 1 g,MgSO4 0.5 g, rose bengal 30µg, streptomycin 0.03 g,
distilled water 1000 ml).
Total lipid content will be determined by extraction with diethyl ether and later weighing. Water-soluble phenolic
substances were measured by a modified version of the Folin method (Maestro et al., 1991). To determine the
germination index (GI), eight Cress (Lepidium sativum L.) germination will be followed each Petri dish (10 for each stage)
for 72 h, according to the method of Zucconi et al. (1981). Tap water will be used as control. GI will computed as the
product of the percentage of viable seeds by the percentage of root length divided by 100. As in all tests noted above,
these analyses will be performed in duplicate.
Phase-III
This phase is greenhouse and field in vivo experiment and data analysis is under way. The treatments for greenhouse
experiment are:
 T1- Organic waste + cow-dung
 T2- Organic waste + poultry manure
 T3- Organic waste + goat manure
 T4- Organic waste + cow-dung + Eudrillus eugeniae
 T5- Organic waste + poultry manure + Eudrillus eugeniae
 T6- Organic waste + goat manure + Eudrillus eugeniae
 T7- Unamended treatment
 The treatments for Field trial experiment are:
 T1- PGPM (rhizosphere microbe)
 T2- PGPM (endophytic microbe)
 T3-PGPM ( effective Rhizobium)
 T4- PGPM (rhizosphere microbe) + PGPM (endophytic microbe
 T5- PGPM ( effective Rhizobium) + PGPM (rhizosphere microbe)
 T6-PGPM ( effective Rhizobium) + PGPM (endophytic microbe)
 T7- mancozeb
 T8- PGPM (rhizosphere microbe) + mancozeb
 T9- PGPM (endophytic microbe) + mancozeb
 T10-PGPM ( effective Rhizobium) + mancozeb
 T11- PGPM (rhizosphere microbe) + PGPM (endophytic microbe) + mancozeb
 T12- PGPM ( effective Rhizobium) + PGPM (rhizosphere microbe) + mancozeb
86
 T13-PGPM ( effective Rhizobium) + PGPM (endophytic microbe) + mancozeb

 T14- PGPM (rhizosphere microbe) + PGPM (endophytic microbe) + PGPM (effective Rhizobium)
 T15- PGPM (rhizosphere microbe) + PGPM (endophytic microbe) + PGPM (effective Rhizobium) + Mancozeb
 T16- Control (with no amendment)
Results
More than 60 rhizosphere soils were collected from major groundnut growing areas of Eastern Ethiopia (Gursum,
Babile, Fedis and Awale). Symbiotic and rhizosphere microorganisms were isolated following formal procedure.
Symbiotic Bradyrhizobia spp. was tested for symbiotic effectiveness in growth chamber. Integrated applications of soil
management (compost, manure, Bradyrhizobium sp. and chemical fertilizers) were tested at babile and fedis. The number
of wilted plant significantly reduced by good soil managements. Moreover, at the time of surveying of groundnut
growing sites, co-existance of termite infestation at early stage of wilting with black rot of groundnut root at late stage
was observed.
References
Central Statistical Authority (CSA), 2009. Estimation of area production and yield of crops for 2007/2008 and 2008/2009
Elias Urage, 1992. Correlation and performance study of Groundnut (Arachis hypogeal L.) Varieties in Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis
Alemaya University of Agriculture, Ethiopia.
Getnet Alemaw and Nigussie Alemayehu, 1992. Production and Research on Oilseeds in Ethiopia. In: Oilseeds research and
Development in Ethiopia. Proceeding of the first National Oilseeds workshop. 3-5 December 1991, IAR, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, pp. 5-12.
Yebio, W., Seme, D., Asfaw, Z., Amare, A., Abebe, T. and Beniwal, B., 1987. Research on Groundnut Pigeonpea and Chickpea
in Ethiopia. In Summary Proc. Consultative Group Meeting for Eastern and Central African Regional Research on Grain
Legumes (Groundnut Pigeonpea and Chickpea), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Wani, P. A., Zaidi, A., Khan, A. A. And Khan, M. S., 2005. Effect of phorate on phosphate solubilization and indole acetic
acid releasing potentials of rhizospheric microorganisms. Ann. Pl. Protect. Sci. 13: 139–144. http://faostat.fao.org/, verified
in December 06, 2009.
87
1.8.17 Effect of Khat Compost on Yield and Yield Components of Potato at Haramaya
Experimental Site
Anteneh Argaw and Eyasu Mekonnen

Awaday city produce and accumulate enormous quantities of Khat leftover, the elimination of which causes tremendous
environmental problems. This waste can be deposed of in controlled dumps, incinerated, or re-cycled into agriculture.
First, the organic waste can be incorporated without relevantly altering the balance in the environment; and, second, the
incorporation of organic waste increased organic matter as well as fertilizing constituents. The khat leftover compost is
known to contain relatively high quantities of organic matter and offered organic carbon (C) and energy necessary for
biologic activity in the soil (Eyasu, unpublished data). It also favorably affected the physical, physio-chemical, and
chemical properties of agricultural soils. One major problem with the application of compost was the lack of consistency
in crop response. In some cases, the application of compost improved the fertility of agricultural soils and increased crop
productivity, while in other cases, the application produced no significant effect at all.
General objective
 To evaluate the influence of different rates of khat compost application on three varieties of potato at
Haramaya University
Results
Well-prepared and stable compost prepared from khat left over was used to evaluate the effect on yield and yield
components of three varieties of potato at Haramaya Experimental site. At vegetative stage, we have observed
pronounced improvement of potato biomass at higher rate of compost application.

Compost was tested in soil laboratory and has low C/N ration with high plant nutrients. The trial will be completed
after two months in order to provide conclusive results.
1.8.18 Evaluation of the Multiplication of Earthworm in Different Animal Manure
Anteneh Argaw and Eyasu Mekonnen

The importance of earthworms in the breakdown of organic matter and the release of the nutrients that it contains has
been known for a long time (Darwin, 1881). It has been demonstrated clearly that some species of earthworms are
specialized to live specifically in decaying organic matter and can degrade it into fine particulate materials rich in available
nutrients with considerable commercial potential as plant growth media and soil amendments (Edwards and Bohlen,
1996). Most organic wastes can be broken down by earthworms, but not all organic wastes will grow earthworms equally
well.
Objective
 To evaluate the influence of different animal manure on the multiplication of earthworm under control
condition.
Results
This experiment was conducted using plastic container under controlled management. The suitability of different
manure (cowdung, goat manure, poultry manure and swine manure) were evaluated with Parthenium weed as bulking
material. The experiment showed that number of earthworm and coccuns in cowdung and goat manure were scored
significantly higher than swine manure and poultry manure. On the other hand, poultry manure killed all earthworms,
which indicate that it is unsuitable medium for multiplication of earthworm.
References
Darwin, C., 1881. The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms, with Observations of Their
Habits, Murray, London.
Edwards, C.A. and Bohlen, P.J. 1996. The Biology and Ecology of Earthworms, Chapman & Hall, London.
88
1.9.1 Animal and Range Sciences
Feeding Value of Ground Prosopis Juliflora Pods in Layers and Broiler Rations
Meseret Girma, Mengistu Urge, and Getachew Animut
Abstract: This study was conducted to evaluate feeding value of ground Prosopis juliflora pods in
layers and broiler rations at Poultry Farm of Haramaya University. The overall objective of the study
was to generate information on chemical composition, and performance of layers and broilers fed
ration containing graded levels of ground Prosopis juliflora pods (GPJP). One hundred eighty 26-
week old Bovans Brown commercial layers (experiment one) and three hundred ninety six Hubbard
Classic commercial day old broiler chicks (experiment two) were used for the experiment. The
treatment rations contained GPJP at inclusion levels of 0 (T1), 10 (T2), 20 (T3) and 30% (T4) of the
total ration. Both experiments were arranged in a completely randomized design and each treatment
was replicated three times. The replicates consists 15 layers and 33 broiler chicks. The rations were
formulated to be isocaloric and isonitrogenous with 2800 kcal ME/kg DM and about 16.0% crude
protein (CP) to meet requirements of layers and about 3060 kcal ME/kg DM and 22% CP; 3100 kcal
ME/kg DM and 18% CP to meet the nutrient requirements of broiler during the starter and finisher
phases, respectively. Experiment one lasted for 12 weeks, during which dry matter intake (DMI),
initial body weight, final body weight, body weight change, hen day egg production, egg mass, egg
weight, feed conversion ratio, egg quality parameters were recorded and economic analysis were
undertaken to evaluate the benefits of including GPJP in layers ration. Broilers experiment lasted for a
total of 45 days (1-21 days starter, and 22-45 days finisher phase) during which feed and nutrient
intakes, live body weight, feed conversion ratio, mortality, carcass yield characteristics, gastro intestinal
tract weight and length were recorded as well as economic analysis. Fatty acids composition, sensory
characteristics, and chemical composition of breast and thigh muscles and blood hemathology were
also assessed to determine effect of GPJP on product quality and broiler health. Data were subjected
to analysis of variance for all parameters considered. Chemical composition of GPJP used for layers
ration were 12.1% CP, 7.3% ether extract (EE), 14.4% crude fiber (CF) and 82.3μg/100g β-carotene.
Corresponding values for CP, EE and CF of GPJP used for broiler were 15.43, 6.01, and 14.6%,
respectively. The results showed that dry matter intake and hen day egg production (HDEP) was
lower (P < 0.05) for T4 than T1 and T2 and that of egg mass was significantly (P < 0.05) lower for T4
than T1 (DMI: 111.4, 111.8, 110.5 and 105.4 g/day (SEM = 1.92); HDEP: 67.2, 67.7, 62.7 and 60.0%
(SEM = 0.02); egg mass: 44.0, 43.8, 41.3 and 39.6 g/day (SEM = 1.49) for T1, T2, T3 and T4,
respectively). Except for egg yolk color, which was greater (P < 0.05) for T4 than other treatments, all
egg quality parameters were similar among treatments. Therefore, the overall layers performance
revealed that up to 20% GPJP inclusion in layers ration is recommendable, and treatment with 10%
GPJP in the ration appeared to be more economical. Higher level of GPJP inclusion in broilers ration
also impacted some performance parameters. Feed intake during finisher phase (3387, 3340, 3337 and
3280 g (SEM = 29.54)) and the entire experiment period (4369, 4321, 4313 and 4248 g (SEM =
27.41)), final live weight at the end of starter, finisher and the entire experiment (1837.6, 1854.1,
1798.2 and 1639.5 g (SEM = 63.55)) period, average daily gain (ADG) (40.8, 41.2, 39.9 and 36.4 g/d
(SEM = 1.41)), and feed conversion ratio (2.3, 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5 (SEM = 0.070)) during the entire
experiment period, for T1, T2, T3 and T4, respectively, were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in T4 than
at least T1. Among carcass yield parameter, drum stick weight was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in T4
than T1 and T2. There was no adverse effect of GPJP inclusion in broiler ration on fatty acid
composition, sensory characteristics and chemical composition of breast and thigh meat of broiler.
Hematological responses of broilers was similar between the treatments, except monocyte percentage,
which was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in T4 as compared to the other treatments, and more lesions
were observed on the intestine of birds at higher level of GPJP inclusion (30%), which may indicate
the negative effect of high level of GPJP inclusion in broilers ration on immune response of birds.
Overall, the result showed that broilers performance, product quality, and health are not hampered by
inclusion of GPJP up to 20% of the total ration. Therefore, we conclude that inclusion of GPJP in
poultry ration at lower level (maximum of 20%) reduces feed cost and decreases the invasion of
rangeland by Prosopis juliflora plant, since the seed is used after it is crushed.
Keywords: Ground Prosopis Juliflora Pods; Egg Quality; Growth; Fatty Acid Composition; Sensory
Characterstics; Meat Composition and Hematology
89
Introduction
The average intake of protein of animal origin in developing countries is as low as 15 g per person per day, compared
with almost 60 g in developed countries (FAO, 2011). Poultry meat and eggs are estimated to contribute about 33 % of
the total animal protein supply in low income food deficient developing countries (FAO, 2010) indicating the role
chicken can play in filling the discrepancy between demand for and supply of animal protein. However, feed among
others became an important challenge for efficient and economical poultry production in such countries. Feed cost
alone accounts for about 80% of the total animal production cost (El Boushy and Van Der Poel, 2000). Any attempt to
improve poultry production and increase its efficiency therefore, needs to focus on the utilization of locally available and
affordable new ingredients that can reduce the competition that exists between human and poultry for conventional
ingredients (Kamalzadeh et al., 2008). As a result, there is a worldwide interest in the search for new feed resources that
are capable of supplementing traditional poultry dietary ingredients (Jurgen et al., 1998). This requires evaluation of the
new feed and determination of optimum level of inclusion in diet formulation to achieve acceptable level of animal
performance without jeopardizing animal wellbeing. In this context, ground Prosopis juliflora pod (GPJP) has been
considered as one of the potential feed ingredient in poultry ration formulation.
Prosopis juliflora is a leguminous tree that is native to arid and semi-arid regions of the world (Harris et al., 2003). It is
present in North America, Africa and Asia, having multi-seeded curved pods with hardened pericarp (Habit and
Saavedra, 1988). In Ethiopia, P. juliflora is considered as one of the invasive weeds rapidly invading the agro and silvo-
pastoral land, making the rangelands inaccessible to livestock (Sertse and Pasiecznik, 2005). The eradication of P. juliflora
is posing a grave challenge because of the hardy nature of the plant. Eradication of the plant by cutting as well as
burning has been proven extremely difficult. As such, its exploitation as a resource was proposed to be a better approach
to reduce its invasiveness (Pasiecznik, 2002). Accordingly, several strategies of Prosopis utilization as a resource were
designed and implemented by the government of Ethiopia in order to reduce its propagation (Dubale, 2006) Among
these are economic utilization of the tree and its products (example, charcoal) and the use of the pod with the seed after
grounding as one of the ingredient in animal feed.
Prosopis juliflora pods have been used in poultry diets and produced encouraging results. Studies in Brazil showed that
100% replacement of wheat bran with P. juliflora pod flour to have similar impact on most layers performance (Silva,
1984), although another study (Silva et al., 2002) reported that inclusion of P. juliflora pod at 30% of the ration reduced
egg mass, weight, and feed to egg mass ratio. Zein Elabdin and Mukhtar (2011) reported that soaked P. juliflora seed flour
replaced 50% of sesame meal in broiler diets without negative effect on performance. AL-Beitawi et al. (2010) noted
heavier body weight, faster growth, and better feed conversion efficiency in broilers fed ration containing 20% GPJP as
a substitute for corn without causing significant change on dressing percentage and carcass cut. Furthermore, replacing
maize up to 20% with GPJP (Choudhary et al., 2005), and inclusion at a rate of 10% of GPJP in the ration (Vanker et al.,
1998) resulted in no adverse effects on performance of broilers. Using P. juliflora meals is advantageous in that it bears its
pods during the driest months of the year making it possible to use its pods in animal ration formulation when
availability of other ingredients is scarce, thereby offsetting high cereal prices. However, information on the use of GPJP
in layers and broilers ration in general is limited, and is non-existent in Ethiopia to convince feed manufacturers and
farmers to use it as replacement for cereal grains in poultry ration formulation.
Although the use of P. juliflora meals as ingredient in the ration of animals is promising, there are problems reported to
hamper its utilization at higher proportion in the ration of animals. Among the problems noted are its content of heat
labile anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitor and hemagglutinin (Del Valle et al., 1983), which are capable of
inducing adverse effects especially in monogastric animals when consumed without adequate processing (Apata, 2003).
Moreover, few reports indicated that P. juliflora consumption has an adverse effect on livestock product quality (Beruk,
2003; Dawit, 2010). According to the perception of pastoralists in Amibara district, Afar region of Ethiopia, goat and
camel milk obtained from animals fed P. juliflora has a bitter taste. They also claim that it reduces milk and butter yield,
and meat from prosopis fed goat has poor quality in terms of appearance (pale color) and flavor (Dawit, 2010). Similarly,
Beruk (2003) reported that milk obtained from goat, cow and camel fed diet based on P. juliflora has a bitter taste. Some
health associated problems such as stomach poisoning by the pod is reported to induce a permanent impairment of the
ability to digest cellulose due to depression of the rumen cellulolytic bacterial activity (Abiyot and Getachew, 2006).
Disfiguration of goats’ jaws due to consumption of hard pods of P. juliflora and tooth decay was perceived to be a major
problem. These dental problems impair the health of the goats and in some cases causes’ death due to starvation (Esther
and Swallow, 2008). However, the above mentioned quality problems on livestock products are not supported by
scientific justifications, and we could not find a quantitative study that shows the impact of P. juliflora pod consumption
on livestock product quality and health. But, there are few evidences which show that animal performance, such as milk
yield (Abedelnoor et al., 2009), egg production (Silva et al., 2002; Meseret et al., 2011a) and growth (Choudhary et al.,
2005; AL-Beitawi et al., 2010; Meseret et al., 2011b) are hampered by high level of P. juliflora consumption or its inclusion
in livestock diet at higher level. This work addressed effects of graded levels of P. juliflora pod inclusion in layers and
broilers ration on performance, product quality and health status of animals.
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General Background
Description and Properties of Prosopis juliflora
Prosopis juliflora is a perennial deciduous thorny shrub or small tree that can grow up to 10 m tall, with a trunk up to 1.2
meters in diameter. P. juliflora belongs to the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae), subfamily Mimosoideae and genus Prosopis.
It is armed with stipular spines 0.5-5 cm long and leaves have 1-4 pair of pinnae. The number of leaflets could be 6-29
pairs with sizes 6-23 mm x 1.5-5.5 mm and glabrous surfaces. Flowers are yellowish in speciform racemes, 5-15 cm long.
The pod is pale brown, linear, slightly curved, 8-29 cm x 0.8-1.7 cm, compressed and with a sugary-pulpy mesocarp. It
has a deep about 53 m to very deep well meshed root system that grows deeply downward in search of water tables. P.
juliflora is a rapidly growing plant, which starts to bear fruit starting from 2–3 years of age.
Prosopis juliflora is dry land tree or shrub native to South America, Central America and the Caribbean. It has been
introduced and naturalized in many parts of the world (Pasiecznik et al., 2004). However, despite its qualities and uses in
its natural range, P. juliflora has become a serious invading weed introduced into non-native areas without proper
management (Hailu et al., 2004). Of the invasive woody weeds, P. juliflora is the one that forms dense jungles of brush,
which sharply reduces range production, and its accessibility to browsing animals.
Prosopis juliflora is a plant adapted to rocky, warm and dry tropical climates. It is capable of growing on inhospitable
habitats such as rocky and saline soils under adverse climatic conditions (Saxena, 1993; Dagar, 1998). It grows well in
areas receiving low annual rainfall without losing any of its leaves during the long dry season. Due to its enormous
potential for reproduction, it rapidly spreads and quickly occupies an area once it is established. In Ethiopia, it occurs at
altitudes of 450 to 1000 m.a.s.l. currently; it invaded large areas in the Afar and Somali Regional States (Asfaw and
Thulin 1989; Getachew, 2002; Pasiecznik et al., 2004). Prosopis juliflora is reported to grow in areas with annual
precipitation of 150 to1670 mm, annual temperature of 20.3-28.5°C and a pH of around neutral (Duke, 1983). It often
colonizes disturbed, eroded, and over-grazed lands, forming dense impenetrable thickets. Thickets of P. juliflora have
become established in grazing lands, croplands and along river courses, alarming pastoralists, farmers and
conservationists (WAC, 2009). According to the report of world agro forestry centre, experience of many countries
showed that P. juliflora is extremely difficult and costly to eradicate once it takes root. A more sustainable option might
be better management through collective use and harvesting of marketable products. Felker et al. (1984) reported the
yield of pods to range from 7.2 to 90 kg/tree/year. According to Shukla et al. (1986) a hectare of P. juliflora plantation
could yield about 12 tones of pods year.
Prosopis juliflora is propagated through its seeds, root suckers, and hardwood cuttings. The seeds can germinate under
considerable moisture stress and temperature that ranges between 20- 40 oC (Hailu et al., 2004). The most important
reasons for its fast invasion into semiarid and arid ecosystems are due to the role of livestock and wild animals in
dispersal of the seeds (Heady and Child, 1994). Accordingly, livestock trailed at the rate of 15 km per day would
transport the seeds in their digestive tracts more than 100 km in a week’s time.
Uses of Prosopis juliflora

The English, French, Spanish and Portuguese introduced Prosopis around the world over the past 200 years, as they were
seen to be very useful and drought resistant species. In hot dry parts of the Americas, Prosopis are common, and are
important for people providing many with much needed resources. The wood is an excellent fuel, the timber hard and
comparable to the finest hardwoods. The sweet nutritious pods are relished by all livestock, and human are made it into
different foods and drinks. Honey from the flowers is high quality, the gum is similar to gum arabic and leaves can be
used as mulch, reducing pests and weeds. Also, as nitrogen fixing tree it improves the land and can reclaim saline soils
(Sertse and Pasiecznik, 2005).
In Ethiopia P. juliflora has both economic and ecological benefits, which can be summarized as follows. It can be used
for fuel wood, charcoal production, livestock feed (especially during drought periods when no other green feeds are
available), live fence, honey production, shade to human and livestock, ornamental crafts, for changing the landscape of
the arid region, changing the micro environmental condition, for soil protection and as wind break and for improving
soil nitrogen and land reclamation of soil salinity problem that helps in mitigation of desertification (Abiyot and
Getachew, 2006; Dubale, 2006). Prosopis also served for mitigation of desertification by colonizing abandoned
farmlands due to salinity problems. Soils under the crowns of Prosopis in the desert usually have ten times more
nitrogen (0.3%) than those under non-nitrogen fixers’ trees (Bhatia, 1998).
Negative Impacts of Prosopis juliflora

Due to severe environmental degradation in arid areas, the ecosystem has lost its natural immunity to react against
invasive species. Thus, P. juliflora has become a problematic species expanding at an alarming rate. It is fast growing,
drought resistant, with a remarkable copping power. Such unique adaptive traits of the species have negative impact for
local biodiversity and ecosystems (Getachew and Abiyot, 2004; Hailu et al., 2004).
The sharp, strong, and poisonous thorns of P. juliflora were cited as a major problem. Thorns make it difficult for
animals to penetrate the dense thickets of prosopis. Study in Kenya around Lake Baringo revealed that invasion of
prosopis on communal grazing lands reduced pastures available for livestock. According to reports by local Afar
pastoralists, the ingestion of the pod over long periods of time results in death of cattle. Stomach poisoning by the pod
91
may induce a permanent impairment of the ability to digest cellulose due to high sugar content of the pod that depresses
the rumen celluiolaytic bacterial activity, finally causing mortality to animals (Abiyot and Getachew, 2006).
Livestock feeding on P. juliflora pods for extended periods, due to lack of pasture show health problems such as
constipation, dental disfiguration and reduced overall productivity (Dubale, 2006). The disfiguration of goats’ jaws due
to consuming the hard pods of P. juliflora and the tooth decay resulting from the pods’ high sugar content was perceived
to be a major problem. These dental problems impair the health of the goats and in some cases causes’ death due to
starvation (Esther and Swallow, 2008).
Few reports indicated that P. juliflora consumption has an adverse effect on livestock product quality (Beruk, 2003;
Dawit, 2010). According to perception of pastoralists in Amibara district, Afar region of Ethiopia, goat and camel milk
from P. juliflora fed animals has a bitter taste. They also claim that it reduces milk and butter yield, and meat from
Prosopis fed goat has poor quality in terms of appearance (pale color) and flavor (Dawit, 2010). Similarly, Beruk (2003)
reported that milk obtained from goat, cow and camel fed diet based on P. juliflora has a bitter taste.
Prosopis juliflora has a negative impact on pasturelands or arable fields (Getachew, 2002), because it responds positively
to overgrazing and denuded grassland ecosystems are subsequently converted to unusable bush lands. The invasion is
aggravated by the aid of different dispersal agents such as cattle, camels, and goats. The conversion of P. juliflora invaded
fields back to original condition would be very difficult and very costly. P. juliflora replaced the local biodiversity in
several spots in Afar region, mainly rangelands and dry riversides. In such areas, the grasslands are no more used for
grazing by the livestock. The species also reduced the total biodiversity of the arid and semiarid regions by reducing their
abundance, distribution and more importantly by changing the ecosystem function from rangeland to Prosopis thicket.
For example, P. juliflora eventually push out the local Afar pastoralists (that solely depend on natural pasture for their
cattle) from their home and pasture fields aggravating food and feed shortage in the region (Hailu et al., 2004).
Feeding Value of Prosopis juliflora Pod Flour for Livestock and Poultry
Knowledge regarding the utilization of P. juliflora as a source of animal feed is much wider, as its pods have long been
used as feed for bovines, equines, ovines and caprines, pigs and fowl. The great value of P. juliflora as fodder is in its
pods. Besides being a source of energy and having protein value, P. juliflora pod can be produced advantageously from
ecologic and economic points of view, in the farm itself, even in years of abnormal rainfall rates (Mathur and Bohra,
1993). P. juliflora bears its pods during the driest months of the year, making it possible to use the pods as animal feed,
thereby offsetting high cereal prices.
Several trials that evaluated the potential of P. juliflora based supplements in livestock production have shown positive
results. Feeding fattening Awassi lamb with diets containing up to 200g/kg P. juliflora pod did not affect growth
performance, nutrient digestibility, and carcass and meat characteristics while being cost effective (Belal et al., 2008). The
replacement of up to 35% of maize in lactating sow rations in Brazil also clearly demonstrated the value of P. juliflora
flour (Riveros, 1992). Study reported that concentrate mixture containing up to 30% GPJP as a substitute for wheat bran
has positive effect on feed intake, digestibility, final body weight, average daily gain and carcass parameter in fattening
ration of cattle (Yohannes, 2011). A crushed P. juliflora pod feeding trial was conducted by FARM-Africa in Afar,
Ethiopia. Goats fed a mixture of 50% prosopis and 50% corn, showed considerably better performance as compared to
the control groups on normal pasture grazing (Dubale, 2008).
Prosopis juliflora pods have been used in poultry diets and produced encouraging results. Studies in Brazil showed that
100% replacement of wheat bran with P. juliflora pod flour to have similar impact on most layers performance (Silva,
1984), although another study (Silva et al., 2002) reported that inclusion of P. juliflora pod at 30% of the ration reduced
egg mass, weight and feed to egg mass ratio. Zein Elabdin and Mukhtar (2011) reported that soaked P. juliflora seed flour
replaced 50% of sesame meal in broiler diets without negative effect on performance. AL-Beitawi et al. (2010) noted
heavier body weight, faster growth, and better-feed conversion efficiency in broilers fed ration containing 20% GPJP as
a substitute for corn without causing significant change in dressing percentage and carcass cut. Furthermore, replacing
maize up to 20 % with GPJP (Choudhary et al., 2005), and inclusion at a rate of 10% of GPJP in the ration (Vanker et al.,
1998) resulted in no adverse effects on performance of broilers. Therefore, available literature showed that ground P.
juliflora pod or crushed seed could be important source of nutrients in a total ration or as a replacement for some
common ingredients. However, the level of feeding should be clearly set for different livestock species and according to
the environment where it is intended to be used.
Chemical Composition of Prosopis juliflora Pod Flour

Prosopis juliflora pods have characteristically high carbohydrate content and reasonable protein value. These pods lend
themselves better to feeding livestock when ground and turned into flour. Pod drying/crushing does not influence
voluntary intake by animals. P. juliflora pods present high digestibility coefficients (DM: 82.56%; CP: 80.13%; NFE
(nitrogen free extract): 83.19%). In P. juliflora pod digestibility trial in ruminant rations, mean values of 71.1%, 69.8%,
and 66.8 % were found for DM, GE (gross energy), and CP, respectively (Moreira et al., 1984). It was also noted that
fresh, ripe pods of P. juliflora contained 7-10% preformed water, and on a DM basis contain 9-17% CP, 1.2-4.3% EE,
16-34% CF, 47-61% NFE, 28% acid detergent fibre, 8% acid detergent lignin, 4-5% ash, 0.14-0.29% silica, 0.3-0.5%
calcium and 0.40-0.44% phosphorus (Shukla et al., 1984). According to Vimal and Tyagi (1986), the pods are composed
92
of 16.5% protein, 4.2% fat, 16.8% crude fibre, 57% carbohydrates, 5.4% ash, 0.33% calcium, and 0.44% phosphorus.
Shukla et al. (1986) reported that the amino acid composition of P. juliflora on a dry matter basis is 0.99% aspartic acid,
0.28% threonine, 0.14% cystine, 0.43% valine, 0.10% methionine, 0.27% isoleucine, 0.52% leucine, 0.29% tyrosine,
0.33% phenylalanine, 0.37% alanine, 0.19% histidine, 0.32% lysine, 0.56% arginine, 0.41% serine, 1.4% glutamic acid and
0.51% glycine. Except lysine, methionine and cysteine, P. juliflora is found to be a good source of amino acids for
livestock feeding. Although nutrient composition of P. juliflora pods varies from place to place, may be due to various
factors including plants growing environment, harvesting stage, storage condition and processing (Annongu and Ter
Meulen, 2001), available results of chemical analysis revealed that pods of P. juliflora is an important feed resource when
appropriately used. The dry pods contained reasonable amounts of iron (208-639 ppm), copper (13-16 ppm) and
manganese (22 ppm), but the zinc content (13-16 ppm) was below the level desired (40 ppm) for animal feeds (Vimal
and Tyagi, 1986).
Fiber and Antinutritional Factors Content in Poultry Diet and their Effects
Plant fiber, enzyme inhibitors, saponins, tannins, and lectins are familiar compounds that inhibit efficient utilization of
non-conventional feedstuffs for poultry. Krogdhal (1986) demonstrated that these compounds might reduce energy and
protein utilization by poultry up to 20% with the most pronounced effect on the absorption of lipids and minerals.
Unlike ruminants, the digestive system of bird is not designed to handle large amounts of fiber, but fiber quality is more
important than fiber itself (King, 2012). Gut length and gizzard weights of chickens reflect the nature of their diet.
According to Iji (1999) fibrous diets have long been known to increase the full weight of the gut. A study by Smith et
al. (1997) revealed similar effects of fiber on empty weights of the digestive organs, suggesting the occurrence of changes
at the tissue levels. Siri et al. (1992) reported that the exclusion of pectin in the diets of white leghorn chickens resulted in
increases in relative weight of internal organs, including crops, small intestine, ceaca, esophagus and rectum. Similarly,
Jorgensen et al. (1996) observed increases in lengths and weights of the small intestine and ceaca in broiler chickens that
had been fed diets supplemented with pea fiber, wheat bran, or oat bran. High intakes of the fibrous foods are broadly
associated with long guts and heavy gizzards (Abdelsamie et al., 1983). Moss and Trenholm (1986) noted that as birds eat
increasingly fibrous diets, the gizzard weights increased. This is apparently to accommodate the greater bulk of food
eaten (Abdelsamie et al., 1983). Katanbaf et al. (1989) has also showed that a greater weight and length of crop and
esophagus increased the capacity of these organs to retain and control the evacuation form the crop.
Increased fiber in poultry ration is known to hinder protein and energy digestibility, depresses feed intake as well as
enzymatic activity that assist in carbohydrate, protein and fat digestion, and absorption of nutrients (McDonald et al.,
2002; Mirnawati et al., 2011). It is, however, important that certain amounts be present in the feed for normal function of
the digestive tract. In poultry nutrition, fiber is required to provide a certain amount of bulk in the diet and is necessary
for efficient digestion, physical consistency and movement of food material through the digestive tract (Kekeocha,
1985).
Chemical composition might not indicate either availability or absorption due to the presence of anti nutrients that
affect digestive functions and nutrient utilization. Among several plant components, saponins and lectins affect poultry
production adversely and their mode of action looks a lot like the fibers and enzyme inhibitors (Moghazy and Elwatak,
1982). Heat labile anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitor and hemagglutinin are present in P. juliflora pod (Del
Valle et al., 1983). Other anti-nutritional factors as lectins and phenols are also present in this seed.
Effects of Diet on Laying Performance and Egg quality

Egg production and egg quality traits change mainly as a result of nutrition, effect of environmental condition, genotype,
age of hens and laying rate of hens. Based on birds' nutrient needs, feed ingredients composition and nutrient
availability, it is possible to prepare diet specifications that result in high rate of eggs production of large size that have
appropriate internal and external quality, including an egg shell that is strong enough to withstand the rigors of automatic
collection, processing, packing, and transportation with least cost feed formulation (Pond et al., 1995; Leeson and
Summers, 2001).
Solomon (2004) reported that egg production performance of layers linearly related to the level of supplements
offered. Rahm (1991) noted that egg production could be limited not only by over all protein availability, but also the
availability of essential amino acids. According to Van Eekeren et al. (2006) the synthesis of protein in the body tissues
requires an adequate supply of about twenty different amino acids in appropriate proportions. Ten of these amino acids
cannot be synthesized by the bird’s metabolism and therefore, must be supplied in the ration of birds. These are called
essential amino acids, the main ones being lysine and methionine. A shortage of essential amino acids reduces egg
production of birds (Van Eekeren et al., 2006). The quality of protein feed can be described in terms of such amino acids
content. The same author reported that low level of lysine, methionine and cysteine amino acids in the diet results in
reduction of egg production.
The provision of adequate dietary minerals and vitamins, especially vitamin D are essential for production of eggs with
good eggshell quality. Calcium and phosphorous are essential macro minerals with calcium forming a significant
component of the eggshell and phosphorous playing an important role in skeletal calcium deposition and subsequent
availability of calcium for egg shell formation during the dark period (Fard et al., 2010).
93
Many factors are reported to affect albumen height. Some of these are, storage time, nutrition (dietary protein and
amino acid content, e.g. lysine, methionine, ascorbic acid, vitamin E), heredity, age of birds, temperature, loss of carbon
dioxide from egg, and disease (Roberts, 2010).
Yolk color depends on the diet of the hen. If the hens get plenty of yellow orange plant pigments known as
xanthophylls, they will be deposited in the yolk. The incorporation of oxycarotenoids in to the diet can lead to the
deposition up to one mg of pigment in the yolk and produce a deep orange color in the yolk (Hasin et al., 2006). As a
general guide, NRC (1994) suggested that the energy and protein requirement of laying hens’ ranges from 2700 to 2850
kcal/kg dry matter and 14.0 to 19.0 %, respectively.
Effects of Diet on Feed intake, Growth, Carcass Yield, Meat quality and Hematology
To achieve maximum efficiency in growth and production, properly balanced ration is a prerequisite. The ration should
satisfy the nutritional requirements of the birds with regards to carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. For
computing such rations, a good knowledge of the nutrient composition of the ingredients and the right proportions in
which they are to be mixed is necessary (Thiele and Pottgüter, 2008). Energy is the main driving force of metabolism. As
the level of energy increased feed intake decreases. Hence, the utilization of dietary proteins must be put in the context
of the available energy supply. If energy is limiting, dietary protein will be used inefficiently as another source of energy
instead of being converted into body protein (Miller, 2004). North (1984) indicated that the quantity of feed consumed is
essentially controlled by the energy concentration and the requirement of chicks for protein in percent crude protein to
achieve maximum growth increases as the density of dietary energy increases. However, with low protein diet body
weight decreases, while high protein diet increases body weight. The decrease in weight gain for the low protein diet is
probably the result of reduced protein intake as the level of energy in the ration increased. For, the high protein diet,
energy is limiting in relation to protein and the protein is burnt for energy. With an increase in dietary energy, more
protein is available for growth and hence weight gains increased on the high protein ration. Pellet feeds usually results in
increased density and intake of the ration, and improves growth and feed efficiency (Esmail, 2001).
The presence of dietary fiber in protein feeds reduce amino acid digestibility, increase endogenous nitrogen loss with
consequent reduction in growth rate. Greenwood (2005) indicated that when the diet becomes marginally deficient in
lysine, the birds increased its intake of food, presumably in an attempt to ingest sufficient lysine to meet the demands of
maintenance and growth. The recommendation is that the ratio between proteins (%) and metabolic energy (KJ) is from
1:570 in starter mixture to 1:649 in finisher (Steiner et al., 2008). Steiner et al. (2008) reported higher body weights as
protein to energy ratio increased. Lower ratio decreases feed conversion. It is established that as the dietary calorie to
protein ratio widen energy intake and carcass fat deposition increases, while body water content decreases. Decreasing
the dietary energy to protein ratio will increase meat yield and decrease fat content (Mbajiorgu et al., 2011). There is a
tendency for energy intake to increase with increasing dietary energy. This is also attributable to higher dietary fat
content. As a consequence, food: weight gain ratio decreases when dietary energy level is high (Pesti and Flecher, 1984).
Based on two energy levels, 3200 (high) and 2800 (low), Holsheimer and Veerkamp (1992) reported that high energy
diets had a higher gain and better feed to gain ratio than chicks on the low energy diets.
Carcass yield is an important parameter to the economy of the poultry business, because it directly determines the
amount of saleable product. Maximization of lean tissue growth rate is one of the fundamental objectives of any meat
producing enterprise and abdominal fat pad is usually unacceptable to consumers and often represent a loss of yield
when they are removed before sale. The abdominal fat pad is commonly employed as an indicator of total carcass fat
content since correlations between the two are usually high. It is widely recognized that performance of broilers are
influenced considerably by variations in energy and nutrient inputs during growth and consequently can affect edible
carcass yield. High dietary levels of apparent metabolizable energy per se may promote excess lipid accretion in fast-
growing broiler chickens fed under ad lib conditions and consequently relate to evisceration losses (Julian, 2001).
Although dietary protein affected performance, in terms of live weight gain and feed conversion ratio, very high
protein diet is used less efficiently. This implies that the excess protein is carbonized rather than contributing to
increased lean tissue deposition. Interestingly, this response is associated with a reduction in carcass fat, suggesting that
dietary energy is used in catabolism of excess protein rather than being deposited as fat. This therefore, represents a
further means of altering carcass quality, although feeding protein diets would be associated with increased nitrogen
excretion and may be metabolically challenging to the bird as it attempts to accommodate excessive protein (Gonzalez-
Esquerra and Leeson, 2000).
It is useful to specify total requirements for crude protein in addition to requirements for the main essential amino
acids. There should be enough crude protein to supply the required amounts of these amino acids. Percent crude protein
requirement of broiler chicks (0-6 weeks) is from 21 to 22 and for finisher from 18 to 20. The requirement of amino
acids lysine and methionine is 1.2 and 0.45 percent, respectively (Enkreen et al., 2006).
High contents of Monounsaturated Fatty Acid (MUFA) in animal products are noted to be beneficial for human
health. Several nutritional studies strongly support presence of relationship between SFA and the risk of cardiovascular
heart diseases. In view of dietary health, food that contains more UFA (Unsaturated Fatty Acid) and relatively lower
cholesterol contents can help in reducing the occurrence of cardiovascular heart diseases (Salma et al., 2007). Osek et al.
(2004) reported that the type of fat added to feed influenced the proportion of lipid fraction of meat and abdominal fat.
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Some of the anti nutritional factors like trypsin inhibitor and hemagglutinin are capable of inducing adverse effects
especially in monogastric animals when consumed without adequate processing (Apata, 2003). Blood is a very good
medium of assessing the health status of animals (Taiwo and Anosa, 1995). According to Karesh and Cook (1995)
examining blood for their constituents is used to monitor and evaluate disease prognosis of animals. Hematological
constituents reflect the physiological responsiveness of the animals to its internal and external environment including the
type of feed the animal consumed and feeding practices (Esonu et al., 2001). Packed cell volume (PCV), hemoglobin
(Hb) and total protein which is within the recommended range for normal chicken is an indication of adequate nutrition.
Ikhimioya et al. (2000) and Oladele et al. (2001) linked lower values of these parameters to inadequate nutrition.
Objective of the Study

 The overall objective of the study was to generate information on chemical composition and effects of feeding
ground Prosopis juliflora pods (GPJP) on performance, product quality and health of chicken.
Specific Objectives
 To evaluate the effects of graded levels of GPJP inclusion in layers ration on egg production and quality
parameters.
 To evaluate the effects of graded levels of GPJP inclusion in broilers ration on growth and carcass
characteristics.
 To study the effect of feeding graded levels of GPJP on fatty acids of muscle, meat quality and some
hematological response of broilers.

Study Area
The experiments were conducted at Haramaya University Poultry Farm, which is located at 42° 3’ east longitude, 9°
26’north latitude at an altitude of 1980 meter above sea level and 505 km east of Addis Ababa. The mean annual rainfall
of the area amounts to 780 mm and the average minimum and maximum temperatures are 8 and 24°C, respectively
(Samuel, 2008).
Experimental Animals
In layer experiment (Meseret et al., 2011a) one hundred eighty Bovans Brown hens aged 26 week with body weight of
1.33 ± 0.022 kg (mean ± SD) were used. The birds were adapted to experimental diets for 7 days before the
commencement of data collection. In broiler experiment (Meseret et al., 2011b; Meseret et al., 2012), 396 unsexed day
old Hubbard Classic chicks with initial body weight of 45.98 ± 0.553 g (mean ± SD) were used. In both experiments,
four dietary treatments consisted of GPJP at the level of 0% (T1), 10% (T2), 20% (T3), and 30% (T4) were used. The
experimental animals were randomly divided into the four dietary treatments and three replications per treatment in a
completely randomized design. In each replicate, there were 15 layers and 33 broiler chicks.
Ingredients and Experimental Rations

Common dietary ingredients used to formulate the rations in both experiments were GPJP, corn, wheat short, soybean
meal, noug seed cake, and salt. In addition, vitamin premix, limestone, and dicalcium phosphate was added to layers
ration as per the recommendation. Similarly, a recommended amount of methionine 0.2 % was added to broiler ration.
Corn, P. juliflora pod and noug seed cake were ground to pass 5 mm sieve at the University feed mill before mixing to
formulate the ration. The treatment rations were formulated to be isocaloric and isonitrogenous to meet the nutrient
requirements of layers, and starter and finisher broilers (Leeson and Summers, 2005).
Samples of each ingredients and rations for each experiment were analyzed for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP),
ether extract (EE), crude fiber (CF) and ash following the proximate method of analysis (AOAC, 1995). Calcium and
magnesium content of GPJP were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometer, total phosphorus content by SP75
UV/vis spectrophotometer, sodium by flame photometer and beta-carotene by spectrophotometer (AOAC, 1995).
Metabolisable energy (ME) content of the experimental diets was calculated by indirect method according to Wiseman
(1987).
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Data Collection and Measurements

Layers and broilers experiments lasted for 90 and 45 days, respectively. In both experiments, feed was offered to the
birds ad libitum twice per day at 0800 and 1700 hours and clean tap water was available all the time. The amount of feed
offered and refused per pen was recorded daily. The amount of feed and nutrients consumed were determined as the
difference between the feed and nutrients offered and refused. Feed offered and refused were sampled daily per pen and
pooled per treatment for the entire experimental period for later chemical analysis. Mortality was registered as it
occurred and general health status was monitored throughout the experiment.
Hens were individually weighed on a sensitive balance at the start and end of the experiment. Broilers were weighed
every week in a group per pen. Pen average was determined and body weight change was calculated as the difference
between the final and initial body weight.
Eggs laid by hens in a pen were collected three times a day at 0800, 1300 and 1700 hours, and daily egg production was
taken as the sum of the three collections. Eggs collected daily were weighed immediately after collection, and average egg
weight was computed by dividing the total egg mass to the number of eggs for each pen. Egg mass per hen was
calculated as total egg mass divided by number of hens. Hen-day egg production as percentage was determined following
the method of Hunton (1995). Feed conversion ratio was calculated as gram of feed consumed per gram of eggs
produced. Egg quality characteristics, such as albumen weight, albumen height, egg shell weight, egg shell thickness, egg
yolk weight and egg yolk color were determined at an interval of 3 days on freshly laid 6 eggs per replicate after breaking
the egg and separating each of the components. Eggshell, albumen, and yolk weights were measured using sensitive
balance. Albumen height was measured with a tripod micrometer. Eggshell thickness was measured by eggshell thickness
micrometer gauge. Yolk color was determined by comparing the color of properly mixed yolk sample placed on white
paper with the color strips of Roche fan measurement, which consist 1-15 strips ranging from pale to orange yellow
color. Haugh unit was calculated from the egg weight and albumen height using the formula suggested by Haugh (1937),
HU = 100 log (H+ 7.57- 1.7 W0.37), where, HU = Haugh Unit, H = albumen height, W = Egg weight (g).
For broilers, feed conversion ratio was calculated as the proportion of gram feed consumed per gram weight gain. At
the end of the experiment, four randomly selected broilers from each replicate (12 per treatment group) were starved for
16 hours, weighed immediately before slaughter and exagguinated by severing the neck, and dressed. Dressed and
eviscerated weights were calculated following the method of FAO (2001). After dissection, and individually weighed, the
breast and thigh muscle carcass were tagged with coded bands, packaged, and transported to Animal physiology
laboratory of Haramaya University pending analysis. Carcasses were evaluated for chemical composition, fatty acid
profile, and sensory characteristics following standard procedures.
Blood samples were collected from all birds slaughtered into two labeled sterile universal bottles. One set of the
bottles contained Ethyldiamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) powder as anti-coagulant, while the other set did not contain
any anticoagulant. Hemoglobin (HB) concentration was determined by the method of Actin hematin (Davice and Lewis,
1991). Total protein was determined by refractometer (Leica Inc. Buffalo NY USA 14240-0123). The PCV was
determine by spinning blood filled capillary tubes in a centrifuge at 1200 revolution per minute (rpm) for 5 minute and
reading on hematocrit reader. Differential white blood cell counts were determined by blood smear with Wright’s stain.
The hematological parameters were determined as described by Davice and Lewis (1991). At the time of slaughter,
gastrointestinal tract and organs were examined for any pathological symptoms and gross lesions were recorded when
observed.
Statistical Analysis
Except yolk color, which was analyzed by logistic regression, all other parameters were statistically analyzed using the
general linear model procedure of SAS (SAS, 2002). Differences between treatment means were separated using Tukey
Test (SAS, 2002).
Results
Chemical Composition
The CP content of GPJP is 12.10 and 15.43 % for that used in layers and broilers ration, respectively. The CF content of
GPJP (14.40 %) is the highest compared to the other major dietary ingredients used for compounding ration in the
present experiment. Beta-carotene content of GPJP was 82.31 μg/100 g. The mineral matter content of GPJP was 5.80
and 6.13 in layers and broilers experiment, respectively. The four treatment rations of layers and broilers were
formulated to be isocaloric and isonitrogenous. As planned, the rations were somehow isocaloric and isonitrogenous. As
the inclusion level of GPJP increased, the percentage composition of wheat short and maize grain decreases. The
calculated CP and metabolisable energy contents of the layers ration ranged 16.09-16.99% and 2800-2896 kcal/kg DM,
respectively. In broilers ration, crude protein and metabolisable energy contents for the treatment diets ranged 21.4-22%
and 2969-3097 Kcal/kg dry matter (DM) for the starter, and 19-20% and 3037-3130 Kcal/kg DM for finisher phases. In
general, the nutrient contents of the experimental rations including calcium and phosphorous contents were within the
recommended values for layers, starter and finisher broiler diets (Leeson and Summers, 2005).
Nutrient Intake
96
Intake of DM in layers was lower (P < 0.05) for birds that consumed the diet containing the highest level of GPJP
(30%) as compared to those fed diets containing 0 and 10% GPJP, while DM intake for the 20% GPJP containing ration
was similar (P > 0.05) with all other treatments. Broilers that consumed ration containing the highest level of GPJP
(30%) reduced (P < 0.05) feed intake during the finisher phase and the whole experimental period as compared to T 1,
while values for T2 and T3 were similar with other treatments. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) among
treatments in feed intake during starter phase.
Body Weight Change and Average Daily Gain

There was no significant difference in body weight change (P > 0.05) among layers that consumed rations containing
graded levels of GPJP. Final live weight at the end of starter phase was lower for T 4 as compared to T2, while at the end
of finisher phase, body weight for T4 was lower (P < 0.05) than T1 and T2, and value for T3 was similar with all other
treatments. Average daily gain (ADG) during the starter phase and the entire experimental period was significantly
affected by treatment (P < 0.05), and followed a similar trend like that of final body weight.
Dry Matter Conversion Ratio and Economics

There was no significant difference among treatments (P > 0.05) in feed conversion ratio of the hens. Analysis of
economics of egg production indicated that the ration containing 10% GPJP is the least cost ration followed by 0%,
30%, and the ration containing 20% GPJP. Effects of treatment on feed conversion ratio in broilers were significant (P
< 0.05) during the starter phase and the entire experimental period, and T4 was the least efficient feed converter group.
The economics of weight gain determined from ratios of cost of the total feed consumed and the weight gain produced
from that amount of feed indicated that the ration containing 20% GPJP is the least cost ration.
Laying Performance and Egg Quality of Bovans Brown

Hen day egg production and egg mass were greater (P < 0.05) for the control treatment (0% GPJP) than layers that
consumed ration containing 30% GPJP. There was no significant difference among treatments (P > 0.05) in egg weight.
Graded levels of GPJP inclusion in layers ration did not significantly affect (P > 0.05) egg quality parameters, except yolk
color. Yolk color tended to increase with increasing levels of GPJP in the ration, but it was statistically higher (P < 0.05)
only for the 30% than other treatments.
Carcass Yield and Gut Weight of Broilers

Graded levels of GPJP inclusion in broilers ration did not significantly impact (P > 0.05) dressed and eviscerated carcass
weight, and percentage yield of different broiler carcass cut, except drum stick weight, which was heavier in T2 than T4.
Among the gut content, only crop and esophagus weights were influenced by treatment and it was greater in T4 than T1.
Muscle Fatty Acid Composition, Sensory Quality, and Hematology of Broilers

There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) between broilers fed the control diet and that contained varied levels of
GPJP for fatty acid composition in breast and thigh muscle, juiciness, tenderness, flavor and overall acceptance and
chemical composition of the muscles meat.
Contents of palmitic acid, 11, 14 eicosadienoic acids and saturated fatty acids (SFA) such as arachidic acid were higher
in breast muscle, while contents of all other fatty acids are higher in thigh muscle. Graded levels of GPJP inclusion in
broilers ration did not significantly (P > 0.05) affected the hematological indices and total protein of broiler chicks
blood, except monocytes. The value for monocytes was higher (P < 0.05) for the ration containing the highest level
(30%) of GPJP. No symptom of gastro intestinal tract infection was observed up to 20% of GPJP inclusion in the
ration. However, intestine of birds fed with diet containing higher level of GPJP inclusion (30%) has lesions and
intestinal hemorrhages were visible. The content of the intestinal lumen also consisted visible blood (Patra et al., 2009).
The caeca were not severely affected.
Discussion
The DM and CP contents of GPJP determined in the present experiments are within the range but, EE and ash contents
were higher and CF, calcium and phosphorus levels were lower than that reported in previous studies (Shukla et al., 1984;
Choge et al., 2007; Abedelnoor et al., 2009). Calcium and phosphorus content of GPJP used in the present experiment
were lower than the range of value given by Shukla et al. (1984). Various factors including the plant’s growing
environment, harvesting stage, storage condition and processing could possibly be responsible for the differences in
chemical composition of GPJP recorded in different studies.
Significant reduction in feed consumption was not apparent in layers and broilers up to 20% GPJP inclusion in the
ration. However, 30% GPJP inclusion in the ration was able to significantly induce reduction in DM intake of birds
compared to the ration containing no GPJP. In accordance with the current study Oliveira et al. (2001) noted reduction
in feed intake of quails when P. juliflora pod meal was included at 25% of the ration as compared to the one that did not
receive the pod meal. However, Silva et al. (2002) did not found significant difference in feed intake between hens fed
97
ration containing 30% P. juliflora pods meal as compared to the diet without the pod meal. The layers, starter, and
finisher rations contained about the same values of ME, CP, calcium and phosphorus across the treatments. But, CF
content in the diets containing 30% GPJP was greater by about 34% as compared to the ones with 0 and 10% GPJP
inclusion levels. CF content above the maximum (5-6%) recommended limit is noted to reduce feed intake in broiler
chicks (Mirnawati et al., 2011). Increased fiber in poultry ration is known to hinder protein and energy digestibility, and
depress feed intake as well as enzymatic activity that assist in carbohydrate, protein and fat digestion (McDonald et al.,
2002; Mirnawati et al., 2011). The high CF content of the ration at higher level of GPJP inclusion might have contributed
to the reduction in DM intake at the highest level of GPJP inclusion. Thus, the lower feed intake and growth
performance of chicks fed ration containing higher level of GPJP may be partially attributed to the high fiber content of
the diet. The presence of heat labile anti-nutritional factors, such as trypsin inhibitor and hemagglutinin has also been
reported in P. juliflora pod (Del Valle et al., 1983). Such naturally occurring compounds are innate natural components of
particular feed ingredients that can impair the availability of nutrients, depress feed intake, and reduce growth of animals
(Thorne et al., 1992; Shahidi, 1997). Essential amino acids such as lysine, methionine, and cysteine are known to enhance
feed intake (Melesse et al., 2011). However, P. juliflora meal is deficient in these essential amino acids (Bhatt et al., 2011),
which could have been contributed to the low feed intake of broilers at higher level of GPJP inclusion. Lower ADG and
poor feed utilization efficiency at higher level of GPJP inclusion is in line with the finding of Yusuf et al. (2008) and
Choudhary et al. (2005). At 30% GPJP inclusion, there was moist, sticky droppings and wet litter, which created
sanitation problem, particularly in broiler experiment. This could be due to the presence of insoluble non-starch
polysaccharides in P. juliflora pods (Bhatt et al., 2011). Insoluble non-starch polysaccharides at higher proportion were
shown to cause moist and sticky droppings and resulted in wet litter (Pottguter, 2008). Similar to previous work, 10 and
20% GPJP inclusion did not have detrimental effect on broiler performance as compared to the control (Vanker et al.,
1998). Improved live body weight, and body weight gain in broiler fed diet containing 10 and 20% pods in replacement
for maize was noted by previous studies (Choudhary et al., 2005; AL-Beitawi et al., 2010). Absence of difference in feed
conversion ratio may indicate that the advantage of GPJP inclusion in the diet of broilers can be partly due to sparing
effect of conventional energy rich diets and in part associated to reduction in cost of the ration thereby improving the
profitability of the enterprise.
Lower hen day egg production and egg mass at 30% GPJP inclusion level is consistent with the finding of Silva et al.
(2002) who reported similar result in pullet fed ration containing 30% Prosopis juliflora meal. The reduction in the laying
performance of hens at high level of GPJP inclusion might be due to the negative effects of the high non-starch
polysaccharides (fiber) contents in the ground pods on feed intake as observed in the present study, and due to the
possible effect of the fiber on nutrient digestibility that might have limited the supply of essential nutrients to satisfy the
performance requirements of the birds. Prosopis juliflora meal contains adequate amount of essential amino acids, except
lysine, methionine and cysteine (Bhatt et al., 2011). The potential low level of such amino acids in the diet containing
30% GPJP might have in part contributed to the reduction in egg production, egg mass and nutrients intake.
Values for egg weight and egg quality parameters, including Haugh unit recorded in the present experiment were
within the ranges reported for Bovans Brown breeds (Koreleski and Świątkiewicz, 2010; Świątkiewicz et al., 2010).
Except for egg yolk color, significant differences were not apparent in egg quality parameters. The absence of treatment
differences in most egg quality measures suggest that up to 30% level of GPJP inclusion in the layers ration is possible
without significant impact on such egg quality parameters. The reason for the increased Roche fan measurement for diet
with the highest level of GPJP is obviously associated with the high beta carotene content of the GPJP (Hasin et al.,
2006). Thus, GPJP can be a potential ingredient for egg yolk coloration as many consumers prefer eggs with more
yellow yolk color. Despite such possible advantages of GPJP as ingredient in the ration of layers, the potential of any
dietary ingredient has to be determined by the price of the ingredients and its effect on laying performance.
Carcass yield recorded in the present experiment is within the range reported for Hubbard Classic breed (Abdullah et
al., 2010; Islam et al., 2010). In accordance with the current finding, Choudhary et al. (2005) and AL-Beitawi et al. (2010)
did not found significant difference in carcass parameters between groups fed ration containing P. juliflora pods and the
control. The fatty acids composition of breast and thigh muscles recorded in the present experiment are within the range
reported for broiler meat (Cherian et al., 2002; Salma et al., 2007). In the present study, graded levels of GPJP in broiler
diets did not significantly affect the ratio between polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and saturated fatty acids (SFA) in
thigh and breast muscle. Similarities in the composition of fatty acids among all treatments indicated that inclusion of
GPJP up to 30% in the diet of broilers do not affect the quality of fatty acid of the muscles. The result of the present
study confirmed the existing evidences which reported that tissue concentration of fatty acids are less altered by dietary
changes (Cortinas et al., 2004). Furthermore, Jamroz (1997) noted that body lipid ratio is more influenced by genetic
factors and depended on poultry species, but not on the type of feeding. Osek et al. (2004) reported that the type of fat
added to feed influenced the proportion of lipid fraction of meat and abdominal fat, indicating that GPJP with lower
ether extract content (Meseret et al., 2011a; b) is not expected to alter fatty acid composition of meat.
98
Conclusion
In layers experiment egg quality parameters except egg yolk, egg weight and body weight of the layers was not negatively
impacted by inclusion of GPJP up to 30% level. However, egg production and egg mass is significantly reduced when
the ration contained 30% GPJP. Broilers trial indicated that carcass yield, fatty acid composition, sensory characteristics
and chemical composition was not negatively affected by inclusion of GPJP up to 30% in the ration of broilers.
However, feed intake and live weight gain was reduced and feed conversion ratio was increased at 30% level. Mild
reduction in hematological indices with increasing level of GPJP and significantly higher monocyte at 30% GPJP
inclusion in the ration, and intestinal lesion was observed indicating that higher level of GPJP inclusion in broilers ration
has negative effect on immune response of birds. Therefore, it can be concluded that inclusion of GPJP in poultry ration
at lower level (maximum of 20%) reduces feed cost and decreases the invasion of rangeland by Prosopis juliflora plant,
since the seed is used after it is crushed.
Recommendations
It can be recommended that:-Up to 20% GPJP inclusion in layers ration is recommendable based on the performance of
the birds, although the treatment with 10% GPJP in the ration seems to be more economical. About 20% of
conventional broilers diet can be substituted by GPJP to reduce feed cost. This study indicates that 30% inclusion of
GPJP could be safely used in broilers diet without any effect on meat quality.
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2. College of Buisness and Economics

2.1 Is Ethiopia Ready to Commence Capital Market? An Analysis of Opportunities,
Constraints and the Dubious
Mebrahtu Leake Teklehaimanot
Astract: After the fall of the Derge regime in 1991, Ethiopia has re-oriented its command economy
into a market-led economy. Since then gradual structuring and changes have been made in the diverse
constituents of the country’s economy. The financial system was liberalized to quill the demand of the
market economic model and hasten development though its growth, in terms of diversity and quality,
is dawdling. Despite the financial liberalization, which enables private firms to emerge, Ethiopia still
does not have capital market, as the government does not recognize its significance to the country’s
development. Debates, however, have been made by the wider academic community, experts and
researchers on the importance and development of capital market and pressures on the government
to initiate the market have been made by international and national stakeholders. This squabble was
the prime reason for undertaking this study to identify the promising factors bedding for the
establishment, diagnose constraining factors of the same and why the government is ambivalent based
on the primary and secondary data collected from major companies established through shares in an
initial public offering, government institutions, officials, academicians, financial experts, proclamations
and other official documents. The findings of the study depict that the country’s fast economic
growth, expansion of energy, initiators and public inclination to incorporated companies, invest than
save push and increase of capital flow to the country are seminally backing capital market
development while government’s reluctance, underdeveloped legal and physical infrastructure,
immature financial sector, uninformed and small-base domestic investors and nonexistence of skillful
and institutionalized market makers are delaying for its development. The study recommends the
establishment of market as it is significant to mobilize domestic savings and huge capital to clinch
financial gap of financing huge national projects, enhance access to equity finance of the private sector
and promoting rapid economic development by suggesting possible ways of doing it.
Keywords: Capital Market; Financial Liberalization; Economy, Ethiopia
Introduction
Poverty is widespread and remains a major challenge of sustainable development and stability in Ethiopia, the second
populous country in Africa (Easterly, 2002; LWFE, 2006). It is estimated that close to half of the population in urban
and rural areas of the country live in absolute poverty due to limited economic opportunities, decades political unrest,
inadequate basic household income, and poor means of survival (Serneels, 2004; Eshetu and Mammo, 2009). Thus,
poverty reduction has become the top agenda of the Ethiopian government by redirecting the economy into market-
oriented economy, by implementing different policies and initiating poverty alleviating plans in different periods. Since
1991, the government has pursued Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) as a major policy framework
to accelerate economic growth and to eradicate extreme poverty. Besides, the Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable
Development to End Poverty (PASDEP), 2005/6-2009/10 was initiated. For these or other reasons, the country has
been registering an enticing economic growth over the recent years (MoFED, 2011). In line with this, official
government reports and a study made by Devereux and Sharp (2003) indicated that the dreadful nature of poverty, in the
country, is declining due to progressive economic growth and positive policy directions, but still remains the chronic
problem in the country.
Other efforts are also made to achieve the long dream of transforming the country into industrialization and middle-
income nation though little is achieved in this regard. The Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP), 2010/11-2014/15,
which actually demands huge resource mobilization for realization, is among the recent efforts. The government claims
that this plan is instrumental to bring accelerated, sustained, and transformative economic growth to end poverty in the
country. When officially announced in November 2010, however, stakeholders like the World Bank and IMF said it is
very ambitious plan demanding huge resource for which the country cannot afford. Thus, financial sector development
is at the heart of resource mobilization, industrialization, boosting investment and accelerating economic growth.
Bekaert and Harvey (1997) also stated that economic growth depends on efficient financial sector in order to pool
domestic savings and mobilize foreign capital for productive investments. Hence, it seems difficult for the government
to achieve the government’s accelerated, sustained, and transformative economic growth without a vibrant, efficient, and
enabling financial system. Thus, the establishment of strong, reliable, and accessible financial institutions and markets is
indispensible to channel resources from unproductive excesses (suppliers) to productive investment (demanders) and
104
enhance foreign capital flows. In doing so, Ethiopia has been engaged in gradual liberalization of its financial sector since
1992 which enables private institutions to flourish (Alemayehu, 200X), but does not allow capital market to exist.
Capital markets are markets that trade equity (stocks) and debt (bonds) instruments with maturities of more than one
year (Saunders and Cornett, 2004). A capital market is vital to mobilize huge capital, improve financial access to private
sector, and improve liquidity and risk sharing in an economy. Hence, with the emergence of capitalism, many countries
around the world have been moving toward market-oriented economies and securities markets sprang up recognizing
their significance in an economy (Asrat, 2003). Stiglitz et al. (1993) described that financial markets are essential for
mobilization and allocation of resources for industrialization and can be thought as the “brain” of the whole economic
system. Literature also reveals that there exists a positive correlation between economic growth and capital market
development (see Beck et al., 2006 and Base, 2005), but Beckaert et al (2005) put financial liberalization as key and
determinant factor for efficient capital market development to lead into economic growth. Despite the advocated
benefits, however, Ethiopia does not launch capital market worrying for its curses. Nowadays, pushes have been coming
from stakeholders for the establishment of the market in order to mobilize sufficient financial resources even to finance
the ambitious government plans and to ignite economic growth in the nation. This has become worthy studying to
reconcile the trade-offs by assessing some fundamental factors that either promise or defy the development of the
market.
Role of Capital Market in Developing Economies: the Dubious

Studies have been made to analyze the impact of establishing capital market on economic growth of countries. Those
studies conducted in advanced economies have substantiated the significance of capital markets in such economy.
Ouandlous (2010), for example, underlined that without the establishment and development of capital markets, none of
the advanced economies have achieved outstanding economic development. Mishra et al. (2010), Asrat (2003), and
Bekaert and Harvey (1997) stated also that development of securities market contributes to economic development by
pooling domestic savings and attracting foreign capital and channels for productive investments. Walter (cited in Mishra,
2010) argued, in his book Lombard Street published in 1873, that it was England’s efficient capital market that made the
industrial revolution possible. Levine (1996) also indicate that countries which had liquid capital markets such as USA,
UK and Canada, grew economically much faster than countries with illiquid or no markets (developing countries) over
the period of 1974-94. Capital markets in the UK and US dominate these countries financial system and are the main
reasons for higher productivity growth, greater employment opportunities, advanced technology, and economy (Dudley
and Habbard, 2004). However, investigations in developing countries have varied results.
Stiglitz (1989) and Singh (1999) revealed that establishment of capital market in developing countries has little
relevance in economic growth. Some studies, made in the African content, claim that securities market could not be a
backbone of the African countries economy as these countries did not ripe and well positioned socially and
economically, and capital markets may not sufficiently be liquid. Singh (1999), for example, explained that establishing a
capital market, for African economies particularly those in Sub-Saharan African (SSA), at this stage of their development
is likely to do more harm than good, because they are prone to political instability, and to highly volatile and unorganized
institutions. African countries would do better to use their human, material, and institutional resources to improve their
banking systems than to promote capital market.
More opponents of the capital markets establishment in developing countries evidence their argument saying that
these countries do not have well organized institutions and markets, and markets are less well regulated and more poorly
organized than their counterparts in developed countries. Hence, they can lead the economy into perplexing crisis. For
developing countries to establish financial market, they must invest and improve their infrastructure, make changes in
their policy and uphold activities that can attract the private sector cross-border fund flows and make them competitive
and preferable of their counterparts. For this or other reasons, many countries, including Ethiopia, have locked their
doors leaving the banking sector to dominate in the financial intermediation of the continent. Africa has about 23 stock
markets most of which initiated by governments for technocratic and political reasons Moss (2003), or established
during the colonial era. They are characterized as illiquid and inefficient with rarely traded shares (Yartey and Adjasi,
2007), contributing only less than 2% of global securities market transaction. Thus, Africa has been heavily dependent
on official development assistance (ODA) to finance persistent balance of payments deficits. With low incomes,
generally weak economic and investment policies, and financial services, most African countries and mainly the Sub-
Saharan Africa (SSA) have been unattractive to private investors, and thus received little private capital.
Proponents of capital market development in developing economies, on the other hand, argue for its contribution in
liquidity, private sector development, risk diversification, acquisition of information about firms, corporate governance,
capital efficient use, savings mobilization and reducing dependency on banking sector by complementing it, not
substituting. Murinde (2006) noted that capital market development is important in developing countries to complement
and facilitate reforms in the banking sector. It is also noted by Ouandlous (2010) for emerging economies to imitate the
achievements of the advanced economies, they have to establish and develop capital markets. Thus, philosophical
changes and shift in recent years have happened in many African countries by refreshing their economic and political
systems (Asrat, 2003). Financial sector reform has become part of the development agenda. A study made by Murinde
(1999), for example, indicated that most African governments are now keen to develop capital markets as a direct way of
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mobilizing risk capital for the corporate sector. They have begun to consolidate the importance of capital market in
attracting foreign portfolio investment, private sector development and the integration of domestic economies to the
wider world (Murinde, 1999). Nevertheless, the importance of the market in developing economies is still blurred.
Methodology
Description of the study Area
Ethiopia, a country with over 84 million population and one of the poorest countries with USD 350 per capita income
(WB, 2011), is located in the Horn of Africa. This study was mainly undertaken in the capital city of Ethiopia, Addis
Ababa, owing to the following reasons. Addis Ababa, established in 1886 and with the population about 4 (four) million,
is the seat of the African Union (AU), United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNEC), NGOs and other
international organizations (UN-HABITAT, 2008). It is also the seat of all federal ministries, head offices of major
businesses, consultancies, and major business centers persuading capital market development. For instance, from the
total of 17 banks and 14 insurance companies in the country, 52.9% and 50.7% are concentrated in Addis Ababa,
respectively (NBE, 2011) and all the head offices of the banks and insurance companies are situated in the city. Addis
Ababa is also considered as a land of opportunity, where hundreds of thousands of people coming from all corners of
the country in search of better employment opportunities and services.
Historically, Addis Ababa had opened up a stock market in the Imperial era in 1950s. A short-lived stock market
started informally in the late 1950s and was formally established in 1965 (Asrat, 2003). In February 1963, the NBE took
the initiative to set up the share-dealing group called the Addis Ababa Share Dealing Group. The share-dealing group
facilitated operation of the shares of mainly banks and government bonds (Pischke, 1968). The National Bank of
Ethiopia (NBE) was responsible to set rules and regulations for the market. However, in 1974 the military government
came to power and declared a centrally planned command economy and nationalized all foreign owned companies.
Hence, the infant stock market ceased to exist.
Data Sources, Collection, and Analysis Methods

In a one and half-year study period, both primary and secondary data were collected. The study was conducted from July
2010 to December 2011 gathering data to acquire first hand information through different data collection methods and
enriched by reviewing secondary sources. Primary data were collected using questionnaire, focus group discussion, key
informants interview, and personal observation. Currently, shares are traded in order to establish new companies in a
very traditional primary market by opening temporary offices for a fixed short period of time. Recent banks, insurance,
transportation, oil, and real estate and construction companies has been established predominantly through initial public
offering. Thus, due to this solitary inclination, they are purposively included in the study. Six banks, four insurance
companies, two oil and four construction companies were judgmentally selected based on their year of establishment in
order to solicit information about the blessings they are enjoying and pains they feel. In doing so, a questionnaire
interview was first developed, pre-tested, and employed to collect data from 160 randomly selected employees working
at the head offices of these organizations to gather information regarding the crystal balls and obstacles of the financial
sector and share based establishments. Besides, interviews and discussions were made with managers of the companies.
Interviews were also conducted with officials and representatives of the National Bank of Ethiopia, Financial
Intelligence Center, Ministry of Trade, Ethiopian Investment Agency, and Ethiopian Commodities Exchange (ECX) in
order to grip on government’s views, and to identify the reasons thereof on initiating the market and draw a lesson from
the later.
As triangulated data gathering system is advantageous to balance the limitation of one by the merit of the other and to
enrich the study with more and deep information, three different focus group discussions (constituting 8 individuals
each, purposively selected senior and experienced academicians of business schools in public universities and private
university colleges, consultants and experts) were administered to identify enablers beddings for the market development
or pains demoting it. Different financial proclamations, economic policies, plans, regulations and directives as well as
media products were consulted and critically reviewed, as a secondary source, to substantiate the first hand information.
The study investigated the determinants that either enable to promote or relegate the bubbling idea of commencing the
capital market in the country which can be justified qualitatively. Hence, the collected data was concretely analyzed
qualitatively supplemented by descriptive statistics.
Conceptual Framework: Establishing Efficient and Liquid Capital Market

Every day and in every transaction, in the money and capital markets, individuals, financial investors, and other
participants are to make important financial decisions and transactions. These participants are interested to be sure that
the market functions smoothly. Among other things, capital markets require sound legal and physical infrastructure to
demonstrate transparency, protect participants, and undertake seamless transactions. Liberalization theory, which was
developed as Washington consensus after the works of John Williamson (1989), calls for price and market to dictate the
economy. Nevertheless, any developmental model existing in a particular state of economy cannot be applicable to
another as the reality depends on the economic, social, and cultural perspectives of each nation while benchmarking the
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best practices of the developed nations. Advocators of regulated capital market evident that the wave of major economic
crises of the recent past (1970’s, 1990’s, and 2007) has emerged from the highly liberalized economies. Mishkin (2007)
put preconditions for capital markets and Stiglitz (2004) suggested the IMF not to pressure developing countries to
liberalize their capital market rather work together to design the interventions that properly address failures. Owing to
their weak institutional system, low human capital development, and technological immaturity, market regulation
(government intervention) is contended as a path of prosperity for developing economies. What is more, the teleological
perspective of capital market regulation is better seen for creating efficient and liquid capital market in developing
nations though the degree of regulation is of a contemporary debate among scholars. Debaters side on opposite side of a
coin, some seek dynamic and effective regulation to promote public confidence, protect inventors from malpractices and
the economy from wild conditions of the cashless society and imperfect market. The main emphasis of the regulation is
on full and fair disclosure of information on securities issues to actual and potential investors. That is creation of
efficient market where traders have full information regarding the securities to be traded and avoids insider information
that maximizes the advantages of few. Generally, according to Franklin and Richard (2001), with securities markets it is
usually argued the main purposes of regulation are investors’ protection and enhancing the efficiency of markets to
achieve broader social objectives.
Market infrastructure constituting the institutions and systems that facilitate trade and custody of securities is
mandatory for the smooth functioning and acceleration of market transactions. An efficient and well-functioning market
infrastructure reduces obstacles to trading flows, allows for low-cost settlement of financial transactions, and raises
investor confidence. A study conducted by UNECA (1999) disclosed that for a capital market to operate with some
degree of efficiency, infrastructure, both physical and legal, are among the essential factors. Public awareness including
investors understanding of value creation is also among the vital factors for capital market development. As Rose (2000)
indicated because economic conditions exert a profound impact on the money and capital market, the investment
decision maker must be aware of economic data series that reflect trends in employment, prices, and related types of
information. The role of financial institutions and media is significant in this regard by propagating information to
savers, increase awareness on public, increase financial access, mobilize financial resource from excess areas and channel
it to shortage areas where investment opportunities are ample. Economists like Stein (1995) describe institutions enable
to reduce transaction and information costs and make markets operate with efficiency and liquidity. Yartey (2007) also
explained that the existence of well-developed financial intermediary institutions, particularly the banking sector, to be
important for stock market development.
The active act of market exchange, without causing a significant movement in price and with minimum loss of values,
is significantly determined by the existence of professionals, specialist, and brokerage companies (Asrat, 2003). Market
liquidity is seminal to create ready and willing investors all the time since such market makes investment less risky and
more attractive. This enables companies to enjoy permanent access to capital from investors and households as saving
remains less attractive. Market liquidity is firmly associated with the availability of smooth and sophisticated exchange
markets coupled with public awareness, investors’ protection and skillful and able intermediaries. Azu (2009) states that
capital market liquidity can be improved through reducing monetary policy, creating awareness, building confidence,
potentially growing economy, reducing transaction barriers, and aligning of banks to support the market. Market makers
serve as liquidity providers and increase trading volume in developed market (Andreas and Marios, 2009). The existence
of experts and specialists who devotedly make market analysis and justification of prevailing and new developments is
critical for capital market. Based on this conceptual scanning, the basics for the establishment and development of
capital market are structurally modeled as below (Figure 2.1).
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Figure 2.1. Market efficiency and liquidity model

To establish a well functioning and vibrant capital market, the fulfillment of certain preconditions potentially promise for
its launching and identification of bottlenecks that hinder the realization is essential. In this study, potential factors
smoothening and others constraining capital market establishment are identified and explicitly explained.
Potential Beddings
Growing economy
Ethiopia has been registering an enticing economic growth and it is one of the fastest growing in the world
notwithstanding the global economic shock and financial crisis. According to the government official reports, the
country’s economy has been growing at about 10 to 11% for the last seven (7) years since 2004/5 though the World
Bank and IMF limit the economic growth within the range of 7 and 9% during these times. Even by the latter growth
rates, the country’s economy has been growing high as compared to the 2015 5% and 4.4% economic growth
projections for Sub-Saharan Africa and the entire world, respectively as averagely expected by IMF. This invites foreign
investors and the Ethiopian Diaspora to invest in diverse investment potentials including agriculture, manufacturing,
tourism and others investment opportunities open for foreign investors. This increasing trend of investors prefer to
establish large scale companies through issuing shares in an initial public offering to take the advantages of corporations.
This entrepreneurial and forward-looking investment by the Ethiopia Diaspora is putting a pressure on the government
to establish a secondary market.
Relatively Stable Political Environment

Political environment is factorial to every moment. In unstable political environment, investment is less likely to happen
and become pillar of an economy. Investors’ willingness of investment on risky financial assets such as stocks and bonds
depends on domestic speculation of the future political situation of countries. In this regard, Ethiopia enjoys relatively
stable political system domestically as compared to its neighbors. But there are frequent claims on human rights and
elections plagued by claims of irregularities by watchdog groups like EU. The region, East Africa, is also among the
unstable area of the world.
Privatization Scale-up
Among the appealing economic measures, promoting private sector development is the privatization program that the
Ethiopia government has been working by establishing a privatization agency. So far, the government is a major actor in
the economy as it has monopolized varied crucial sectors like sugar, cement and beer factories, telecom services, etc.,
and its institutions and agencies play a seminal role in the market. Recently, however, many state-owned companies have
been privatized. Since 1995, the Privatization and Public Enterprises Supervisory Agency has privatized 287 enterprises
including breweries. This is seen as a positive move surfacing an enabling ground for the private sector to play and have
an influential role in the economy.
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Increasing capital flow to the country

In countries like Ethiopia, where saving is low, foreign direct investment is an alternative means to improve investment.
The investment by the foreign investors and the Ethiopia Diaspora is increasing overtime being slightly affected by the
global economic downturn that happened since 2007. According to the consulted official reports of the NBE and
Ethiopian Investment Agency, FDI has shown an increasing trend as more investors from Turkey, China, India, and the
Middle East are investing mainly in agriculture, textile, hotels, and restaurants. The total FDI inflows into Ethiopia have
increased continuously from US$ 135 million in 2000 up to US$ 545 million in 2004. But the yearly FDI inflows have
shown fluctuations between US$ 545 and US$ 206 million in the period of 2005-2011. FDI inflows into the agricultural
sector, which is about 45% of GDP, 80% export and more than 80% of employment, account for 32% of the total
Ethiopian FDI inflows. Despite the increasing trend, FDI in Ethiopia is very low even by African standard. Remittance
has been also growing from the Diasporas. The NBE reported that official receipt of remittance to Ethiopia grew to
US$1.5 billion in 2011 showing a growth of 87.4% as compared to the previous year.
Invest than save payoff

Saving is not encouraging in the country as real interest rate is negative. The interest rates on deposits do not
compensate the high inflation rate in the country. The national Bank has set the minimum interest rate on deposits at
5%, but inflation rate is fluctuating between 20% and 30% and even was beyond 30% in 2009. Due to this handicap,
experts and individuals involved in this study say that households prefer to put their money under their mattress or
invest it in other potential and less risky investment opportunities. This has become, in recent years, an advantage for
initiators of incorporated companies.
Inclination to incorporated companies

During the derge regime, most companies were sole proprietorships and partnerships or national corporations. But after
the liberalization process, many private companies flourish in the country. With the establishment of Awash
International Bank (AIB) in 1994 through initial public offering, incorporated companies, particularly banks, insurances
and construction companies began to exist. Ethiopian Diaspora and Ethiopians experienced advanced markets and
economies have become the actors in initiating incorporated companies. This brings a new paradigm to citizens to invest
their petty money on shares of these companies than putting in negative earning deposits. Except for security and
liquidity reasons, many prefer to put their money on shares of companies. This is the bold reason pressurizing the
government to set regulations and launch capital market to end-up chilling the private sector.
Ethiopian Commodity Exchange (ECX), a vibrant lesson

Ethiopia has established a commodity exchange with the proclamation number 550/2007 with an initiative of
revolutionizing the traditional agriculture through creating a new market place to serve all actors and add value to the
primary producers. This market is the first of its kind not only in Ethiopia but also in Africa. Many consider the
establishment of this unique platform to all in the agricultural value chain as madness as they believe it does not work in
the 85% uninformed rural and immature infrastructure. But it has become a rubber bridge bringing diverse partners,
from farmers to traders to processors to exporters and consumers. It is praised for its exemplary works of providing
reliable end-to-end system and linking financial services, transportation, etc. Though it is few years since establishment,
EXC has become an institution to be benchmarked by many African nations and scale up best practice within the
nation. Therefore, it is a vibrant and lively lesson that the country could learn to much to launch the capital market.
Energy Expansion
Energy is the backbone of economic development. Ethiopia, the water tower of East Africa, has immense potential for
hydroelectric power, wind, and geothermal energy generation. Most of its major rivers are suitable for the generation of
hydroelectric power with the total capacity of 45,000 MW, but able to produce only 2,000 MW (4.4%), getting more than
90% of energy from bio-mass accelerating the destruction of the country’s forest resources. Over the last ten years,
efforts have been made to shore up the energy capacity of the country in order to increase the population access to
electricity, promote the establishment of large scale industries and advocates green economy. To this effect, the
government has initiated hydroelectric and wind power projects in different parts of the country. By this effort, the
energy capacity of the country has increased from 250 MW (1991) to 2,000 MW (2011). The government has planned to
ignite the power generation into 10,000 MW at the end of the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) in 2015. To
achieve this target, it has already started a grand dam (Abay Renaissance Dam) expected to generate about 6,000 MW.
This self-financed project is anticipated to quench the huge energy demand of the country, attract foreign investors and
generate income by exporting to neighboring countries, and is assumed to play a vital role in the regional integration.
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Constraints
Government Reluctance and Ambivalence
Since the fall of the Derge regime in 1991, Ethiopia has directed its command economy into a market-oriented
economy. The financial sector was liberalized to uphold the economy but this lubrication was not extended to the
establishment of capital market. Despite pressures from domestic and international stakeholder, the Government of
Ethiopia has remained reluctant and ambivalent to launch the securities market (specifically the secondary market) in the
country. As discussions with government officials and official documents indicate, the government presently has no
intention to launch the market. What is looking askance and dubious to the government is the importance of the market
to the country’s economy as it is sleeping over the dynamics and fickle behavior of the capital market than on the prolific
palettes. The government connotes almost frequently such statements: “We have limited resources and it is a choice
where and how to use them,” and this is “a priority dilemma”. “We have other basic and obligatory functions to do first
in order to enhance social welfare”. “Thus, capital market is not the government’s priority at this moment and it is
untimed to the country”. This ambivalent stance of the government and disaccording resources towards furnishing basic
capital market constituents is seminally quash the existence of the market. In anyways, the government, at present, is not generous
to establish securities market in the country.
Underdeveloped Infrastructure
Legal and Regulatory frameworks and body
The importance, extent, and form of regulating capital (securities) market are among the critical global agenda. But after
the 2007 global financial crisis, the significance of market regulation has been highly promoted. Market regulations are
believed to improve market efficiency, protect investors, and enhance public confidence. Accordingly, for countries like
Ethiopia where systems and structures are not well cultivated the availability of legal framework and supervisory bodies
is essential for the establishment and development of capital market, and ensure the macro and microeconomic stability.
Safeguarding of the stability of the system translates into macro-controls over the financial exchanges, clearing houses
and securities settlement system.
Despite market regulation is regarded to envisage transparency in the market and intermediaries to protect the
participants from information asymmetry and market anomalies, currently, Ethiopia has no sufficient and up-to standard
proclamations, legal and regulatory frameworks to regulate the exchange of securities, even issued in the initial public
offering (primary market). Under the proclamation no. 166 of 1960, Book-II (Business organizations), Title-VI
(companies limited by shares) describes only the functions of companies to raise capital through initial public offering
(primary market) and it fails to explain the subsequent transactions of the securities in an open market (secondary
market), and ways of regulation. The commercial code pinpoints the formations of partnerships, joint venture, private
limited companies, and share companies. It further details the provisions for the establishment of private limited and
share companies. Despite the detail information required to get license, there are no regulations that can protect the
investors. There are requirements for documents (such as audited financial statements and confirmation with
international/ national standards and principles) that the initiators or issuers to file to a separate regulatory body
(commission) for further investigation and approval before issuing initial offering to the public. However, there are no
criteria for listing and delisting of companies in the market. There are also no adequate anti-fraudulent activities of the
share issuing companies. This absence of regulatory body for non-banking sector makes difficult to introduce a well-
grounded market and sheds-down the confidence of domestic investors to take part on such market. Generally, the
country does not design any regulation in tandem with the unique dynamics of the securities market and no independent
supervisory body (like the SEC in the united state) designated to govern the modus operandi of the market.
The other proclamation is the proclamation of Banking Business and Service, which deals only about banks. The
country has a regulatory body only for the banking sector. Banks offering and selling securities are required to comply
with the bank proclamation under the watchdog of the National Bank of Ethiopia. However, regulatory agency and
regulations are totally absent for the non-bank share issuing companies. These proclamations are inadequate to supervise
and regulate the primary shares offering and do not meet international standards which makes it difficult for the
secondary market to exist.
Initial public offering companies are operating traditionally and through window-type shopping of shares under
informal and unregulated market. Thus, thousands of small base investors remain uncertain whether their future
contracts will be recognized and enforced. Seminally important to the development of securities market is the suitability
of the country to do business. Doing business is a fundamental factor on how easy to do business when complying with
relevant regulations. According to the World Bank’s partial and relative measures affecting 10 areas in the life cycle of a
business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit,
protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts and resolving insolvency, Ethiopia’s world
ranking is far behind demanding more to do. The country is ranked, overall, out of 183 countries in 2012, 111 sliding
down from its previous year’s position (104) and following from behind its neighboring countries, Rwanda (45) and
Kenya (109), but relatively at faire position vis-à-vis to Uganda (122) and Sub-Saharan standard (137).
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Table 2.1. Comparison of Ethiopia with other countries in capacity of doing business
Enforcing contracts
Starting a business
Getting electricity
Trading across
Getting credit
Dealing with
construction
Paying taxes
Registering
insolvency
Protecting
Resolving
investors
property
Country
borders,
permits
Ethiopia 99 56 93 113 150 122 40 157 57 89
Rwanda 8 84 50 61 8 29 19 155 39 165
Uganda 143 109 129 127 48 133 93 158 116 63
Kenya 132 37 115 133 8 97 166 141 127 92
Sub-Saharan 123 112 122 119 110 112 115 134 117 127
Africa
Source: Doing Business/World Bank, 2012
Comparatively, within the developing world, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa, the relative position of Ethiopia in ease of
doing business seems fair (Table 2.1). Except Rwanda, the comparators have expectedly lower rankings in most of all the
factors indicating that the Sub-Saharan African countries have a long way to go to bestow conducive environment and
develop enabling regulations to protect investors, reduce transaction costs, reduce inconveniences, and overall ease
doing business for citizens. Even though investor protections is essential for companies to raise the capital they need to
grow, innovate, diversify and compete, Ethiopia’s commercial code is inadequate to protect investing citizens. Articles
381-389 of the code give rights: to at least 10% holding shareholders to ask for investigation in the company’s state of
affairs if they believe it is going wrong (Art. 381); to be a member, to vote, and to challenge a decision of the company
or to receive dividends and a share in a winding-up (Art. 389). Art. 333 also give shareholders the right to transfer
unrestricted shares. However, the code deprives shareholders the right to be informed and get relevant and timely
information, restricts the free transfer of shares, and does not minority shareholders the right to be protected. Generally,
the old commercial code is insufficient to protect investors and promote transparency in the function of companies.
This existence of gap in the legal infrastructure hinders investors to invest.
In today’s globalized world, making trade between economies easier is increasingly important for business. Excessive
document requirements, burdensome customs procedures, inefficient port operations, and inadequate infrastructure all
lead to extra costs and transactional processing. Ensuring formal property rights is fundamental. If strong administrative
organs are not well-established, formal property transfer becomes costly and complicated, and might go through
informal ways, diminishing its importance to the economy. Improving access to finance enables citizens to exchange
resources and share risk. Institutionalizing credit information systems enables lenders to view potential borrowers’
financial history (financial positions, liquidity, and obeying to former contracts). This is instrumental in allowing market
to act and react by its own and channel resources to their best of use. Conclusively, regulatory framework is one of the
strong foundations of a capital market that protects investor assets and promotes confidence in the public. The stock
exchange operates within a certain legal framework. The exchange has its own regulations, including membership
regulations, listing regulations, trading, settlement rules, mergers, and takeover rules. Ethiopia’s decades-old and
unmodified code, to include recent and dynamic phenomena, is not giving a strong jolt to establish and operate a full-
fledged securities market. Generally, Ethiopia does not have adequate proclamations and directives for the development
of well-functioning primary securities market nor have adequate legal, regulatory, and supervisory framework, which can
lay down for the foundation of a secondary market.
Business Orienting Media, a Missing Link: Media (newspapers, TV, online, etc.) has an influential role on the public
and companies. It plays a vital role in enhancing the public awareness and informs individuals, groups, entities, and
governments about developments. Media influences the investment behavior of citizens. It propagates information that
could be incorporated in prices of commodities and assists for the existence of efficient market. Media updating
stakeholders and the public about the commonplace of the business and finance sector is totally absent in Ethiopia.
Information about the list of companies that are offering shares to the market, the amount of shares sold, money
mobilize, status of formation, and any returns after establishment is not readily available to the public. Almost all share
companies promise mouth-watering returns and profits during their establishments. All share companies unilaterally set
birr 1,000, which is about USD $55, as the par value of the share. But there is no professional media that defines about
the credibility and reliability of the promises, and updates about the success or failure story of the companies. There also
no professional explanations and interpretations about why all companies take a similar fixed par value of their shares.
Unfortunately, the media that thousands of people with shares in a number of businesses dream printing and airing share
prices, and business climate like in elsewhere shares are traded is a missing link.
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ICT, Unripe Infrastructure

Information and communication technology (ICT) has become a powerful tool for development extending its role from
improving education and health system to widening business opportunities. For participants in the capital market, ICT is
vital as it enable to communicate and exchange information swiftly; hence, make capital markets more efficient by
including all information in stock prices. Though improvements in ICT development and expansion have been seen, the
public and more particularly the business community is not blessed to modern, fast, fair and equitable use of ICT in
Ethiopia. The state-owned telecommunication company, Ethio-telecom the sole telecom service provider, provides
sluggish, unreliable, and expensive internet and phone services. As of September 2011, there were only 10.5 million
mobile phone, 0.854 million fixed line and 0.128 million internet subscribers which account 12%, 1% and 0.15% of the
population. This coverage is very low by any standard. The farmer, the backbone of the country’s economy accounting
more than 80% of employment, is scantly addressed by the ICT territory and internet is unthinkable in rural areas.
Immature Financial Sector

In order to establish and develop a full-fledge and well functioning capital market, the existence of strong financial
institutions such as banks, mutual funds, pension funds, credit unions, saving associations, and others is inevitable.
Financial institutions are significant in that they mobilize financial resources from households and channel the fund back
to the capital market. However, most African countries in general and Ethiopia in particular have no diverse and well-
developed financial institutions. The Ethiopian financial sector consists of only microfinance institutions, insurance
companies, and banks. Ethiopia has 17 banks, 14 insurance companies and 30 micro-finance institutions as of 2011.
Similar to many African counties, the sector is bank dominated. Banks play a key role in mobilizing, intermediating and
channeling resources into diverse uses in the economy. The banking sector has relatively shown improvements in terms
of bank numbers, branch networking, capital, profitability, deposit mobilization, non-performing loan minimization but
still small by African standard. Nonetheless, performance evaluation is difficult due to the absence of relevant
performance benchmarking tools (such as industry average, competitors’ performance, country standards, etc.) helpful to
assess each firm’s and/or industry performance. Despite relative improvements in the sector, still it is in its infant stage
and is distinguished with the following standings.
Dominant but Untested Banking Sector

The banking sector, the major player in the economy, is not open to foreign investors. Even though the country directed
its economy into market-orientation in 1991, there are several sectors only privileged to domestic investors, the banking
sector is one. The performance of this sector is untested by fierce competition, which is the common characteristics in
most part of the remaining world and deprives citizens to get access alternative services from diversified banks. Thus,
the sector is simply functioning as bears market becoming difficult to turn it into bullish market as it should be to pace
with the dynamic global market.
Limited Access
Since 1991, the banking sector has been performing well showing an increase in the number of banks, branch
networking, and deposit mobilization. The number of banks and braches increase from 3 and 200 (in 1994) into 17 and
970 (2011), respectively. However, Ethiopia is still one of the most under banked countries in the world with 970 bank
branches serving about 84,975,606 populations (one branch serving over 87,000 people). As compared to some African
countries such as Kenya (one branch serving 37,630 people), Ghana (one branch to 54,000 people), and Nigeria, the
most populous country in Africa (one branch is for 27,591 people) in 2010, Ethiopia has a lot to accomplish to enhance
banking access. Bank branches are also unfairly distributed and concentrated in major cities and towns of the country,
and 38% of bank branches are concentrated in Addis Ababa, the capital city, with residents only 2% of the country’s
population. Similarly, there are only 221 branches of 14 insurance companies that one insurance branch serves over
380,000 people.
Public Banks Outdo

As of 2011, there are 17 banks operating in the country. Of these 3 are public banks. This number indicted that the
number of public banks operating in the country seems too small reflecting private sector is dominant. However, the
fulcrum of rotating the axis of financial sector is in the hand of the government banks. They are dominant in terms of
bank branches, capital and deposit mobilization. Of the total 970 bank branches, in 2011, throughout the country,
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE, a government bank) alone has 547 branches. CBE has also been mobilizing about
60% to 70% of the domestic saving between the periods of 2005 to 2011. The banking sector is characterized by its low
capital base. For example, the total capital of the sector in 2011 is 15.9 billion Ethiopian birr (which is about 92 million
dollars). The share of the 14 private banks is only 44%, which the major share is held by the three public banks, mainly
by the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia. This is an indication that there is a long way that the country should go to
promote the private sector to play a significant role in the economy.
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Low Deposit Mobilizing Status

Domestic saving in Africa is in its lowest standard. The lower saving culture has been the chronic problem to finance
national development endeavors and large scale national projects in Africa. African nations have a very wide gap
between the domestic savings and required/invested capital and such gap (deficit) is financed by borrowings to the larger
extent supplemented by foreign aids and assistances. Ethiopia’s domestic saving is also at its lowest rate by any standard.
At the end of the PASDEP period, gross domestic saving was only 5.5% of GDP. The construction of the Ethiopian
Grand Abay Renaissance dam, in the Nile river, the largest project in the history of the country, is believed to boost
saving in the country as it is constructed by issuing long-term government bonds. According to government official
reports, gross domestic saving went up to 8.8% of GDP due to this effect.
This rate, however, is by far lower than Sub-Saharan standard (17.9%) and other developing countries like Angola and
Gabon where domestic saving is as high as 40% of the GDP. Beside to the limitation of financial literacy, low income
and high inflation rate exhaustively swallowing income for consumption, the inability of banks to mobilize resources
from households is of no doubt. Citizens are not ready to save due to higher inflation rate and comparatively lower
saving interest rates. So, there is a doubt that the targets of the ambitious five years GTP will be achieved as the
government may suffer huge financial gap. Thus, professionals and experts have been recommending the government to
launch capital market to mobilize required capital from internal and external sources as major domestic investors are not
willing to make huge investments in the government bonds issued for the dam due to liquidity problems.
Excessive Liquidity
According to the Licensing and Supervision of Banking Business Proclamation No. 84/1994, and Banking Business
Proclamation No. 592/2008, all licensed banks are strongly required to transfer to their legal reserve accounts in the
National Bank of Ethiopia a sum of not less than 25 percent of their net profit at the end of each financial year, and as
pursuant of banking business proclamation (art. 20), directives No. SBB/45/2012 requires banks to maintain liquid
assets not less than 20% of their total current liabilities. However, banks are liquid much higher than the requirement.
On yearly averages, less than 50% of deposits mobilized are extended as loan. Thus, above half of deposited amounts in
commercial banks remain unproductive. This unexploited liquidity discourages banks to undertake intensive deposit
mobilization movements. This is a clear indication for the thinness of the financial market that banks have nowhere to
channel financial resources. Securities market is suggested by many to counterpart the banking business in this regard.
Acute and Technology Shy Banking Service

The financial sector in general and the banking system in particular is underdeveloped in that it lacks diversified and
alternative services. Banks and insurance companies provide very scant products and services to the public. Commonly
the public uses banks for (i) temporary deposits and (ii) loan facilities. Ethiopian banks are also technologically backward
and sluggish service deliverers. Some modern banking services such as Automated-Teller Machine (ATM), internet
banking and SMS banking have been started in some banks very few years back. Bust most payments and settlements are
still paper based. The service system is backward that all types of customers appear in person in physical operational
areas for settlement, clearances, and other banking services. However, it is worth mentioning that the National Bank of
Ethiopia and the Commercial Banks are taking encouraging measures to modernize their service delivery system, but
demanded a long way to go to join the advanced trajectory of banking system.
Deficient Inter-bank Transaction

Commercial transactions (such as lending, exchange of currency, money market, etc) is almost rare, if not exist at all
among the commercial banks. In financial market, this is considered to take the lead in activating the market to warm the
exchange in the securities market. This is the missing link to create capital market that stakeholders need to sleep on it.
Uninformed and Small Base Investors:

The domestic investors in Ethiopia are not well informed and not aware about trading securities and the functionalities
of capital market in particular and financial market in general due to lack of public awareness campaigns, limited
exposure to global markets and for educational matters. It is uncommon that concerned institutions conduct vigorous
seminars, conferences, and workshops to spark, extend, and enhance the concept of capital market in the public and
investors. What is more, the inexistence of institutional investors due to lower level saving capacity and practice is
another limiting factor to put a baseline for the establishment of the capital market. Many companies have been and are
established under conservatively financed initially publicly traded companies in a traditional window-shopping system,
shares held by thousands of investors none of whom hold a large percentage of shares and nowhere to sell then after to
get back even the principal. Due to the small base of domestic investors and limited capacity of the private sector, acute
shortage of capital is a constraining reason to ensure rapid economic development in the nation.
Shortage of Professionals, the human element

In Ethiopia, universities and other higher learning institutions do not specialize and excel in some specific disciplines.
Almost all are multidisciplinary offering wide range field of studies. Most senior scholars and experts of the country are
113
educated and specialized in foreign universities in untailored system to the country’s interest and situation. The
education system of business and economics is also adapted from advanced economies specifically the United State and
is trivially reflecting the actual practice in the ground. All the 31 universities offer business and economics courses at
undergraduate level in a holistic approach. Universities are not producing today’s and tomorrow’s brokers, specialists
and dealers (market makers) who serve as a bridge in connecting demanders and suppliers, mediate transactions and set
prices in response to excess demand and supply, and accumulate stock inventory to make market operate in equilibrium.
Students are not shaped to become tomorrow’s entrepreneurs, businesspersons, and open brokerage companies. Thus,
the commitment of government to refresh its education policies and responsibility of higher learning institutions to
produce innovative and skillful professionals and experts to surface a ground for the establishment of vibrant and
economically worthy capital market is unconsidered issue.
Conclusion and the Way Forward

Although the capitalization of all African stock exchanges represented less than 2% of the world total, and are
characterized by their low liquidity with low volume of transactions, they are expected to accelerate the transformational
process of Africa and envisage the economic growth of the countries as Africa is booming and viewed as future
destination of the investment eyes of global investors. Ethiopia can take good lessons from the already established
markets in developed and developing countries, especially emerging markets. It has to benchmark the practice to launch
the market apart from ‘learning by doing’. Most of the capital markets in Africa are under the umbrella of the African
Stock Exchanges Association (ASEA, representing 27 countries). ASEA was registered with the objective of, inter alia,
establishing an association for systematic cooperation, exchange of information, materials and persons, mutual assistance
and joint programs between the members. The membership of the association is open to any Stock Exchange or nascent
Stock Exchange located in the African region. Thus, it is another prima face opportunity for Ethiopia if it seeks technical
assistant to establish the market either unilaterally or jointly with other member states until it is ripped for the sector
running independently. Ethiopia has pioneered Commodities Exchange market (EXC) that many African countries are
nowadays aspiring to learn from. Scaling up of the good lessons of this vibrant EXC is another fortune for the country
to establish the capital market. Taking the tantalizing opportunities, Ethiopia should establish the capital market in order
to scream the elite of the market while remaining vigilant on its curses. While recommending the establishment of the
market, however, it is worth mentioning that the country should do its home work to bestow the ground by
modernizing and advancing, at least the bare minimum, its infrastructure (Payment and settlement, ICT, physical market,
etc) in order to smoothly facilitate the transactions if not making seamless. Developing regulatory framework and
designating an independent regulatory body to modestly watchdog the activities of the market to create public
confidence, protect investors, and at least minimize market anomalies. Alongside, the establishment of institutions and
training centers and introduction of professionalism in the area to promote public awareness, to assist the market, and
produce skillful and competent workforce to this world of work is also necessary to do activity. Gradualism loosening of
the arresting economic regulations and relaxing the closed sectors to foreign investors and markets is also relevant to
attract large scale investors able to transact huge capital in the economy. Finally, as there is nothing evergreen by itself,
the country should learn by doing and do the best it can to integrate itself with the global market to benefit from it.
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2.2 Income Diversification Pursuits of Khat (Catha edulis) Cropping Households in Eastern
Hararghe Highlands
Temesgen Keno
Abstract: This study was aimed at identifying the demographic, socio-economic, agro-ecological, and
institutional factors that largely determine the probability and intensity of income diversification
among khat cropping households in eastern Hararghe highlands. Primary data were collected from a
cross-sectional survey of 117 households in Aweday and Haramaya districts where farm households
are intensively engaged in khat cropping. Tobit censored regression model was employed to analyze
the determinants of households’ decision and intensity of income source diversification. Twenty
explanatory variables were tested, out of which ten were found statistically significant in determining
the probability and intensity of income diversification. Age of the household head, level of education,
leadership experience, access to training, frequency of shocks and future risk perceptions were found
to be positive while total family size, income from khat sales, size of land allotted for khat cropping
and extension contacts were found to be negative in significantly influencing the probability and
intensity of income diversification. The findings of the study suggest that income source
diversification policies that couple household socio-economic and khat cropping motive with
predictions on external climatic risk factors should be crafted for better stability and sustainability of
income generation among khat cropping households.
Keywords:Income Diversification; Kaht Cropping, Tobit
Introduction
Household income diversification is the pursuit of generating cash and in-kind income at household level from
conglomerate sources. Income diversification has intrinsic potential for protecting the livelihoods of the poor from the
risks of hostile ecological and biophysical changes. Various studies recognize farm household’s engagement in
diversifying income sources, assets and occupations as an economic adaptation behavior to cope with changing
livelihood conditions (Barrett et al., 2000; Block and Webb, 2001; Canagarajah et al., 2001; Olale and Nazli, 2010). Thus,
household income diversification serves rational risk management mechanism to smooth income and consumption. As a
household response to risks of changing socio-economic and livelihood conditions, farm households are usually ‘pushed’
to diversify their income sources due to climatic uncertainty and covariate risk reduction (Alderman and Paxon, 1994;
Tassew and Oskam, 2001), land constraints driven by population pressure and diminishing landholding due to
fragmentation (Deininger et al., 2003; Holden et al., 2004; Jayne et al., 2006), responses to diminishing factor returns in
any given use like family labor supply (Reardon et al., 2006; Bryceson, 1996), liquidity constraints and high transaction
costs that induce households to self-provision in several goods and services (Dercon, 2002; Dercon and Krishnan,
1996).
On the other hand, to exploit opportunities of stable and better income generation, farm households in developing
countries were evidenced to be ‘pulled’ to diversify their income sources in scenarios like limited risk-bearing capacity in
the presence of incomplete or weak financial systems that create strong incentives to select a portfolio of activities that
stabilize income flows and consumption patterns (Barrett and Reardon, 2000; Bryceson, 1996; Escobal and Javier, 2001).
In addition, local engines of economic growth including commercial agriculture (Abdulai and Crolerees, 2001, Pingali et
al., 1995), proximity to an urban area that create opportunities for income diversification in production and expenditure-
linkage activities (Adams, 1998), realization of strategic complementarities between activities like crop-livestock
integration, milling and hog production (Reardon et al., 2006) were also identified as “pull factors” for income
diversification.
Diversification and specializations accorded by superior technologies or business skills were evidenced to lead
households with scarce productive resources to greater endowments through considerable inter-individual diversification
of investment activities and alternative sources of income (Ellis, 2000). This is especially true in rural areas of low-
income countries like Ethiopia, where high transaction costs induce many households to self-provision in several goods
and services (Adugna, 2006; Tesfaye et al., 2004). Higher levels of diversification reduce production risks because of
lower vulnerability to extreme weather events. Likewise, a broader product portfolio reduces market and marketing risks
(e.g., price variability). On the consumption side, more diversification may contribute to better income, higher dietary
diversity, and micronutrient consumption. In general, diversification enhances household income generation capacity
and help for efficient inter-temporal transfer of resources and risk coping strategies providing for more stable and
sustainable income generation at household level particularly under the current farm scenarios where changing climate
conditions aggravate farmers’ uncertainty and farm production risks.
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Despite the significance of diversification, there is no clear identification of factors determining effective income
diversification mechanisms among rural households. For instance, cash cropping households, including coffee and khat1
producers, ignore diversification due to lucrative profitability of such cash crops. These households usually undermine
the fact that diversification is a household response to risks. In eastern Hararghe highlands where this study is carried
out as its setting, households are intensively engaged in khat production and as a result have income sources large
enough for investment above their consumption. This provides them with ample opportunity to diversify their income
sources into petty trade activities, micro- and small-scale enterprises (MSEs) and other alternative income generating
activities (IGAs) that provide more stable, sustainable and reliable earnings.
Strategies that help these households to channel their earning from khat sales into saving, asset accumulation, and
investment are not in place. Household well-being in terms of food security and poverty reduction are substandard and
the level of development of MSEs which are the ‘incumbents’ of growth is very low. Such paradox of ample income
generation and lack of economic wellbeing together with the low level of saving, MSE and IGAs development requires
special policy attentions. Empirical studies that investigate the underlying factors for the low level of diversification and
risk mitigation among these households were very scant. Hence, this study was aimed at identifying the determinants of
households’ willingness to diversify (WTD) income and intensity of income diversification.
Modeling khat producing household’s income diversification behavior

Khat cropping households were expected to reasonably show their decision to diversify or not to diversify their income
sources with the objective of minimizing the risks of undue reliance on khat and with the aim of improving the smooth
flow, stability, and sustainability of income generation. Opting for diversification implies interest for pursuing petty
trade, alternative IGAs or MSEs. Households’ diversification pursuits are rational decisions made based on expectations
of the benefits and costs of undertaking the diversified activities. Hence, households decide to diversify their income
sources if and only if the utility they derive (in terms of income) from the diversified activities is higher than not
diversifying. This decision can be represented by a utility function and the problem can, therefore, be modeled as a utility
maximization problem. Accordingly, khat producing households maximize their utility from diversifying their income
source portfolio given their resource endowment.
Let the household decision to diversify income sources is represented by where if the households decides to
diversify and , otherwise. The resource endowment of the household is represented by and vector represents
other observable attributes of the farm household that might potentially affect diversification decisions. If a khat
cropping household is willing to diversify its income sources, the household’s utility is given by and,
if the household is not willing to diversify, the utility is given by . Therefore, based on the existing
farm household economic theory, households are expected to be rational decision makers who prefer the best option
from the stated alternatives, subject to their demographic, socio-economic and institutional constraints.
This provides the basis for household income diversification behavior as an additively separable utility function in the
deterministic and stochastic components where the deterministic component is assumed to be linear in the explanatory
variable (Colin et al., 2005). Accordingly, the probable two decisions of the khat cropping household to diversify or not
to diversify its income sources are represented by or
, respectively, whereas is the utility that a household derives by
generating stable and sustainable income from diversified income source portfolio, is the deterministic part of the
utility and is the stochastic component representing the component of utility known to the households but
unobservable to the economic investigator. Without specifying the choices of income source diversification, it is
expected that khat cropping households are assumed to know their resource endowment and implicit cost of
diversification in terms of commitment of resources. Representing the household’s implicit cost of diversification
decision by , then, the household will decide to diversify its income source if which means if
.
The presence of a random component permits to make probabilistic statements about the behavior of khat cropping
household’s decision to diversify their income sources. If the household decides to diversify, the probability distribution
is given by and if the household decides not to diversify, the
1‘Khat’ (Catha edulis) is a shrub or small tree with ever-green leaves native to the tropical East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula,
chewed for its use as a mild to moderate stimulant. It is one of the cash crops extensively grown in Ethiopia with a rapid expansion in
different parts of the country. It generates the highest foreign exchange earnings next to coffee for Ethiopia in exports to some
Middle-East and European countries. Khat is an important and potentially lucrative cash crop and Hararghe farmers have tenacious
attachment with khat more particularly for consumption and income generation (Dechassa, 2007).
117
probability distribution is given by . Based on the assumption that

the deterministic component of the utility function is linear in the explanatory variables, the utility functions represented
above can be given as: and where and are the vectors of response
coefficients while and are stochastic or random disturbance terms. The probabilities given above can be estimated
from a probability cumulative distribution function (index) of willingness to diversify as follows:
where is the probability function, is a random disturbance term is K*1 vector of

parameters to be estimated, is an n*K matrix of explanatory variables. ) is the cumulative probability
distribution function for evaluated at .
Empirical model specification, variables, and hypotheses

Econometric model
Identification of the determinants of the household’s decision and intensity of income source diversification was the
main objective of this study. For this purpose, Tobit censored regression model was used. This is particularly meant to
understand why some households are better able to derive income from diversified sources and there could be a large
share of observations with zero values for those households who decide not to diversify their income sources. Hence,
Tobit model, which has been originally developed for censored data and also used for corner solutions (Green, 2000) is
selected for the data analysis in this study. The general Tobit model representing households’ income diversification
decision is given as:
(1)
For Tobit model, the dependent variable, , can take zero or positive values as:
(2)
where, is a partial latent dependent variable that capture the i th household decision to diversify its income source,
is a matrix of vector covariates that influence households’ diversification, is a parameter to be estimated, is a
random stochastic or disturbance term such that is normally distributed with mean 0 and standard deviation of δ 2, i.e.
. To estimate the coefficients of this model, the maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) method with
the log-likelihood function in equation (3) was employed.
(3)
where is the cumulative distribution function of the standard normal distribution. The first part of this likelihood
function is essentially the classical regression model for the non-zero observations while the second half represents the
probabilities for the censored observations. The maximum likelihood estimator has the desirable properties for being
both consistent and asymptotically efficient (Greene, 2000). Hence, the estimated coefficients identify two effects i) the
effect of an independent variable on the probability of diversification for households decided not to diversify (the
censored observations), and ii) the effect of the explanatory variable on the probability of diversification for households
who decide to diversify. In addition to the households’ diversification decisions, it is also important to make marginal
effect analysis to understand the extent to which each explanatory variable influence the probability and intensity of
income diversification.
Thus, the total marginal effects of explanatory variables on the expected value of the dependent variable are given as:
(4)
The above specification allows us to analyze the khat producing household’s decision to diversify as well as the intensity
of diversification given the decision to diversify. Hence, the total marginal effect or elasticity in equation (4) can be
decomposed into two effects as follows:
(5)
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The first marginal effect or elasticity stands for the effect of change in explanatory variables on the expected level of
probability of diversification, while the second marginal effect stands for the conditional expected value of intensity of
diversification.
Variables and hypotheses: In this study, two dependent variables, the households’ income diversification decisions
( ) and intensity of diversification ( ) were identified. is a dichotomous variable that takes the value of 1, if the
household is interested to diversify, but 0 otherwise, while is a continuous variable measuring the magnitude
(intensity) of households’ income that can be invested in diversified activities. Corresponding to the two dependent
variables, a number of explanatory variables believed to have significant influences on the dependent variables were
identified and summarized in Table 2.2.
Data
Empirical analysis was implemented using primary data collected through a survey of 117 households engaged in khat
cropping in Aweday and Haramaya districts of eastern Hararghe zone. A three-stage sampling technique was employed to
select the final unit of observation. First, the two districts Aweday and Haramaya were purposively chosen, as khat
cropping in this area is very intensive. Secondly, 3 kebeles from Aweday and 2 kebeles from Haramaya district were
randomly selected. Finally, a random sample of 64 households from Aweday and 53 households from Haramaya district
were selected based on probability proportional to size. A structured questionnaire was designed to elicit information on
a wide variety of topics including household income generation, resource endowment, access to markets and financial
services, saving behavior, investment motive, and demographic characteristics. The survey questionnaire was pre-tested
and actual field survey was done in April and May 2011. In addition, secondary data were collected from various
published and unpublished documents and materials from secondary sources. As the data contains explanatory variables
of varying nature, multicollinearity and hetroscedasticity tests were made for all explanatory variables before undertaking
econometric analysis.
Table 2.2. Summary of variables and hypotheses
Variables Code Hypotheses (Ho) Variable type and measurement
Age of the household AGE/AGE2 + - Continuous, age of the household head in years
Sex of household GENDER + + Dummy, 1 for male headed, 0 otherwise
Family size FAMSIZE - +/- Continuous, number of household members
Active age family size MANEQVLENT + + Continuous, measured in man equivalent
Education of household EDUCATION + + Continuous, formal education of the household head in years
Leadership participation LEADERSHIP + + Dummy, 1 if the household has leadership participation, 0
otherwise
Land holding LNDHOLD + + Continuous, land of the household in hectares
Land allotted for khat KHATLND - + Continuous, land allotted for khat production
Livestock holding TLUOWNED + + Continuous, number of livestock in TLU
Household income TOTALINCM + + Continuous , amount of total annual income
Income from kaht sales KHATINCOME - + Continuous, annual income from non-farm activities
Access to extension EXTENSION + + Continuous , extension contact per three months time
Distance from the market DISTMARKET - - Continuous, distance measured in walking hours
Sale of crops MDRNCRPSLE + + Dummy, if the household sold modern crops, 0 otherwise
Frequency of shocks SHOCKFREQ + + Continuous, frequency of shock that astonish khat,
crop/livestock
Expected losses LOSSEXPECTED + - Dummy, 1 if the household experienced severe losses, 0
otherwise
Risk perception RISKPERCV + + Dummy, 1 if the household perceives future risks, 0 otherwise
Diversity of crops grown CROPDIVSTY + + Continuous, 1 if the household has diversified farm, 0 otherwise
Access to training TRAINING + + Dummy, 1 if HH is ever trained about environment , 0
otherwise
Expenditure on festivals CRMEXPNS - - Continuous, total annual expenditure on social ceremonies in
ETB
119

Characteristics of sample households
The descriptive statistics showing the characteristics of the sample households is given in Table 2.3. As the table
indicates, an average sample household was headed by a 44-year-old person who attended about 2 years of formal
education, has a household size of about seven persons, three of whom were in the productive age and the rest were
school or pre-school dependents.
In terms of resource endowment, the average farm household operated 1.125 hectares of land out of which about
0.872 hectares were allotted for khat production and owned about 3.72 TLU of livestock. The farm household generates
annual farm income of about 28125 ETB out of which about 18050 was generated from khat sales. But, the farmer’s
annual expenditure on social festivals was significant as compared with its income amounting to 9025 ETB. As an
indicator of degree of access to infrastructures, the household was far away from the nearby town market center at a
distance of 3.866 kilometers. Due to the recurrence of climate change induced drought, the household reported to face
severe shocks of idiosyncratic and covariate nature almost twice per year. As an indicator of low level of income
diversification, the average household was observed to grow only about two diversities of crops on the land not covered
by khat.
Determinants of income diversification decision

The result of the Tobit maximum likelihood estimation of the determinants of the households’ income diversification
decision is presented in Table 2.4. Age of the household head, formal years of education, participation in local leadership
roles, frequency of shocks experienced, future risk perception and access to training were found to be positive and
significant in influencing diversification decisions. On the other hand total family size, income generated from khat sales,
values of modern crops sold, size of land allotted for khat production and extension contact were found to be negative
and significant influencing households’ decision for diversification. Significance of age variable may indicate that older
farmers are more likely willing to diversify their income sources, perhaps due to their experience of observing changing
nature and livelihood risks.
Table 2.3. Summary results of the sample descriptive statistics for continuous variables
Aweday (n = 64) Haramaya (n=53) Total (n = 117)

Stand. Stand. Stand.
Variables Mean Dev Mean Dev Mean Dev
Age of the household in years 39.911 8.671 40.130 12.711 44.373 13.122
Family size 6.390 4.021 8.110 3.411 7.230 3.331
Active age family size 3.191 2.012 4.053 1.710 3.152 1.511
Household education in years 2.674 0.985 2.691 0.982 2.683 0.981
Land holding in hectares 1.217 0.947 1.031 0.646 1.125 0.814
Land allotted for Khat in hectares 0.980 1.361 0.764 1.733 0.872 1.585
Livestock holding in TLU 3.578 2.498 3.869 3.090 3.723 2.805
Household total income in birr 30425 23675 25775 16150 28125 20380
Income from kaht sales in birr 14950 13010 21180 17330 18050 15850
Expenditure on social festivals 7475 6805 1059 8665 9025 7925
Distance from the market 3.381 1.646 4.355 2.058 3.866 1.921
Frequency of shocks 2.298 1.292 3.472 1.719 2.882 1.626
Diversity of crops grown 1.495 1.361 2.118 1.733 1.805 1.585
Similarly, the significance of household heads’ formal years of education, participation in local leadership activities and
training on environment are indicators of better human capital development. This may provide khat cropping
households with better insights about the benefits of diversification as a risk mitigation tool. The enhanced level of
education, training, and leadership experience help the households to draw comparisons about costs and benefits of each
of the diversification opportunities. Household’s drought-induced risk perception about future crop/livestock collapse
and frequency of covariate shock were found to be positively and statistically significant in determining the households’
diversification decisions. The significance of these factors may imply the households’ economic uncertainty about the
effect of changing climate on farming activities, which further pushes them to decide to diversify their income sources.
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Table 2.4. Maximum likelihood estimates of Tobit regression for household income diversification
Variables Coefficients Standard error Marginal Effect Marginal Effect

(probability) (intensity)
AGE/AGE2 0.019471** 0.04873 0.00221 0.03421
GENDER -0.17043 0.05947 -0.07400 -0.00910
FAMSIZE -0.31120 0.04321 -0.0031 -0.00149
EDUCATION 0.0340** 0.04670 0.01680 0.01342
LNDHOLD 0.26500 0.42380 0.16840 0.00104
KHATLND -0.04511** 0.00923 -0.00421 -0.00532
TLUOWNED 0.13070 0.40020 0.04080 0.01064
LEADERSHIP 0.07401* 0.76140 0.08042 0.00613
NONFARMICM 0.62480 0.00020 0.00060 0.05500
KHATINCOME -0.0073*** 0.54730 -0.02310 -0.00651
SHOCKREQ 0.010140** 0.56870 0.01830 0.00340
LOSSEXPECTED 0.18500 0.54320 0.07430 0.00391
MODNCROPSALES -0.03792** 0.78520 -0.00041 -0.00007
DISTMKT -0.34120 0.24510 -0.35120 -0.04055
RISKPERCV 0.00923***. 0.35280 0.00430 0.00812
EXTENSION -0.08140* 0.74630 -0.009430 -0.00520
TRAINING 0.01301** 0.62892 0.01654 0.02742
CRMEXPNS -0.21010 0.4532 -0.00326 -0.00713
CROPDIVSTY 0.81742 0.76892 0.06442 0.00282
CONSTANT 2.41** 4.8634
***, ** and * represent significance at 1%, 5% and 10% levels, respectively, the number of observations = 117, log likelihood = -13.64 and the restricted l
log likelihood = -19.28, chi-square = 94
On the other hand, the negative relationship between diversification decision and income generated from khat sales is
the outcome of the households’ expectations of these directs economic sacrifies as they pursue diversification. The size
of land allotted for khat production was negatively and significantly related to the probability and intensity of
diversification. This implies that those farmers that use more of their land for khat production are expecting income
sacrifice as a result of diversification than those that do not use their land intensively for khat. Total family size of the
households was also negatively and significantly related to diversification decisions. This might be because when
compared to households with small family size, large family sized households have larger cash expenditures to meet
household needs such as clothing and education, the cumulative effect of which depletes the household’s cash deposit
for diversification. Unexpectedly, the model result also showed that extension contact has a negative and significant
influence on diversification decisions. This is contrary to the accepted theory. The probable reason might be even
though farmers have access to the service (as access does not adequately measure quality), the quality of service might
not be to the interest of farmers, and hence there had no substantial change in attitude of the farmers. The other
possible reason might be that extension service is not provided on on-farm agro-biodiversity
Marginal effects of changes in explanatory variables

Change in explanatory variables results into cumulative changes, which can be decomposed into the effects on
probability and intensity of diversification. This is summarized in the last two columns of Table 2.4. Change in age of the
household was found to positively and significantly affect the probability and intensity of diversification. The results
computed indicate that keeping other factors constant a one year increase in household’s age experience would increase
the probability and intensity of diversification by 2.2% and 3.4%, respectively. A one percent increase in formal
education level of the household was found to change the probability and intensity of diversification by 1.7% and 1.3%,
respectively. Similarly, a change in the leadership roles of a household (years of experience in local leadership) results in
0.08% increase in the probability of diversification and 0.006% increase in the intensity of diversification. The estimated
increase in the probability and intensity of diversification from a one percent change in the households’ training
exposure on environmental conservation were 1.6% and 2.7%, respectively. A percent increase in frequency of shocks
experienced by the households increase their probability and intensity of diversification by 1.8% and 0.3%, respectively.
Similarly, a percent change in a household’s perception of future risks results in 0.43% and 0.81% change in probability
and intensity of diversification, respectively.
On the other hand, the model output also showed that income from khat sales was positively and significantly related
to the probability and intensity of diversification. This might be because in terms of monetary contribution for
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diversification practices households whose incomes sources are dominated with kaht sales have better potential than
others do. The marginal effect value shows that a 1% increase in income from khat sales decreases the farmer’s
probability and intensity of diversification by 2.3% and 0.065%, respectively. The size of land allotted for khat
production was also negatively and significantly related to the probability and intensity of diversification. The marginal
effect results showed that as the size of land allotted for khat production increase by 1%, the probability and intensity of
diversification decreases by about 0.42% and 0.53%, respectively. One percent increase in value of crops grown with
modern technologies decreases the household’s probability and intensity of income source diversification by 0.04% and
0.007%, respectively. A one-percentage increase in family size reduces the households’ probability and intensity of
diversification by 0.31% and 0.14%, respectively. Similarly, the probability and intensity of diversification were also
observed to decrease by 0.94% and 0.51%, respectively, for a one percent increase in extension contact per three months
time.
Conclusion and recommendation

The farming system in eastern Hararghe highland is characterized by gradual conversion of arable land into khat
cropping resulting in diminishing land allocation for staple food crop production. Undue reliance on this cash crop often
results in high risks of loss of livelihood income in events when climate change induced drought and wrist astonishes the
plant. Income generation and better earning from khat sales was also found to be paradoxical with food security and
poverty reduction in the absence of appropriate saving and channeling of such income into productive investment
activities. Mechanism of effective income source diversification that provide for stable and sustainable income
generation are prioritized policy concerns. Thus, the main purpose of this study was to identify the determinants of the
probability and intensity of income source diversification using cross-sectional data collected from random sample of
households engaged in khat cropping in two districts of the eastern Hararghe zone. Results indicated that khat cropping
household’s income source diversification decisions and the intensity of resources to be channeled into diversified
income generating activities are influenced by a range of demographic, socio-economic, agro-ecological and institutional
factors. The findings of the study imply that in the current faces of depleting livelihood conditions driven by agro-
ecological, biophysical, and environmental changes, income diversification should be persuaded as a household response
to risk and rational adaptation behavior. The specific demographic, socio-economic, and institutional factors identified in
this study are suggested to be coupled with predictions on external climate risk factors in crafting polices aimed at
optimizing household income source diversification for better stability and sustainability of income flows.
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3. College of Education and Behavioral Sciences

3.1 Challenging Behaviors in Preschool Children: Teachers’ Perceptions and Experiences in
Preschool Settings of Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Aschalew Teshome
Abstract: The perceptions and experiences of challenging behaviors were explored among 64 staff working in 11
preschools. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to ascertain what behaviors in children are found most
challenging and their possible causes; how they were managed and effectiveness of management strategies; and concerns
communicated to parents. In addition, observation and open-ended questionnaire were employed to support the
interview. Results showed that aggression, over-activity and bully/manipulative behaviors were perceived as the most
prevalent and worrying. Exclusion, explanation, and occupying misbehaving were the most frequently used strategies for
managing such behaviors. Staff communicated their concern with parents about behaviors that endangered the child’s
safety, out-of-character and persistent bad behaviors. Finally, social modeling and reinforcement strategies excluding
punishment; a well designed classroom that is engaging and developmentally appropriate; teacher training and technical
support in the area of children’s social and emotional development and classroom management; and emphasis on the
development of social and emotional skills in early education curriculum were forwarded as remedial solutions that
might help to reduce the problem under study.
Keywords: Behavior management, Challenging behaviors, Preschool children, Staff-parent Communication, Staff
perceptions
Introduction
Starting preschool education is supposed to be an enjoyable time, a time for playing, making friends, and learning for
most young children. But this is not true for all children. Some of them may encounter difficulties to adjust themselves
to the new environment. Others may be in conflict with others or they may be so shy and withdrawn that they seem to
be in their own worlds. In either case, playing with others, making friends, and learning all the things a child must learn
are extremely difficult for these children (Tirussew, 2000; Blasco, 2001). These problems arise from conditions within
the child or external influences, which are not often noticed or understood by others. As a result, their behavior violates
expectations for what is accepted as a “normal” and causes concern for their teachers, peers and parents (Hughes and
Dunn, 2000; Babu et al., 2007).
Challenging behavior has been defined as behavior emitted by a learner that results in self-injury, or injury to others,
causes damage to the physical environment, interferes with the acquisition of new skill, and/or socially isolates the
learner (Emerson, 1995; Doss and Reichle, 1991). Similarly, Kaiser and Raminsky (2003) define challenging behavior as
any behavior that interferes with children’s learning, development, and success at play and harmful to the child, other
children, or adults, which puts a child at high risk for later social problems or school failure.
Challenging behavior is likely to have onset in childhood and may be highly persistent over time. The consequences of it
can include significant impairment of the health and/or quality of life of the persons themselves, those who care for
them and those who educate them or work in close proximity. Social responses to it may include abuse, inappropriate
treatment, deprivation and systematic neglect (Emerson, 1995). Within the care sector staff working with a child who
shows challenging behavior have reported feelings of anger, annoyance, anxiety and being upset (Hastings, 1993). In an
educational setting challenging behavior may cause severely restricted access to the curriculum or exclusion of the pupil
from school. Pupils displaying challenging behavior are also a major source of intense stress in the lives of teachers
(Hastings and Remington, 1994).
With increasing number of children attending preschool education in the urban communities, there is an increased
prevalence of children whom staffs perceive as presenting challenging behaviors. These behaviors create chaotic school
and classroom environments and overwhelm the capacity of schools to accommodate such kind of children effectively.
Furthermore, there is strong evidence for continuity in disruptive behavior among children who display early anti-social
behavior, with these children at a higher risk for persistent and severe disorders than children who show later onset of
behavioral disturbance (Hughes et al., 2000; Kaiser and Raminsky, 2003).
Social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties may prevent children from participating fully in the preschool curriculum
and from maximizing their abilities and educational opportunities. As a result of their challenging behavior, such
children are seldom liked by their peers, teachers, brothers or sisters, or even parents. Moreover, such children are
rejected, verbally abused, physically punished, excluded from class and play field most of the time (Babu et al., 2007).
Such difficulties may be an early indicator of potentially more serious psychological problems. Failure to recognize and
address these difficulties may adversely affect not only educational attainment result in poor academic outcomes but also
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leads to the development of serious psychological and adjustment problems in both the short and the long term (Hughes
and Dunn, 2000; Hastings and Remington, 1994).
On top of this, a country’s economy depends on the competencies of its citizens and those competencies are set early
in life. This means that in the lifecycle of human development, early childhood is a critical period that requires serious
attention and investment. The investment made by society at early stage of human development pays back later through
the productive contribution of today’s children to the society. If a typical children at this stage of development are not
provided with appropriate intervention, a country will set the condition for producing non-productive citizens who will
not enjoy quality of life and whose contribution to the societal growth will be minimal (Tirussew, 2005; Blasco, 2001;
Babu et al., 2007).
If there is no research input that addresses the problems and the needs of such kind of children within their social and
cultural context, by the time they start elementary school, precious learning time has passed and opportunities for
providing vital early intervention experiences and services are lost. Therefore, the main intent of the study was to explore
challenging behaviors exhibited by preschool children in preschool settings and to forward remedial solutions that might
help to reduce the problem under study with particular reference to some selected preschools in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia.
Thus, the following research questions were set to be answered at the end of the study:
 What types of behaviors are perceived and experienced by the staff as challenging ones?
 What are the possible causes of challenging behaviors?
 What types of management strategies do staffs use to handle these challenging behaviors?
 Do staff members perceive these strategies as effective in promoting social inclusion and well-being of these
children?
 What types of communication strategies are used by the staff with parents over their concern?
Objectives
 The general objective of this study was to explore the perceptions and experiences of preschool staff in relation
to children with challenging behaviors and to suggest remedial measures. More specifically, it was designed to
investigate; types of behavior most experienced by the staff as challenging ones; possible cause of challenging
behaviors; management strategies that the staff use within the preschool micro system; effectiveness of
management strategies as perceived by staff; and types of communication exist between the staff and parents
over their concern.
Significance of the Study

The findings of the study might help to:
 empower teachers, schools, and parents on the management of challenging behaviors of preschool children;
 indicate the role and responsibilities expected from schools, teachers, administrators and parents concerning
care and education of young children;
 detect challenging behaviors in children and intervene to minimize its impact on the learning and social
development of young children and can be used as reference by similar institutions that are working closely
with the issues of child care and education and base for further research.

The fundamental objective of this study was to explore the perceptions and experiences of staff in relation to children
with challenging behaviors; possible causes, management strategies and their effectiveness; and the nature of
communication that exist between staff and parents in some selected preschools of Dire Dawa and Model Preschool of
Haramaya University. To do so, qualitative research approach was employed.
Sample and Sampling Techniques: Ten preschools were selected randomly from Dire Dawa and a model pre-school
of Haramaya University was selected purposely as a sample (totally 11 preschools were selected). All the heads, main,
and assistant teachers of the selected preschools were participants (informants) of the study
Methods of Data Collection: Observation, focus group interview, and open-ended questionnaire were employed as
major tools to collect the necessary data from the participants of the study.
Observation: Observation was made by the investigators to identify types of challenging behaviors frequently exhibited,
management strategies used by the staffs, the physical environment of schools; and the overall activities of the schools.
Focused Group Interview: It was the primary tool of the study to collect the necessary data from the participants.
Semi-structured interview was prepared to ensure that all topics raised by the research objectives are covered. However,
considerable flexibility was permitted to enable the interviewers’ to probe and follow up on specific themes that staff
125
members were keen to discuss. There were 17 groups for the focused interview with a total of 64 participants; each of
them consisting of 3-4 staff members. The number of staff in each group was minimized principally to place the staff at
ease, stimulate confidence, and create a fluent stream of ideas within a range of 60-90 minutes per interview. The
interview themes were structured around the four main objectives below but also flexible to allow participants to discuss
on issues of their interests and concerns:
 Staff perceptions, understanding and experiences of challenging behaviors and their possible causes;
 Management strategies used to handle such kind of behaviors;
 Perceptions of the effectiveness of these strategies, especially in terms of social inclusion and social well-being;
and
 Communication with parents concerning challenging behaviors
All interviews were audio taped for transcription and coding. In addition, the interviewers took notes to record ethos,
mood, and affective aspects of the interviews.
Open Ended Questionnaire: It was administered to all teachers to elicit information /data that are not addressed
through interview in case. The questionnaire had 8 questions including guiding questions that were covered through
interview.
Data Collection Procedure: First, formal letter from the Department of Special Needs Education was sent to each
school requesting to provide access to the setting. Then, community of each school was informed about the overall
purpose of study and its importance. Observation was the first phase of data collection procedure. Then, focus group
interviews were held with the staff in their respective schools. Finally, open-ended questionnaire was administered in
each school.
Methods of Data Analysis: The audiotapes were fully transcribed and coding frame was generated and subsequently
refined through discussion between the investigators. A frequency count of the coded responses was produced and coding
categories were summarized into generic units or expanded to better reflect the subtle pattern of the information
emerged during discussions. Since the 64 staff members were interviewed in groups in their 17 respective preschools,
there were only 17 interviews to be coded. To best represent the pattern of responses from the interviews both frequency
data and characteristic qualitative comments from the interviews were conveyed in the results. Categories in which
frequencies of responses that were very low have mostly been omitted from the tables. In addition, data obtained from
interview was supported by observation and open-ended questionnaire. Finally, based on the findings of the study
conclusions were drawn and recommendations were forwarded.

Perception and Experience of Challenging Behaviors
Table 3.1 lists those behaviors which staff reported as most challenging behaviors expressed as percentages of the total
number of behaviors reported, and adjusted to take account of the different numbers of groups interviewed across
different preschools. From the initial interview transcripts, 23 challenging behaviors were identified and coded but they
were later condensed into 9 main categories. Most of the behaviors are self-evident, but some need clarification. Refusal
refers to children being totally uncooperative and not doing what they are told; social difficulties implies withdrawal
and communication failure; emotional volatility means over-excited, or swinging from tears to wildness; over- activity
refers to an inability to settle and distractedness which can be disruptive for others.
Table 3.1. Frequency of reported challenging behaviors
Challenging Behaviors Frequency

Aggressiveness 57
Over-activity 46
Bully/manipulation 44
Inability to share 37
Emotional volatility 35
Refusal/uncooperative 31
Attention-seeking 28
Social difficulties 26
Language difficulties 26
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As evident from Table 3.1, aggression, over-activity, and bully/manipulative behaviors are far more prevalent than all the
reported challenging behaviors. Aggression may be directed in all sorts of ways (all the following quotes refer to
comments by staff):
Pushing, hitting, being disruptive, disrupting other children, throwing furniture, throwing toys, hitting other children with toys . it can be at
the adults or at the children.
Even if it is not easy to distinguish between those behaviors that are problematic for the future and those that may
reflect purely transitory phases at preschool level, staff differentiated between more enduring and temporary behaviors.
The inability to play properly with other children or to share appropriately is, for example, commonplace when
children first enter preschool, but normally dissipates as a result of maturation and effective behavior management.
One staff member reported that:
They just don't know how to share and play with other children when they first come into nursery . . . Sharing is a big problem
which goes with age.
Generally, there were no observable differences in the kinds of activities that were associated with the
occurrence of challenging behaviors, but staff commonly reported time-of-day or time-of-week effects as related
to these behaviors and especially among children who typically have a much longer day in preschools.
For example:
Most difficult . . . probably when they are tired . . . towards the end of the day . . . at the end of the week . . . they are very tired on Friday.
Where staff did mention activities that made the children more disruptive, it was likely to be those associated with
periods of over- or under-activity and those associated with tructure, for example, not being allowed to finish what they
were doing because of an impending snack-break or the need to 'tidy-up'. Staff expressed their most concern about
those challenging behaviors that were most prevalent, particularly aggressiveness, over-activity and bully/manipulative.
Inability to share was viewed as a transient behavior and not, therefore, a large cause for concern. The criteria that staff
used to judge whether a behavior was worrying fell into four categories: the nature of the behavior, its severity,
frequency, and persistence.
I'm concerned about all kinds of behaviors . . . But it's the extreme behavior that makes me worry about why the child is doing something.
Some of them come in and do things but they learn and then it stops. But, these kids. . . have been coming a long time and doing
what they did the day they started.
Staff also expressed concern if behavior was a threat to the well-being of other children in the class, particularly when
they were left to their own devices while the disruptive behavior was being dealt with:
Other children are not getting the attention they deserve. . . he really needed one-to-one, because when you were dealing with him there
were another 34 children getting left . . .
From investigators’ observation, the views about the impact on other children were voiced strongly in play field and
assistant teachers appear to be generally less tolerant of challenging behaviors than the main teachers, may be due to
lack of experience and training.
Perceived Causes of Challenging Behaviors

Staff reported that the causes of such behaviors fell into five discernable categories (Table 3.2). Perceived causes that are
child-related are associated with a distinct medical condition and include children with language problems and other special
needs. Causes of the child's behavior that are associated with the home are of two general types: poor parental management
strategies (such as spoiling, absence of discipline, inconsistency in strategy, lack of experience), and poor home circumstances
(such as neglect, family split- up, bad sibling relationships). The fourth category of attribution is to childcare related causes
(the preschool itself), including lack of facilities, insufficient discipline or inadequate attention by staff, curriculum that
does not address the needs of children and childcare hours that are too long. The fifth category relates to more
generalized society-related attributions of blame including lack of basic values and surfeit of television, although these could
arguably be ascribed to parental influence.
Table 3.2. Perceived causes of problematic behaviors
Causes Associated with Frequency

The child 22
Parental management 51
Family problems 51
The preschool itself 34
Society 26
What is clear from Table 3.2 above is that home-based attributions are far more prevalent than any other type, divided
equally between poor parental management strategies and poor home circumstances. Staff repeatedly suggested that
parents are inconsistent in the rules they apply at home, that they reward bad behavior, or are just too inexperienced to
cope.
127
For example:
If you tell a child you are not doing something because he's done something wrong, you have to carry it through – which I don't think
a lot of parents do. That is probably what is happening at home with a lot of them-the inconsistent rules and sometimes the extended families
as well. . . so it's different rules in different houses.
The children themselves and society are afforded very little blame and the preschool system within which the staff
operates was afforded little blame with staff viewing the challenging behaviors stemming from home environment than
their own. There is less awareness among staff that behavior can be affected by the setting, and that challenging
behaviors may just as likely stem from the preschool setting as from home. This may arise because in one setting
children lack the competency that they have in another setting (adjustment problems). However, some staffs, especially
main teachers, were more disposed to view the cause of these behaviors as lying within their own provision. Perhaps this
is not surprising when children spend so much of their working day at preschool system.
They are here more than they are at home . . . and sharing space and time with so many adults and children.
Staff Management Strategies

Management strategies are aimed specifically at ensuring that the planned daily activities within preschool run smoothly
and without disruption. Hence, they are directed at maintaining the children's performance in relevant tasks and
facilitating their competence. However, different preschools have different cultures and differing degrees of tolerance
for challenging behaviors.
From the initial interview transcripts, 18 management strategies were identified and coded but were later collapsed into
five main categories. Table 3.3 summarizes the reported adoption of these strategies by the preschool centers.
Table 3.3. Behavior management strategies used by staff
Strategies Frequency
Exclusion of child from activity or room 64
Explanation of inappropriate behavior 49
Occupying misbehaving child with another activity 40
Removing item causing dispute 34
Ignoring misbehavior 27
As it is evident from Table 3.3 above, all centers used exclusion as a strategy for dealing with difficult behavior. This
ranged from exclusion from the room and contact with other children, through exclusion within the classroom (e.g.,
alone in a quiet corner), to excluding the misbehaving child temporarily from the activity but allowing unsupervised
participation in another task. Availability of rooms and staff were factors to be taken into account in deciding
management strategy at any specific time.
We take the child out; we'll ask them to go to the story corner and think about what they're doing. Then we tell them: 'I'll come
back in two minutes to speak to you' – so we try to get away from their attention seeking . . .
Exclusion was usually just for a few minutes at most. Staff acknowledged social inclusion as an important principle
in preschool provision, but felt that temporary removal of a disruptive child did not oppose this principle
when emphasis was placed upon reintegration into the social group. For example, one staff member said:
The child is never actually taken away from the actual situation . . . Sits to the side, so that he can still hear the story, see the book.
Some staff spontaneously pointed out that children only learn what behavior is appropriate and inappropriate if they are
included. Excluding them from the presence of other children does not teach them anything of use. Explanation to the
child was another popular strategy focusing on explaining the practical implications of their behavior:
We explain the effect of why they might hurt themselves or somebody else is going to get hurt, that sort of thing . . .
Explanations also help the child understand how their behavior makes others feel:
It is trying to get them to think about what they have done . . . and to appreciate that other people have feelings.
Aggression, attention-seeking behavior and refusal to cooperate are behaviors for which staff required to use the full
range of strategies presented in Table 3.3, although exclusion was reported as the approach most commonly used
in dealing with aggressive behavior. For example:
Exclusion is used with situations where they were fighting, punching, kicking, shouting. This is really disruptive behavior that you
just could not find acceptable because it would put someone in danger of getting hurt.
Table 3.3 also draws attention to ignore misbehavior as a strategy for dealing with difficult behaviors that are reported by
several centers. This may reflect staff tolerance, or may be used strategically to offer no reinforcement at all to the
child who is playing up simply to gain attention, or indeed may reflect avoidance of taking any action at all. Other
strategies might have to be used if the challenging behavior persists. However, from investigators observation, other
than the above listed management strategies almost all staff employed corporal punishment. As an indication, all staff
carries stick everywhere in the classroom, play field and so forth, which really contradict with what was reported during
interview.
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All centers reported consistency in their use of management strategies across staff in particular preschool settings.
Various explanations of how this consistency was built up were reported. Some respondents viewed it as stemming from
having worked together for so long that even when they started off with different ideas, over time, the staff share their
own experiences of handling disruption, and develop consistent policies which reflect their corporate competency in
handling challenging behaviors.
We have all just rather worked around each other and we all had our own way of doing it, and now we all do it the same. Moreover, we
discuss how we are going to deal with certain situations so that we are all doing the same thing.
All centers recognized the need to be flexible as well as consistent in their management. Staff commonly changed their
strategy if it was unsuccessful, or they tried different strategies with different children.
You try it. If it were something that is working, then I would not say there is any need to change it. But if it is not working, you have to
change . . .
With respect to drawing upon internal resources for seeking advice on management of behavior, staff in all centers
reported that they would consult fellow staff, preferring to consult a more senior colleague. Opportunities for staff
discussion ranged from informal chats during class-time, lunch- time, or at the end of the day, to regular, formally
scheduled staff meeting. Most discussion of behavior management issues took place at formal meetings. Sometimes
informal discussion during class-time pre-empted the need for a formal meeting. Referring back to Table 3.1 and looking
at the pattern of challenging behaviors across different centers, a strong impression emerges that the more such
behaviors are reported, the more likely it is that staff will address them at formal staff meetings. In addition to eliciting
staff views about how they managed disruptive behavior, the interviews also tapped into strategies for encouraging
positive behavior . From interview analysis, praise emerged as a universally used encouragement and as a means of
modeling desirable behavior and promoting competence.
We just catch them in good behavior and praise them. Every member of staff is very aware that if they see something that we want
to encourage, they immediately draw everyone else's attention to it.
Praise was followed by public acknowledgement of good behavior and the awarding of stickers, stars and
points on wall charts. Star charts were also popular:
We have a star chart where the children can be rewarded, like concern for someone else. If they do something special, if they're helpful
at tidy-up time, things like that, you give them either a sticker or a star.
Many centers also employed activities to reinforce socially responsible behaviors towards others, or else encourage
them to do positive things for themselves. It is significant that praise for these kinds of activities are declared
very openly and publicly so that other children are encouraged to learn by example. Staff then encouraged children
to accept society’s behavioral norms while trying to reduce deviancy through modeling and reinforcement. This
approach was geared towards promoting children’s social inclusion and well- being.
Effectiveness of Management Strategies

Staff were asked about their perceptions of the efficacy of the strategies they employed to encourage positive
behaviors. Most of the centers (7 of them) rated their strategies as moderately effective, and the remaining four rated
their strategies as highly effective. Staffs were then drawn into a more general discussion about their behavior
management policies. Staff in some centers acknowledged that they had a written policy but they varied in how useful
they found these guidelines, some being very conscious of keeping practice in line with policy. Staff in three preschools,
which claimed to have no policy, indicated the need for a vision of what the nursery believes is important, but stated
that children's needs change so rapidly that a policy may hinder responding to such change:
Definitely with the two difficult children we've got this year, it's a different way of handling them from the ones we had two years ago.
Staff in all centers reported that management strategies were essential and beneficial to children. Table 3.4 below
presents the factors, in rank order, most commonly cited as the outcomes of managing misbehavior. Social inclusion and
preparation of children for their future responsible role in society are emphasized.
Table 3.4. Impact of behavior management strategies on misbehavior
Factors Frequency
Improving understanding of acceptable behavior 39
Improving behavior in the long run 28
Continuity of activities in nursery 27
Better transition to primary school 26
At the top of the list comes improving understanding of acceptable behavior, which reflects staff awareness of the
higher order objectives of education towards a regulated society.
They are able to tell you why it's wrong, when they've done it, and how the other person will feel. . . . So that when they do go to school . . .
they are only going to have one teacher, so they're able to do everything for themselves.
Staff also reported that all children benefited from seeing behavior management strategies in operation, because they
learn vicariously what the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behavior are:
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You have to set goalposts. Children have to know . . . it’s important to let them hear what’s happened so that they know that they won’t get
away with it either.
It is interesting that different schools place their emphasis in different ways from teaching acceptable and unacceptable
behaviors through reducing disruption to class, ensuring other children’s safety and releasing staff time for other
children.
Staff-Parental Communication
In the present esearch, our interest lies in staff perception of the communication they have with parents about
challenging behaviors and the extent to which they try to engage parents in managing such behavior (Table 3.5). To
explore these issues aseries of questions were included in the interview schedule with the general purpose of assessing
whether staff encourage parents to become involved in the management of their children's behavior and how they do
this. Most centers stressed the importance of reciprocal conversations in which parents or staff are equally likely to raise
issues with each other, from the school or home perspective.
. It works both ways. Most parents will say: how have they been today? Or sometimes, if the child does something at home, they'll
ask if they maybe do it here, and the other way around? We are building up relationships with parents, so that if something negative is
happening, we can approach the parents.
The primary reason for staff to approach parents is for behavior which endangers the child's safety, or the safety of
other children, and for out-of- character behavior and persistent misbehavior, although if staff are having routine
regular conversations with particular parents, then any of the child's behaviors may come up for discussion.
Table 3.5. Circumstances for staff approaching parents about challenging behavior
Circumstances Frequency
Endangering safety 54
Out of character 51
Persistent bad behavior 47
Constant communication 39
Positive feedback 37
With regard to staff perceptions of parents’ receptivity, many centers reported that parents were very or quite
receptive to approaches by staff about their child's behavior. However, staff from two centers reported a significant
number of their parents being very unresponsive. This caused considerable problems because staff requires parental
support to access external professional help:
I'm having problems trying to get the parents' permission for the help needed . . . If you have problems, then you can openly talk about
the difficulties with the parents. When the parents haven’t acknowledged that there are difficulties that make a huge difference.
When asked how they approach parents most staff interpreted this in terms of time of the day and social context.
Generally, staff from all but one centre reported that their conversations occur at the end of the
day/session rather than at any other time. Staff in one center reported that they expected parents to make an
appointment. Staff in several centers reported that they would not speak to the parents about their child in
front of the child or in front of other parents.
It depends on what it (the problem) is. We'll speak to parents . . . so that the child cannot hear…. other times we'll get the child to tell
them what they've been doing.
Some centers reported a relatively high degree of consistency between home and preschool, though it was lower in
some centers. The relationship between staff-parent communication and consistency of behavior between school and
home appears to be relatively straightforward. Those centers which have poor communication (i.e., where parents
seldom seek advice) tend to be those that show the least consistency. Similarly, those that have the
most effective communication (i.e., where parents are most likely to seek or be given advice) tend to be
those with the highest degree of consistency:
If we are having problems in the classrooms, we try to work out a strategy so that it is consistent at home as well.
Assistant teachers reported relatively little consistency between school and home. Good staff-parent
relationships are much more visible between main teachers and mother of the child and parents may never or only
occasionally seek advice from assistant teachers. Some assistant teachers do not see it as their role to give advice
to parents about managing children at home:
No, I don't think I would be prepared to give a parent advice. In the class room it is my responsibility but at home I don't think it is my
place.
Communication between staff and parents may not be as prevalent in some preschool settings as in others.
However, it is clear that staff generally believe that challenging behavior requires to be tackled at home, whether or not
they feel it is their place to discuss it with parents.
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Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions
The main results related to the four primary interview themes can be summarized as follows:
Perceptions of Challenging Behaviors and their Possible Causes

 Aggression, over-activity and bully/manipulative were seen as the most prevalent and worrying types of
challenging behaviors.
 Children’s challenging behavior was attributed mainly to the home micro- system.
 Staff do not always appreciate that children's behavior is affected by the setting, nor that competency
in one setting is not necessarily matched by competency in another.
Staff Management Strategies

 Six management strategies emerged for coping with challenging behaviors: exclusion; explanation;
distraction; removal of items(s) causing dispute; ignoring misbehaviors; and social approaches.
 Centers were generally consistent and flexible in their use of management strategies. Main teachers were
the most consistent and least flexible; assistant teachers were the least consistent and somewhat more flexible.
 Staff in centers that had most challenging behaviors were more likely to discuss behavioral
management issues at formal staff meetings than through informal discussion.
 All centers encouraged positive, socially responsible behaviors. Whole-class management strategies
were used to address the needs of specific children with challenging behaviors.
Perceived Effectiveness of Management Strategies

 All centers rated their management strategies as moderately or highly effective.
 Staff in some centers acknowledged that they had a policy which they treated as a broad framework;
most saw the need to develop their own culture to meet their own circumstances.
 Staff acknowledged their role in relation to their children as socializing agents, for example, by helping children
to learn acceptable and unacceptable behaviors of the society.
 Staff believed fundamentally that children’s sense of social responsibility can be learned by example from other
children.
 Although staff made frequent use of brief periods of exclusion to curb disruptive behavior they were very
concerned about the need for social inclusion and participation in group activities.
Staff Communication with Parents

 Staff communicated most with parents over behavior which endangers the child's safety, where the behavior is
out-of-character or persistently problematic, and least in relation to positive feedback on their child.
 Parents were generally receptive to feedback on their children and were willing to discuss and respond to
behavior management issues.
 Staff generally reported moderately high degrees of consistency in management strategy between home and
school.
 Some parents only occasionally sought advice from staff. Some staff especially assistant teachers did not see it
as their role to offer management advice to parents.
Recommendations
A relatively unstructured interview approach was adopted so that preschool staff used their own constructs and
concepts to describe how they managed difficult behaviors. Our focus was specifically upon active processes
engaged in by staff arising from their perceptions, beliefs and experiences. The findings of the study may offer
considerable support for staff on how to manage challenging behaviors that take account of children's behavior
in preschool and the impact that this behavior has on other participants in preschool environment. Therefore, based
on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were given:
The finding of the study revealed that consistency among all adults involved with the child’s behavior management is
essential. If teachers, parents and caregivers show consistency in how they respond, then the child is more likely to use
the skills that he/she learns in his/her homes, preschools and in the community. Therefore, family and preschool
teachers have to work together for the betterment of children with challenging behavior.
The findings of the study showed that all the preschool centers use exclusion as the primary strategy to manage children
with challenging behaviors. This may leads to high rate of removal of children from preschool classrooms and activities
due to their behavior problems. However, exclusion is against the principle of social inclusion. Children need to be
included and can only learn their responsibilities in the process of interacting with other children, and socialized into
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acceptable behaviors within the school community. Children should be treated with dignity and respect and their needs
should be met. Strategies to manage challenging behaviors have to exclude corporal punishment. This means that
physical, verbal, or emotional punishments should not be used (i.e., smacking, shaking, verbal reprimands, shouting or
any punishment that frightens, humiliates, or threatens the child). Rather, social modeling and reinforcement strategies
should be employed so that children develop appropriate social skills that help them minimize the development and
long-term effect of ongoing challenging behaviors.
The single best way to address challenging behavior in young children is to take steps to decrease the likelihood that it
will occur. Prevention, early detection, and intervention of challenging behaviors in young children should be part of an
effective preschool classroom. Creating a well-designed classroom that is engaging and developmentally appropriate and
implementing schedules, rules, rituals, and routines can help create a positive classroom communicating to children how
to act appropriately. When children understand what is expected and are provided the opportunity and know the
appropriate behaviors in which to engage, they are more likely to choose this behavior, reducing their challenging
behaviors.
Even if it is problematic to distinguish between behaviors that are temporary and in part developmental and those,
which may be precursors of more serious behaviors, the finding suggested that challenging behaviors, which are
apparent in early childhood, tend to persist and may become more severe in later years. Teachers who wrote comment
were indeed concerned about the issue, and were glad they were being asked about it; clearly feel that the issue of
managing children’s behavioral problems is an important one. Therefore, teacher training and technical support in the
area of children’s social and emotional development and classroom management should be provided, ideally on an on-
going basis and this may present an opportunity for further research.
Attending preschool education is sometimes linked to higher rates of challenging behaviors; especially in programs of
lower quality. What is important here is that early childhood education experience should be of high quality. With regard
to challenging behaviors, high quality means paying special attention to the social-emotional needs of children spending
long hours in the presence of a group of peers. Childcare that does not adequately address the social-emotional needs of
young children runs the risk of contributing to the development and expression of challenging behaviors. Any
curriculum implemented in an early childhood education-setting needs to, along with a cognitive and academic focus,
emphasis on the development of social and emotional skills.
References
Babu, P.B., Raju, R.V. and Rao, B.D. (2007). Behavioral Problems of School Children, 1 st edition. R.S.Printer Delhi, New Delhi.
Barnett, W.S. (2002). Early Childhood Education: School Reform Proposals. The Research Evidence2:1-29. Retrieved on November 1, 2011
from www.fcd-us.org/usr_doc/ExpulsionCompleteReport.pdf.
Blasco, P.M. (2001). Early Intervention Services for Infants, Toddlers and their Families. Allyu and Bacon: Boston.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Doss, L.S. & Reichle, J. (1991).Replacing excessive behavior with an initial communicative repertoire: Strategies for learners with severe
disabilities (pp.215–237). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Retrieved November 21, 2006 from
http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/ehs/.
Emerson, E. (1995). Challenging Behavior: Analysis and Intervention in People with Learning Disabilities. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Fabian, H. (2002). Children Starting School, 1st edition. David Fulton. London.
Foot, H., Howe, C., Cheyne, W., Terras, M. and Rattray, C. (2002). Parental participation and partnership in pre-school provision.
International Journal of Early Years Education 10(1): 5–19.
Hastings, R. P. & Remington, B. (1994) .The emotional dimension of working with challenging behaviors.’ Clinical Psychology Forum, 79,
pp. 11–16. Retrieved February 27, 2008 from http://www.worldcongress.org/scf2_spkrs/scf2_horn.htm
Hughes, C. and Dunn, J. (2000). Hard-to-manage Children’s Moral Awareness and Links with Cognitive and Maternal Characteristics.
British Journal of Developmental Psychology 18(2): 227–45.
Hughes, C., White, A., Sharpen, J. and Dunn, J. (2000). Antisocial, Angry and Unsympathetic Hard-to-Manage Preschoolers,
Problems and Possible Cognitive Influences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 41(2): 169–79.
Kaiser, B., & Rasminsky, J.S. (2003).Challenging behavior in young children: Understanding, preventing, and responding effectively. Ottawa: Pearson
Education Inc.RetrievedonlineNovember 22 2007.http://www.challengingbehavior.org/explore
Papatheodorou, T. (2000). Management Approaches Employed by Teachers to Deal with Children’s Behavior Problems in Nursery
Classes. School Psychology International 21(4): 415–40.
Reichle, J. & Johnston, S. (1993). Replacing challenging behavior: The role of communication intervention. Unpublished manuscript, University of
Minnesota at Twin Cities.
Reichle, J. (2001).The importance of addressing problem behavior among beginning communicators. Augmentative and Alternative
Communication, 10(1), 2–3.204 Retrieved 2/27/2011.http://cfl.state.mn.us/mdeprod/groups/EarlyLearning/documents.
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3.2 Internal Quality Assurance of Science and Technology Education in Ethiopian

University: The case of Haramaya University
Wakgari Tasisa and Manas Ranjan Panigrahi
Abstract: This paper focuses on assessing the internal quality assurance systems availability and
identifies how much the university is aware of the quality of education they are delivering. For this,
the perception of the students, course instructors, and respective college management on quality of
science and technology education, the status of quality of education the departments are delivering
along indicators of internal quality assurance and roles University management is playing in ensuring
internal quality assurance of Science and Technology in Haramaya University was assessed. Three
research objectives were developed to study the perception of the different stakeholders. About 1000
students, 5 lab assistants, 62 teachers, 6 department heads, 2 college deans, one University Central
laboratory Head, one academic programs development and promotion director, and one University
Academic vice-president took part in the study. Thirty-two item structured questionnaires were
adapted for students and instructors based on European National Quality Assurance (ENQA, 2007)
as modified by HERQA and experts suggestions. A simple random sampling was used for students
and teachers and the management group was selected through purposive sampling. Frequency,
percentages and weighted mean were used for data analysis. The study revealed that the students do
not have the confidence that science and technology education offered in the University is up to their
satisfaction. Similarly, majority of the teachers and University management lack confidence in the
competency of the graduates despite the escalating number of students in science and technology
fields in Ethiopian Universities. Moreover, the university does not have education quality assurance
system at University level, and as a result do not know whether they are on the right track or not.
Moreover, the role and commitments made by the University Management towards improving the
quality of science and technology education were minimal. Thus, the result of this study urges the
University management, teachers, and students to engage in establishing quality assurance
mechanisms together with HERQA so that the university achieves its objectives of creating a basis for
sustainable development.
Keywords: Quality Assurance; Quality Indicators; Science Education; Technology Education;

Management.
Introduction
Higher education is increasingly required to overcome its problems, reorganize and be responsive to the needs of the
society and the country. The sub sector focused on revisiting the vision and missions of the sector, improving quality
and relevance, expanding, diversifying and ensuring equity of access, diversifying financial resources and improving
efficiency of the system, as well as enhancing leadership and management (Ministry of Education, Ethiopia, 2010).
Ministry of Education, with an intention that education at all levels has to contribute to the development of the country
has designed a reform on program and professional mix. Higher education institutions in particular have to train
qualified man-power which goes with the real country’s demand. Thus, according to the official document issued in
March, the annual intake and enrollment growth and professional and program mix of Ethiopian Public Higher
Education is according to the 70:30 percent professional mix (Strategy and Conversion Plan, 2010-2014). This indicates
that the enrollment of new students into public universities will be on the basis of 40 percent into engineering and
technology stream, 30 percent into the science streams (natural and computational sciences), 5% into pharmacy and
health sciences, 5% into agricultural and life sciences and 30 percent in to the social sciences and humanities stream
(MoE, 2008). In relation with this, Science and Technology Minister revisited its vision and policy and planned to
achieve major objectives to build capability to generate, select, import, develop, disseminate, and apply appropriate
technologies, in order to improve the knowledge, culture, and the scientific and technological awareness of citizen
(Ayalew, 2008).
For the national policy paradigm to take place, the government is making a number of attempts. Among these,
increasing students’ enrollments, construction of new buildings (including dormitories, classrooms, and administration
buildings), training, and supplying human resources are some of the changes being made together. Higher education is
the second in receiving investment budget, next to primary education (Education Sector Development Program III,
2005/06-2010/11). The government is in intense condition of advancing intake capacity of universities, especially in
science and technology. As stated in Education Sector Development Program (ESDP III, 2005/06-2010/11), the
education sector with special focus on higher education and technical and vocational education (TVET), has the goal to
contribute to poverty reduction and for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG's). For reducing
the country's poverty level, quality education is the sole alternative, especially with more focus on science and
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technology. The summary report of the 6th Science and Technology Ministers’ Round Table Meeting (October 4, 2009),
on which Ethiopia participated stated that:‘To overcome the current economic situation, investment in science and technology is essential
for sustainable medium- or long term economic development, not only looking to the short- term economic recovery.’
Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency (HERQA) when mentioning the attention the government to give
for the implementation of the policy stated that: ‘Unless the government is able to give priority to address the problems of quality, its
planned reform in professional mix is unlikely to achieve its intended target of producing the necessary stock of expertise that can transform the
nation’s economy.’
Based on these, higher learning institutions, which are the core for the delivery of trained manpower for industries
have to check at what quality level they are delivering the training, which should be the concern of the 21st century
institutions. Quality is the single most important issue in education, business, and government today. There are however,
problems with today’s education system. Jerome (2006) when stating about the education quality condition noted that
students are graduating from university unprepared to meet the demands of the society. Quality in higher institution is
explained by Ivancevich and Matterson (2002) as any organization including higher learning institutions to be effective
and serve the purposes they are meant for and they must translate quality improvements into results. Campbell (2009)
stated that an institution, which does not have a sound quality assurance and cannot ensure what it is doing is
appropriate and relevant, and is being undertaken to an acceptable standard, could not easily demonstrate its worth.
Thus, we can have only a limited confidence in a higher institution that does not ensure the quality of its activities and is
unable to evidence that its activities and the attributes of its graduates meet the acceptable standards.
As indicated in Haramaya University strategic plan document (2007/08-2015/16), the University has put quality
education as its number one overarching vision (Haramaya University, 2007). But the University does not have
functional internal quality assurance system or policy to ensure how much they are executing their responsibilities.
Therefore, the driving force behind the study is that unless we ensure the quality standard at which we are training
trainees and support it with research based evidences, higher education institutions cannot be sure that they are on the
right track of achieving the intended outcome. In order to address the above problem in this study, the following
specific objectives were set.
Objectives of the Study

The study was designed to assess Internal Quality Assurance of Science and Technology Education of Haramaya
University. Specifically, the study was sought to:
 Investigate the perception of the students and course instructors and respective college management on quality
of science and technology education.
 Identify the status of quality of education the departments are delivering along the indicators of internal quality
assurance.
 Examine the roles University management is playing in assuring internal quality assurance of Science and
Technology education in Haramaya University.
Research Methodology
Descriptive survey method was used. The principal advantage of survey studies is that they help to collect information
from large groups of peoples’ behavior, attitudes, and opinions with very little effort, and in a cost effective manner.
Sample and Sampling Techniques

College of Natural and Computational Sciences & Institute of Technology students and teachers were selected using
simple Random Sampling as there are no significant differences among the students and teachers and each of them gets
equal chance to be selected. Out of 186 teachers, 62 teachers, which is about one third (1/3) of the population were
taken. Fifteen management teams including University President, Vice-Presidents (Academic and Administration), two
Deans, two Haramaya University Central Laboratory Heads, and Eight Department Heads were selected purposively
because of their position and are among the respondents, which have central importance in assuring the quality of
science and technology education.
Data Collection Tools

Based on the nature of data, the following data gathering instruments were selected.
Questionnaire
Questions were developed based on the European standards for internal quality assurance within higher education
institutions were taken as a framework and the indicators were developed with the consideration of the recommendation
of Higher Education Relevance and Quality Assurance (HERQA) of Ethiopia. The tool’s reliability was checked
through Cronbach alpha at 0.75 and its validity was checked through experts’ opinions and necessary corrections were
made. Questionnaire was employed for instructors and students. Questionnaire was chosen because it helps the
researchers to collect data from large number of respondents.
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Interview
Interview was employed for some selected university management, the university president, vice presidents, selected
college deans, lab assistants, instructors from some well established programs, program coordinators, department heads
and deans, central laboratory heads, academic development and program director since their positions and their
decisions affects academic issues. Interview was selected in order to get the respondents opinion and attitudes about the
quality standard the programs under the college and institute are being run against the profile of the graduates and the
expectations of the society.
Document
Documents used were: graduates’ profile, university/colleges' memos related to quality education, HERQA publications
and other available related documents. These documents help the researchers at least as a benchmark against which we
may see the University’s destiny in producing the desirable graduate and substantiate the primary data.
Data Analysis Technique

Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS using frequency, percentage, mean and weighted mean. The qualitative data
collected through interview were triangulated with the quantitative data. HERQA institutional quality audit report and
college minutes of discussions regarding quality and quality enhancement on science and technology were also assessed.

As indicated in Table 3.6, 701 (70.1%) of the respondent students said that they strongly disagree and disagree with the
idea that they are getting quality education. Similarly, 36 (58%) of the instructors reported that the education they are
delivering does not satisfy them. It is only a small proportion of students and teachers who believed that the education
they are getting and delivering is of quality. The interview result collected from different level university management
also revealed that the management does not have the confidence for the existence of quality education in the college of
natural sciences and technology.
Table 3.6. The perception of the students, course instructors and university management on the quality of Science and
Technology Education.
Students Teachers
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Item (N=1000) (N=62)
Perception of students and teachers on the SA 133 13.3 12 19.3
status of quality of science and technology
education A 135 13.5 9 14.5
DK 31 3.1 5 8.06
DSA 251 25.1 15 24.19
SDA 450 45 21 33.8
Total 1000 100 62 99.89
SDA = Strongly disagree, DSA = Disagree, DK = Don’t know, A = Agree, SA = Strongly agree
Indicators of Internal Quality Assurance

As indicated in Table 3.7 to Table 3.12 below, different items were asked regarding the indicators of internal quality
assurance.
Table 3.7. Availability of policy and procedures for Internal Quality Assurance
Students Teachers
Rating Frequency (N=1000) Percent Frequency (N=62) Percent
Valid SA 205 20.5 19 30.6
A 111 11.1 9 14.5
DK 78 7.8 15 24.1
DSA 316 31.6 8 12.9
SDA 290 29 11 12.2
Regarding the availability of policy and procedures for quality assurance in the University, the students and instructors
rated it similarly. Accordingly, bout 290 and 316 students strongly disagree and disagree, respectively and about half of
the instructors interviewed also disagree to the question regarding the availability of policy and procedures. Contrary to
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this, it is suggested that institutions should have a policy and associated procedures for the assurance of the quality and
standards of their programs and awards. They should also commit themselves explicitly to the development of a culture,
which recognizes quality and quality assurance in their work. To achieve this, institutions should develop and implement
a strategy for the continuous enhancement of quality. The strategy and procedures should also have formal status and be
publicly available. They should also include a role for students and other stakeholders (ENQA, 2007). To substantiate
the case with primary data, the researcher could not get any clear policy and procedures through which the departments
or programs assess the quality of education they are providing to their students.
Table 3.8. Mechanisms of program approval, monitoring and periodic review and awards
Students Teachers
Frequency Frequency
Rating (N=1000) Percent (N=62) Percent
SA 107 10.7 14 22.5
A 67 6.7 9 14.9
DK 255 25.5 6 9.7
DSA 268 26.8 11 17.7
Valid SDA 303 30.3 22 35.5
SDA = Strongly Disagree, DSA = Disagree, DK = Don’t know, A = Agree, SA = Strongly agree
Institutions should have formal mechanisms for the approval, periodic review and monitoring of their programs and
awards. As one can see from Table 3.8, 303 (30.3%) and 268 (26.8%) students strongly disagree and disagree,
respectively and even a significant amount of the respondents do not know that there exists an approval, monitoring and
periodic review of programs and awards. A small number of respondents (107, 10.7%) strongly agree and 67 (6.7%) of
them agree related t the issues under discussion.
One of the indicators for the presence of quality assurance mechanism is the presence of clear, simple, and transparent
grading complaint handling mechanism. However, 531 (53.3%) of students strongly disagree that there is a pre-
established grading criteria and transparent compliant handling mechanism (Table 3.9). On the other hand, about 1.2%
of them reported that they do not know the existence of pre-established mechanism. About 19.5% of the students agree
that there is a clear, simple and transparent grading complaint. The students’ response in the open-ended question
showed that the majority believe that they have the right to complain. However, they do not feel easy to pose their
complaint to the teachers or departments, because the teachers may be annoyed against the students and suspect that it
may affect their later achievements.
Table 3.9. Higher education students’ Asssessment as Internal Quality Assurance indicator
Students Teachers
Item Rating (N=997) (N=62)
There is a pre-established grading SA 124 12.4 31 50
criteria, and also clear and transparent
A 191 19.5 18 29
grading complaint mechanism
DK 12 1.2 5 8
DSA 139 13.9 7 11
SDA 531 53.3 11 17.7
Department heads and teachers noted that students pass or fail is decided by the will of the teacher or depends on the
relative performance of the other students. There is no pre-established grading range used. Marking and grading is highly
susceptible to bias, which may lead to unfairness as the names of students are found on assignments and examination
papers. Moreover, the teachers responded that the so-called normal distribution ‘all grade letters are there’ regardless of
the students’ performance, which means teachers do not have a predetermined learning outcome. In relation with this,
majority of the students are not satisfied with the grades and grading systems in the different programs.
Grading is a crucial element of assessment; particularly it is the determination of pass/fail boundary. If all students demonstrate achievement
of the required number of learning outcomes of a course, then clearly all should pass the course. Similarly, if no students demonstrate the
required level of achievement, no student should pass. The decision as to whether a student should pass or not a course should not depend on
student relative performance, but the extent of achievement of their learning outcomes. Grades should not be norm referenced, but has to be
criterion referenced. When talking about grading, we have to know that the marking of exams and assignments should be standardized. This
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takes place, when students name does not appear on the exam and assignment. In addition, students’ right of appeal should be clearly
respected. All this could reduce the grading bias or unfairness (Cambel, 2007).
Teachers assess students through different mechanisms and students’ assessment could be for different reasons: to
identify how much the students are learning and show them their performance and to decide pass or fail results.
However, what matters is not only assessing the students, but also providing the necessary feedback to the students since
they learn out of it for the next learning, and since it is an integral part of students’ assessment. Based on this, the
students do not feel they are learning from assessments and at the same time do not know whether teachers feedback is
useful or appropriate for their continuous learning.
Table 3.10. Quality assurance of teaching staff
Students Teachers
Frequency Frequency
Item Rating (N=1000) Percent (N=62) Percent
There is quality assurance of Valid SA 89 8.9 6 10
teaching staff. A 101 10.1 7 11.2
DK 51 5.1 1 1.6
DSA 119 11.9 23 37
SDA 637 63.7 25 40.3
Majority of the students, 637 (63.7%), strongly disagree with the teachers’ use of active learning methodology (Table
3.10). The rest 119 (11.9%) disagree and 51 (5.1%) could not identify which teaching methodology the teachers are
using. About 89 (8.9%) and 101 (10.1%) of the students strongly agree and agree, respectively in the teachers’ use of
active learning methodology. Similarly, majority of the teachers reported that the number of students in the class is large
and active learning methodology could not be properly used. Whereas, 3 (0.003%) of them did not return the
questionnaire. According to the data from HDP (2011) the background of the teachers in the two colleges showed that
the majority of them have not attended pedagogical trainings except few refreshment trainings given by college of
education at the time of recruitment.
Teaching requires knowledge of the subject matter to be taught, the pedagogical knowledge, and practical skills to
teach and help students learn and abilities to assess students appropriately against developed learning objectives.
Learning takes place through the active behavior of the student. It is what he does that he learns, not what the teacher
does (Ralph, 1909). Moreover, if students are to learn desired outcomes in a reasonably effective manner, then the
teacher’s fundamental task is to get students to engage in learning activities that are likely to result in achieving those
outcomes. Thomas (1986) adds that it is helpful to remember that what the student does is actually more important in
determining what is learned than what the teacher does.
Teachers and department heads also reflected that the teachers preparation and the training they have got on active
learning methods and the classroom supervision to be made is minimal or close to nil. In addition, the students also
reflected that they were not comfortable with the subject matter knowledge of majority of the instructors. They further
noted that some of the instructors were fresh graduates who do not have rich experience on the practical part of the
courses they deliver. To substantiate this, the researcher investigated the profile of some instructors and found that many
of them are first-degree holders, especially those in the institute of technology.
Table 3.11. Availability of learning resources and student academic support services
Students Teachers
Frequency Frequency
Item Rating (N=998) Percent (N=62) Percent
SA 110 11 12 19.3
Ther is sufficient learning resources A 84 8.4 9 14.5
and student academic support DK 15 1.5 4 6.4
services DSA 229 22.8 16 24.8
SDA 560 56.1 21 33.8
As one can see from Table 3.11, 56.1% of the students strongly disagree with the availability of adequate and
appropriate laboratory for their practical learning, and 22.8% DSA, and 1.5% do not know about whether there are
adequate laboratory or not. Only 11% strongly agree and 8.4% agree with the statement that the department in which
they are learning has appropriate and adequate laboratory to change the theory into practice. Whereas 0.02% of the
respondent have not responded. In the contrary, it is believed that institutions should ensure that the resources available
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for the support of student learning are adequate and appropriate for the program offered. The interview result of
department heads and deans also revealed that there is a serious problem of learning resources especially for practical
activities in the workshops and laboratory facilities. The college management further added that they are not comfortable
with the quality standard at which they are training the trainees, because of different reasons like lack of appropriate field
attachment, laboratory equipment, and necessary facilities. However, the problems differ among the departments.
Physics Department
An interview result with the physics head and lab assistant concerning the practical aspects of physics subjects revealed
the relative existence of some basic laboratory equipments. As to the researchers’ observation of physics laboratory, the
students were practicing measurement in physics. Their total numbers were about 23. There were two groups. The
numbers of students in both groups were very small. This could enable every students the chance to practice through
hands on approach learning. Moreover, the good side with this group of students was that they joined the field by their
choice or first preference, which could directly contribute to their future academic success (Source: Physics laboratory,
2011).
The interview result conducted with the laboratory assistant and course teacher highlighted that, modern laboratory
equipment in physics are still missing. Moreover, the department was also not daring to say that the students have
acquired the necessary practical skills stipulated on the curriculum. The curriculum puts what and where the graduates
are going to work on areas like ‘computer interfacing’, as medical physician in hospitals. They have not observed
hospitals, had no practical exercise for example in observing and working on x-rays and any physics application in
hospital. On top of this, their curriculum says that the graduates work in ministry of defense, but they have observed no
physics application in defense ministery, and so on. Moreover, result of the interview conducted with key graduating
physics students (2011) showed that the students do not know what they are expected to do or practice unless the
department takes the initiative, which means the department is giver or depriver of knowledge. In addition, high
knowledge and skills in computer technology are expected from the physics graduates, as they are highly demanded in
high technology companies after graduation. However, students are not confident enough in skills in computer
technology since they have not even got basic computer skills. The instructors, lab assistants and the college
management themselves have similar feeling regarding students computer skill. The severity of the problem especially in
the practical skills deficiency increased more after the high number of students enrollment in science and technology
have started. The key informants among instructors in the College of Natural and Computational Sciences noted that the
confidences they have on graduates’ have been highly declining from time to time.
Chemistry Department
Interview result of the chemistry department revealed that there are chemicals to do some of the experiments, but there
is no water. The laboratories are very narrow, unable to accommodate the increasing number of students. The
department head said that one set up should be used by only two to three students, but currently the number of students
on one set up is more than ten. In addition, there are no well-trained lab technicians both in quality and in quantity.
Thus, in the presence of such multifaceted problems in the laboratory, it would be easy to guess the kind of science or
chemistry education the department has been offering. As to the knowledge of the chemistry department head, there are
no partner institutions locally or internationally which works with the department, which is similar to what is said by the
top college management.
Concerning his knowledge of quality assurance, the head responded saying ‘forget about quality, if we at least cover the
portion, it would be great.’ At last, the department does not have the perception that the graduates received the required
practical skills in campus and off campus, which the program requires, the graduate profile stipulates, and the market
demands. For example, the 2003 E.C. batch was expected to visit ‘industry on the course ‘industrial chemistry’ and also
see about ‘waste management in industries’. The nature of most of the courses calls for off campus visits to industries,
but that visit and training did not took place.
On top of this, due to the high number of students, the University was not willing to allow the students for field trips
as it incurs high cost and difficult to process the field trips and the industries themselves may not be willing to
accommodate, assist, explain and show them so many things. When in campus and off campus practical skills that
should be acquired by the students or graduates are compromised, one can deduce the likely graduate to be produced
and obviously education quality is affected adversely. Respondent instructors further pointed out that the absence of
standardized internal quality assurance mechanisms for the programs aggravated many of the education quality
problems.
Institute of Technology
Civil engineering and electrical and computer engineering are the relatively old and well-established departments in the
Institute of Technology. The numbers of students graduated up to now were also large. However, the workshops were
not proportionally developed over the years, but numbers of students keep on increasing. Students’ admission to IOT
especially Civil engineering in Haramaya University is very high, close to 46%. But, when one sees the
workshop/laboratory, it is not proportional to the number of students. One lecturer in the department pointed out that
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like other engineering and science fields, almost all of or majority of the courses demands practical learning. The
workshop assistant also added that the workshop was not well equipped with the appropriate equipments the students
are expected to see and perform, and even some of the very expensive equipments do not function. He further added
that some of the workshop equipments were not known to the lab assistant and instructors themselves do not know
how to operate. As a result, there are equipments which are not functioning for many years. For example, Tresial test
apparatus, which is used for Road Quality Control, which the students are highly interested to see and practice was long
kept not functioning. Abrasion test apparatus, which is used for road technology, functions but no one has the
knowledge of it and they could not operate and practice. The intention of acquiring such equipment through
government fund or donors was that the students work on and practice and thereby the quality of education or
programs could be met. But, it is up to the University to train appropriate manpower with the necessary knowledge and
skills to operate the workshop materials and workshop technologies and help the students to practice.
One lab technician said that I do not know operating Compacting Test instrument as a lab assistant ‘I don’t have the
knowledge of it, but I operated through intensive reading and I am showing to the students more or less’’ he explained’. There is also
another apparatus called ‘oven’ which is used to see the soil water content, but the students’ number and the apparatus
number does not match, the knowledge of the assistant about it is also less.
Surprisingly, there are equipments, which the assistant does not know by name. The workshop assistant was asked
about the frequent students complain in the workshop and said that ‘they complain for all what they see, but, the
students do not know what they are expected to do, what they have not done and ‘we show them by being loyal to our
profession. The workshop assistant accomplish many of the things through reading, especially those in ‘soil and water
engineering’ stream. It is almost two years since he joined the university as a technical assistant, till now he have not got
any training to improve his skill and update himself with new technologies. He expects an experience sharing with other
better established Universities workshops. He also said that the purchasing committee has to include individuals from
the profession when some materials are bought. He strengthened this by saying that there are relatively enough surveying
materials, but easily broken due to low quality standard, because comments from professionals were not sought during
purchasing and evaluation of the equipment. In general, it seems that the practical aspects or the workshop is given less
emphasis and nobody discussed and worried or asked me the challenges the students face with regard to laboratory
practical.
Institute of Technology has been exerting an effort to compensate workshop equipment shortages by using workshops
of ‘Menchen for Menchen’ Harar. ‘Menchen for Menchen’ institute of technology has the necessary workshop
equipment. But the number of students who uses the workshop is very large and the number of equipment does not
match with the number of students. Although the students appreciated the effort made, they complained that going
there, doing the practice and going back to University is very difficult and tiresome. The instructors also said that they
feel tired supervising them going that much distance where they have no additional incentive or recognition from the
university or the college. In general, the students who practice in ‘Menchen for Menchen’ said that the effort made by
the University to minimize the theory-practice gap of engineering and technology education is appreciable and it could
not be achieved otherwise.
Electrical and Computer Engineering

Electrical and Computer Engineering is one of the programs of IOT since 1997 E.C. An interview conducted with the
program coordinator indicated the existence of relatively better books or reading materials, qualified teachers (about 10
MSc and one Expatriate PhD), which give the confidence to say that graduates are qualified. The coordinator said that
even though the department did not conduct tracer study, graduates informally told the department that they are
employed in many organizations. The coordinator further said that they did not conduct discussion at department level
on how to enhance the quality of education. With regard to resource, for about 4000 students there are only 50
computers, which are mainly used by graduating students, and those who take computer courses. The theory-practice
gap is reduced by taking some students to ‘Menshen fur Menshen’, but still there are gaps. Different equipment in
electrical engineering laboratory are known to anybody. No one knows whether it is functioning or not. Like the other
natural and computational science lab assistants, the lab assistants in the Institute of Technology also reported that the
materials are very expensive and it should not be operated by trial and error. The lab assistants did not get up-to-date
training on new technology, apparatus, and equipments. Students of Electrical and Computer Engineering have to be
updated with new technology. As a result, instructors and lab assistants should have updated knowledge both
theoretically and practically to help the students. However, students are not satisfied with the knowledge of most
instructors. This can be understood from what two students explained:
Electrical student A: As a critical analyst, I do not have the required practical skills. However, with my effort, I have
tried to fulfill many gaps. I would like to acknowledge very few teachers whom I can say ‘excellent teachers –who
taught me a lot’!
Electrical student B. As a student, I have to take part in teachers’ evaluation, and students and teachers should sit
together and evaluate one another formally. The serious problem is the block courses which adversely affected the
performance of the students which should be avoided if possible, otherwise reduced. Courses which we took through
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block are not covered sufficiently and it does not cover the lab hours. There should be well-equipped laboratory with
internet access. The respondent believes that the management does not follow up the teachers in general.
Table 3.12. Information systems and public information
Students Teachers
Item Rating (N=1000 (N=62)
College publish up-to-date SA 198 19.8 24 38.7
information A 113 11.3 13 21
DK 96 9.6 3 4.8
DA 243 24.3 14 22.5
SDA 350 35 8 12.9
The students said that they do not know whether the college publishes up to date information on the quality of
education they are delivering (Table 3.12). One of the internal quality assurance standards of higher education is that
they have to publish up to date information on quality education they are providing. However, 350 (35%) and 243
(24.3%) respondent students strongly disagree and disagree, respectively to the statement saying their college publishes
up to date information on the education they are delivering. However, more than half the teachers said that the college
publishes up to date information regarding the quality of education. Contrary to the teachers’ response, department
heads and some of the college’s management indicated that there is no publication periodically in promoting quality and
appreciated if it existed. As Campbell (2007) puts, literatures reveal that institutions should be able to publish up to date, impartial and
objective information, both quantitative and qualitative about the programs and awards they are offering. As some literatures put ‘If an
internal quality assurance system is to operate efficiently and effectively, it needs to be supported by a strong information system. Such a system
can inform those responsible for quality assurance in areas such as students’ progress in relation to entry grades and choice of programs, the
attainment of students, staff qualification, experience and teaching loads, teacher evaluations, students’ attrition, and destination will be that
quality assurance relies on evidence. In general, the absence of this kind of publication in the institution implies that there is no
quality assurance mechanism, thus quality of education is not prioritized.
3.3 The Role of University Management in Internal Quality Assurance of Science and Technology Educationin
Haramaya University
The university leaders (department heads, deans, concerned academic vice presidents, and the president) were asked on
how much they have been contributing to quality of science and technology education in such an aggressively emerging
fields in relation to the 70:30 program and professional mix.
They said that their University has been working better in all regards and new buildings are under construction. The
university is also aggressively recruiting qualified staff for the profession and purchase up to date books. But, they do not
feel the challenge of quality is fully addressed, thus the qualities of graduates they are training have been deteriorating. In
some cases, institutions or educational leaders only consider quality issues or standards when it is time for the annual
accreditation review. While accreditation is a potential and valuable result, it is not an absolutely necessary impetus.
Striving for quality assurance is a process that can be started at any time and can be continued with leadership and
support. Educational leaders in institutions play a key role in this process. Bryman (2009) reported that one of the three
top qualities of successful leaders in education is the ability to promote excellence in teaching and learning in a
department or program.
The researcher tried to assess if the established quality assurance system are developed based on the culture,
administrative, resource, and economic contexts. But, there was no clear and explicit system to all stakeholders. There
was just a talk about quality. Each educational institution exists in a unique context, with accompanying restrictions and
limitations on resources and flexibility of operations. The challenge for educational leaders is to find the balance,
determine what is feasible at a particular time and encourage quality, while taking care to avoid stifling innovation and
creativity at the same time. This is a global issue that all educational leaders face.
Many institutions cannot address all aspects of the administrative and program management at once, but must prioritize
them based on where the greatest need may exist, and where the most beneficial impact could be realized. There are a
number of reflective questions for educational leaders when considering the quality assurance process. The key to quality
assurance is to start the process. Quality assurance is a system, and starting at one point within the system will lead to
significant changes in other parts of the system, hence one must start somewhere (Leadership Foundation for Higher
Education, 2006). The top management and the middle management of the University did not usually discuss on issues
related to quality education and quality assurance mechanisms.
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Conclusions
This paper focused on the massification of Ethiopian higher education institutions visa-vis education quality, with
special emphasis on Science and Technology Education. The result showed that the high pressure placed on higher
education of the country in student enrollment lead to declining quality of education. Thus, there is a need for internal
quality assurance systems at the university level to ensure the quality of education in general and Science and Technology
education in particular. Areas of focus for improvement includes availability and proper functioning of laboratory
facilities, students assessment mechanisms, policy and procedures for quality assurance, public information, quality of
teaching staff, approval, monitoring and periodic review of programmes and awards, learning resources and students
support services. In conclusion, the researcher stress that there should be internal quality assurance system to ensure the
standard of the graduates. If not Universities cannot dare to say, they are accomplishing their mission.
Recommendations
 The students should be concerned about their education, how much they are getting quality education, which
would make them competent in the world of work.
 All instructors especially teachers in the science and technology education should be sure that they are
delivering education as per the standard set on the curriculum. Moreover, the respective instructors should be
concerned with the quality of education delivered to students in the department and need to have confidence in
the theoretical knowledge, the attitude towards their profession and their practical competence.
 The program leaders or the department or respective school heads as the case may be should make sure that
the students are getting the necessary knowledge and skills as per the competency set and the standards for
ensuring quality of education. On top of this, the department heads should work to the maximum in giving
support to the teachers so that they utilize their maximum effort to help the students.
 Above all, multiple roles are expected from the respective colleges management. They should play an
intermediary role between the top university management and the program heads and/or the teachers and
students in realizing the universities vision through creating a forum for discussion among the students,
teachers, program leaders, lab assistants, and even the top university management when necessary.
 In order to achieve the Ethiopia Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) and for Haramaya University vision
to put basis for sustainable development, all concerned bodies, especially University officials should work in
harmony towards enhancing the quality of education to be winners in the era of flourishing number of
graduates in Science and Technology field.
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4. College of Natural and Computational Sciences

4.1 Department of Biology
4.1.1 The potential and Traditional Medicinal Values of High Niche Genus of Aloes in
Eastern Hararghe Lowlands, Ethiopia
Anteneh Belayneh, Negussie Bussa and Sintayehu Workineh
Abstract: Ethiopian plants have shown remarkably effective medicinal values for many human and
livestock ailments. That is why the main thrust of this study centres on the potential and use of
traditional medicinal value of the genus Aloes in the eastern Hararghe lowlands. Seventy five
systematically selected informants including twenty traditional herbalists (as key informants)
participated in the study. Semi-structured interviews, discussions and guided field walk constituted the
main data collection methods. Techniques of preference ranking, factor of informant consensus and
spearman rank correlation test were employed in data analysis. A total of eight Aloe species were
identified from the study area. These are Aloe pirottae Berger, A. pubescens Reynolds, A. bertemariae
Sebsebe & Dioli and A. ruspoliana Baker (From Erer and Daketa Valleys), and A. harlana Reynolds,
A. megalacantha Baker, A. trichosantha Berger subsp. longiflora Gilbert & Sebsebe and A.
retrospiciens Reynolds & Bally (from Dengego Valley). Three of them are endemic Aloes (Aloe
pirottae, A. trichosantha subsp. longiflora and A. harlana). All these aloe species are used as traditional
medicinal plants for both human and livestock ailments. Among these, Aloe pirottae is the most
popular and highly valued medicinal plants in Babile Wedera. It is a species endemic to Ethiopia and
valued as a remedy for malaria, tropical ulcer, gastro-intestinal parasites, gallstone, eye diseases and
snake bite. The jel extracted from dried and ground plant material, called SIBRI (Oromo language), was
used to clean the colon. In addition, a total of 51 traditional medicinal plant species in 39 genera and
28 families were recorded. This underscores the importance of genus Aloes for the people living in
the area and the potential of the resource for development. Consequently, the study area deserves
urgent conservation priority coupled with mechanisms for the protection of the associated indigenous
medical lore.
Keywords: Aloes; Endemic Aloes; Erer Valley; Ethnomedicine; Eastern Ethiopia
Introduction
There are over 450 species of Aloes, in which 200 are concentrated in the southern and eastern Africa (Reynolds, 1996;
Newton, 2003). Most of these Aloes are exploited for medicinal purposes. The genus Aloes have high international
market demand for their products like Aloe gum, Aloe jel, live plants, leaves, etc., which are used by cosmetics and
pharmaceutical industries in Africa, Europe, middle east and Asian countries. That is why Aloe sap harvesting for export
supports thousands of poor inhabitants in Eastern Africa (Wabuyele and Kyalo, 2008). For example, Uganda, Karamoja
district has the potential of exporting about 10,000 tons of crude Aloe gum and Kenya about 2,200 tons. With the price
of USD 5/kg, Uganda can easily earn about USD 50,000,000 and Kenya USD 11,000,000 from sales of Aloe crude gum
(Mukonyi et al., 2007). This shows that sustainable utilization of Aloe resources in the dry lands is capable of contributing
to improve livelihoods, local and regional development as well as enhance resource conservation.
Ethiopian plants have shown remarkably effective medicinal values for many human and livestock ailments. Some
research results are found on medicinal plants of the south, south west, central, north and north western parts of
Ethiopia. However, there is lack of data that quantitatively assesses the resource potential, the traditional indigenous
knowledge on the use and management of medicinal plants in eastern Ethiopia. In the drylands of Ethiopia, many
species of Aloe exist on less fertile and rocky areas which are not suitable for agricultural activities (Sebsebe et al., 2000).
Some research works done in the drylands of Ethiopia indicate that there exist huge potential of Aloe spp. in the wild
and the local communities make use of them for traditional medicines to treat major health problems like malaria,
tropical ulcer, etc. In addition, they make use of some Aloe spp. for soil conservation/compaction, food and
cosmetics/beauty therapy. For example, Aloe harlana Reynolds is an endemic species found in Dengego valley specifically
around Harla (the small village found between Dengego and Dire Dawa, Eastern Ethiopia) (Hedberg & Edwards, 1989).
The specific epithet ‘harlana’ refers in Latin to the fact that the plant is endemic and originated from Harla area.
However, there is no information about the current status and distribution of this endemic species except that few
professionals from their personal communication indicated that it is used as a traditional medicine for human and
livestock by the local communities.
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The fact that lowland of East Hararghe zone of Oromia region is well known for huge potential of various species of
Aloe (Sebsebe et al., 2000; Anteneh, 2006) made us plan this study aimed to investigate the current status, distribution and
potentials and traditional medicine values of the high niche genus of Aloes in the Eastern Hararghe lowlands, specifically
in the wider habitats of the Erer and Daketa Valleys, and the Dengego-Kersa drainage basin towards Dire Dawa. The
local communities (Oromo and Somali) in these areas make use of different species of Aloe for various purposes such as
traditional medicine for both human and livestock, food and cosmetics (Anteneh, 2006). The tendency of Aloe spp.
growing on less fertile, rocky and non-agricultural area, that constitute considerable portion of the east Hararghe lowland
is a good opportunity for rehabilitation of such areas with large scale cultivation for commercialization. The main thrust
of this study centres on the potential and use of traditional medicinal values of Aloes and existing local knowledge in
eastern Hararghe lowlands. The results will be used to fill knowledge gaps and recommend further research direction for
future development of Aloe species as well as for setting up of conservation priorities, preservation of local bio-cultural
knowledge, sustainable use and development of the Aloe resource and its ecology.

Study area description
This study was conducted in the lowlands of East Hararghe zone mainly in the Erer and Daketa Valleys which is part of
the Wabi-Shebele drainage basin and the Kersa-Dengego Valleys and mountain chains which is the Awash drainage
basin (Figure 4.1). Most of these areas have an elevation above sea level that ranges from 1,500 meters in the northwest
(Kersa Valley), falling to about 900 meters above seas level; along the southern limits of Erer and Daketa Valleys.
Data collection
A reconnaissance survey of the study area was conducted in order to identify all stockholders, determine the major
centre of the study, sampling areas/sites, informant sampling, etc. Ethnobotanical data were collected in two different
seasons, from September to November 2010 and June to August 2011. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques
were employed to collect data, as recommended by Martin (1995) and Cunningham (1996). Eight sampling sites were
identified from Babile Wereda in Erer and Daketa Valleys where settled farmers and trans-human pastoralists were
found and indicated on the location map of the study area (Figure 4.1). Ethnobotanical information was collected from
75 informants (57 male and 18 female). Among the 75 informants, 20 were key informants (traditional healers) selected
with the assistance of clan leaders, peasant association leaders and members of the local community following Hedberg
(1993), Martin (1995) and Cotton (1996). Purposive sampling technique was used for selection of key informants while
for the others stratified random sampling was employed. The informants were grouped into three age groups, young (20-
35), adult (36-50) and elderly (above 50) to see how the knowledge varies with age.
Figure 4.1. Location of study areas in Babile District
144
Before carrying out the interviews and group discussions, an oral Prior Informed Consent (PIC) was sought from every
respondent. Semi-structured interviews and group discussions were administered in the local (Oromo and Somali)
languages to collect basic information on the Indigenous Knowledge (IK) and use of Aloes species including their local
names, diseases treated or controlled, part used, conditions and method of preparation, part administered, dosage used
and major drawbacks. In addition, practical observation sessions and guided field walks with key informants were
employed to collect voucher specimens of each medicinal plant species more of which were the genus Aloes. Most of
the interviews were made in the field in order to avoid the risk of confusing identity of plant species by repeated
inquiries at least three times with the same and different informants so as to confirm the validity and reliability of the
recorded information.
A total of 60 quadrats, each 20 x 20 m, were laid out to make plant species inventory and Aloe species density data
collection as recommended by Kent and Coker (1992). On each quadrats and specimen collection sites, data on
altitudinal range, grid references and habitat notes was collected with Garmin 48 GPS. Specimens were collected and
numbered on the quadrats, later identified using taxonomic keys in the relevant volumes of the Flora of Ethiopia and
Eritrea (Hedberg and Edwards, 1989, 1995; Edwards et al., 1995, 1997, 2000; Hedberg et al., 2006) and through visual
comparisons with authenticated plant specimens kept at National Herbarium (ETH) of Addis Ababa University and at
the Herbarium of Haramaya University. The identification was finally confirmed by a senior plant taxonomist and
voucher specimens of the medicinal plants deposited at both herbaria.
In some selected site in the field, leaves of Aloe species was harvested for sap field analysis and collected on a plastic
basin. After 30 minutes, the volume of sap released was measured using a calibrated measuring cylinder.
Data analysis
Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative methods following Martin (1995) and Cotton
(1996). For each medicinal plant, the proportion of informants who independently reported its use against a particular
disease/disease category, the informant consensus factor (Fic) was calculated using the formula: Fic = nur–nt/nur–1
(Heinrich, 2000).Where, nur is the “number of use-reports” in each disease category and nt is the number of taxa used.
Based on the general informant consensus, the preference ranking technique was employed to rank the priority
medicinal plants as given by key informants’ preferences indicating the degree of efficacy (Cunningham, 2001). In the
preference ranking exercise, an integer value (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) was given, where the most important medicinal plant was
given the highest value (5), while the least important is assigned a value of “1”. These numbers were summed for all
respondents, giving overall ranks to the medicinal plants. Spearman rank correlation test was run in SPSS 18.00 to
analyze the correlation of the informant consensus value and the informant preference ranking value, and binomial test
was run in SPSS 18.0 to evaluate the depth of knowledge with age categories in which pair wise age category test was
considered. P-value of less than 0.05 was considered a statistically significant difference. MS Excel Spreadsheet was used
to generate bar graphs.

Eight Aloe species (Family Aloaceae) were documented as traditional medicines against human ailments (Table 4.1). Out
of these, three are endemic Aloes (Figure 4.2).
Table 4.1. List of Aloe species and their distribution
Species name Collection area Endemicity

A. pirottae Berger Erer Valley Endemic
A. pubescens Reynolds Erer and Daketa Valleys Not endemic
A. bertemariae Sebsebe & Dioli Lower Erer Valley Not endemic
A. ruspoliana Baker Lower Daketa Valley Not endemic
A. harlana Reynolds Harla village and Dengego Endemic
mountains
A. megalacantha Baker Dengego mountains Not endemic
A. trichosantha Berger subsp. Longiflora Gilbert Dengego drainage Endemic
& Sebsebe
A. retrospiciens Reynolds & Bally Dengego Valley and mountains Not endemic
Though these eight Aloe species were recorded from the study areas, their population structure and density showed
significant difference (p > 0.05). The density per ha indicated that Aloe megalacantha has the highest density whereas A.
trichosantha subsp. longiflora the least (Table 4.2).
145
Figure 4.2. Endemic Aloes: i) Aloe pirottae ii). Aloe harlana
Table 4.2. Population density per ha of the Aloe species in the study areas
Mean ± S.E. Minimum individuals

Species individuals ha-1 ha-1 Maximum individuals ha-1
A. pirottae 31 ± 9.93 4 ? 117
A. pubescens 219 ± 83.3 64 543
A. bertemariae 115 ± 51.4 33 235
A. ruspoliana 285 ± 98.2 12 443
A. harlana 22 ± 7.76 2 ? 107
A. megalacantha 419 ± 103.3 64 1343
A. trichosantha subsp. longiflora 7 ± 3.4 1 21
A. retrospiciens 385 ± 88.2 92 943
The result of the population density showed that the three endemic species i.e., Aloe pirottae, A. trichosantha subsp.
longiflora and A. harlana are locally threatened. This might be related to over use of these two species for medicinal
purpose. Some popular works on the Ethiopian plants indicated that many endemic plant species are highly threatened
(Ensermu, 1996; Sebsebe and Nordal, 2010).
Medicinal plants that are more popular and widely used by the local community have been prioritized based on
frequency of citations. Species that received more than 75% informant report are given in Table 4.3. For these species,
the results show high frequency of citations ranging from 76-96. This shows that there is a considerable level of
agreement on the therapeutic worth of these species in the study area. The greater independent citations a particular
species receives for the treatment of a certain illness category, the greater is the cultural importance (Berlin and Berlin,
2005a). In this respect Aloe pirottae has been highly cited indicating the therapeutic worth of this plant.
There was repeated mention of the extract from Aloe pirottae for use to treat tropical ulcer, eye diseases, malaria, snake
bite, gastro-intestinal parasites, gallstone and the jel is dried and ground to produce a product locally known as SIBRI in
the Oromo language, which is used as a colon cleaner. The reports also showed that the leaf, seed and flower of
Azadirachta indica were concocted and used against malaria, fungal infections and intestinal worms while the root of
Hydnora johannis was used to treat wound, haemorrhage, diarrhoea and painful body swelling, locally known as GOFLA in
the Oromo language (Anteneh et al., 2012).
Preference ranking value obtained based on the degree of efficacy didn’t show a significant correlation (Spearman
correlation test, r = 0.188, α = 0.05, p = 0.275) with that of the informant consensus value. Pharmacologically effective
remedies are expected to have greater informant consensus (Trotter and Logan, 1986). Aloe pirottae, Balanites aegyptiaca
and Tamarindus indica are the three leading species for being used as effective remedies against the corresponding ailments
(Table 4.4).
146
Table 4.3. List of ten medicinal plants cited by more than 75% of the informants
Scientific name Ailment No. of % of

informants total
Aloe pirottae Tropical ulcer, Eye disease, Colon problem (SIBRI), 48 96
Malaria, Snake bite, Gallstone and Insect repellent
Azadirachta indica Malaria, Fungal infection, Intestinal worms 47 94
Hydnora johannis Haemorrhage, Diarrhoea, Swollen body part 45 90
(GOFLA), Wound, and Mouth infections
Tamarindus indica Stomachache/parasite, Malaria, Dysentery, Wound, 44 88
Fever and
Haemorrhoids
Balanites aegyptiaca Snake bite, Premature ejaculation, Influenza, Malaria 42 84
and Wound
Acacia albid Stomachache, diarrhoea, Haemorrhage, Cough, 41 82
pneumonia, Postpartum complications and Kidney
disease
Portulaca oleracea L. subsp. oleracea Gastritis, peptic ulcers, Constipation, and fungal 40 80
infections
Acacia nilotica Mouth infection, Toothache, Bad breath (Halitosis), 39 78
Dysentery and Haemorrhoids
Acacia senegal Eye disease, Backbone pain, Constipation and 38 76
Stomachache
Asparagus leptocladodius Kidney & liver disease, Vomiting of children 38 76
(Emesis)
Conclusion and recommendation

Obviously, the genus aloes are very important as herbal medicines in the study area, which is an integral part of their
culture and also modern medicine is unavailable and unaffordable for most people in the study area. In the lowlands of
East Hararghe, there is a considerable potential of the genus aloes which are promising for development. Most of the
species are in use for various purposes by the community, food, medicinal and cleansing. Most of the species in the
genus Aloes investigated in this study are growing on less fertile, rocky and non-agricultural areas, so not competing with
croplands. The existing Aloe resource and indigenous knowledge will attract the emerging food processing, cosmetic and
pharmaceutical industries in Ethiopia. It is worth noting that the endemic Aloes need immediate attention for their
conservation.
Table 4.4. Preference ranking of most preferred medicinal plant species based on overall effectiveness to treat human
ailments
Species name Respondents (Traditional healers)

Score
Rank
10
11
12
13
14
15
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Aloe pirottae 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 74 1
Balanites aegyptiaca 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 5 72 2
Tamarindus indica 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 3 5 71 3
Azadirachta indica 4 3 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 68 4
Acacia albida 5 4 5 5 3 5 5 3 3 5 4 3 5 3 4 62 5
Hydnora johannis 5 5 5 3 3 3 5 5 3 5 4 3 4 3 5 61 6
Portulaca oleracea 4 3 3 2 3 2 4 3 3 5 4 3 3 3 4 49 7
Acacia robusta 5 4 3 3 1 2 3 2 4 5 4 3 2 3 4 48 8
Withania somnifera 5 4 2 2 3 2 5 2 3 4 4 3 2 3 4 48 9
Cucumis dipsaceus 5 4 3 3 4 2 2 2 3 2 4 3 2 3 4 46 10
Out of these top ten preferred and efficient medicinal plants, some including Azadirachta indica, Portulaca oleracea and the
Aloes are also included in the WHO list of most used medicinal plants (WHO, 1999-2001).
147
Finally, we recommend that there is a need to prepare the full package on the genus Aloes in east and west Hararghe
lowlands and highlands to fill the following knowledge gaps to support the livelihood of smallholder families and due to
its potential for conservation of degraded lands.
 Identify and document the genus Aloe spp. which are potential for commercialization and to assess the
Indigenous Knowledge (IK) related to the various uses of aloes, local processing techniques of aloe extracts,
existing domestication, conservation and management practices.
 Evaluate the aloe jel and sap yield per leaf and whole plant to determine the feasibility of Aloe jel productivity.
 Analyze the chemical composition of Aloe extracts and compare with the international standard of traded
Aloes.
 Analyze of the Aloe extracts qualities (color, viscosity, odour, etc.), from the various highland and lowland Aloe
spp. in eastern Ethiopia, in reference to the internationally traded types.
 Develop the geographic distribution map with the existing level of plant population potential of Aloe spp. in
eastern Ethiopia so as to show the resource base to the emerging investors in the aloe latex and aloe jel
commercial sector.
 Develop domestication techniques for high priority Aloe spp. to meet a standard for commercialization.
 Conduct trainings and workshops for appropriate stakeholders based on innovation and knowledge obtained
from the research.
 Recommend further knowledge gaps and research direction for sufficient knowledge on aloe extracts for future
development so as to back-up the current sustainable economy of Ethiopian.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to Haramaya University (HU) ‘HU-Young Faculty Grant’ for the financial support, the local
communities in the study areas for their collaboration and valuable Indigenous knowledge and Herbarium staffs of HU
and AAU for their keen assistance in identification of the aloe.
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4.1.2 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Diversity of Some Traditional Coffee Agroforestry

Gardens in Western Hararghe, Ethiopia
Tadesse Chanie and Fassil Assefa Tuju
Abstract: To understand interactions between Coffee arabica trees and mycorrhizae, an investigation
of the current mycorrhizal colonization status of roots in soils in the rhizosphere was undertaken. A
sample of 5 dominant shade tree species occurring in coffee populations in Western Hararghe,
Ethiopia were taken. Acacia albida, Cordia Africana, Croton macrostachyus, Erythrina burana, Milletia
ferruginea and the coffee trees sampled under each shade tree were all shown to be colonized by
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AM fungi). Four genera and 9 different species of AM fungi were found
in the soils. Glomus (Sp1, Sp2, and Sp3 & Sp4), Scutellospora (Sp1 & Sp2) and Gigaspora (Sp1 &
Sp2) were found at all locations, whereas Acaulospora (Sp1) occurred only under two of the sample
shade tree species (C. africana and C. macrostachyus). Generally, roots of coffee trees were more
heavily colonized by arbuscules, as arbuscular colonization percentage (AC%) was higher than that of
their respective shade trees (P<0.05). Though it was not statistically significant in most cases overall
general hyphal colonization percentage (HC%) and mycorrhizal hyphal colonization percentage
(MHC%) were also shown to be slightly higher in coffee trees than in their respective shade trees. The
incidence of specific spore morpho-types varied along with shade trees. Results indicate that AM
fungi could potentially be important in aforestation and to promote coffee production activities in the
country in order to bring an alternative to expensive chemical fertilizer use, and would offer
management methods that take advantage of natural systems that could potentially preserve and enhance
coffee production.
Keywords: Arbuscular Mycorrhizae; Coffee Management; Root Colonization; Soil Ecology; Spore
Density; Sustainable Agriculture; Symbiosis
Introduction
Forests are important gene reservoir and natural regeneration areas for many economically important plants around the
world (Wolf, 1999; Daba, 2002). Arabica coffee is a non-alcoholic stimulant beverage crop and one of the most valued
crops in world trade. It has in many years remained second in value only to oil as a source of foreign exchange to
developing countries (Tefestewolde, 1995; ICO, 2007). Ethiopia is believed to be the country of origin of arabica coffee
(Paulose and Demel, 2000) that represents over 70% of the world's coffee production (ICO, 2009). In Ethiopia, it
contributes to more than 60% of the country's foreign exchange earnings, over 5% of the GDP, 12% of the agricultural
output, and 10% of the government revenues (CSA, 2002). Previous data showed that coffee employs 25% of domestic
labour force (EIAR, 1996). About 55% of Ethiopia’s production is exported, whereas the rest is consumed locally
(Mesfin, 1991). In Ethiopia, coffee grows in natural coffee groves and managed agroforestry systems, totaling about
500,000 hectares (Aga et al., 2003).
149
More than 60% of coffee plants grow under shade trees in evergreen forest areas situated in southwestern Ethiopia
(Paulose and Zebene, 1994). Shade trees include Albizia, Acacia, Bersama, Cordia, Croton, Dracaena, Entada, Erythrina, Ficus,
Leucaena, Millettia, and Syzygium species (FAO, 1968; Demel and Tigeneh, 1991). Like many crops, coffee and shade trees
associate symbiotically with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AM fungi) (Sieverding, 1991; Cardoso, 2003; Muleta et al.,
2007).
Mycorrhizae are thought to influence plant community composition and plant productivity (Van der Heijden et al.,
1998). Moreover, success of any reforestation intervention is likely to depend on the co-establishment of diverse AM
fungi together with seedlings in the nursery (Sieverding, 1991; Francis and Read, 1994). Benefits from mycorrhizae are
greatest and most obvious under low input subsistence agriculture growing conditions in developing countries in the
tropics (Sieverding, 1991). Propagules of mycorrhizae in coffee soils enhance coffee plant growth, increase P and Zn
uptake of young coffee seedlings in nursery conditions and improve their establishment after transplantation (Lopes et
al., 1985; Rivera et al., 2003; Vaast and Zasoski, 1992). They also impart tolerance against a number of plant parasitic
nematodes (Vaast et al., 1998). These positive effects of mycorrhizal fungi could have agro-biotechnological importance
for low input agriculture (Douds et al., 2000).
A few recent studies indicate the general status of mycorrhizal symbiosis with Acacia polyacantha obtained from a dry
savannah woodland ecosystem (Yonase, 2005) and Erythrina brucei from a highland woodland ecosystem (Shasho, 2002).
The mycorrhizal colonization rates of some tree species in an afromontane forests were also estimated (Tesfaye et al.,
2003a). In Brazil, Cardoso et al. (2003) noted that greater numbers of spores in the deeper soil layers may be due to
greater amounts of roots whereas it may also account for a greater incidence of mycorrhiza in agroforestry than in
monocultural coffee systems. Similarly, the same authors explained that greater mycorrhizal incidence at deeper soil
layers in the agroforestry system may change the dynamics of phosphorus cycling in soil, making this nutrient more
available to plants. However, in Ethiopia there exist almost no information on the diversity of AM fungi, their density
and root colonization rate (RCR) of coffee and their shade trees. Thus, the present study was initiated with the following
objectives to: (a) quantify and identify spores of AM fungi occurring under each species; and (b) investigate the
relationship between AM fungi and root colonization.

Study area description
This study was conducted in some selected traditional coffee agroforestry gardens around Mesella special kebeles called
‘Gende Deneba’, ‘Gende Awusherif’, ‘Gende Burka’ and ‘Gende Maderia’ , Western Hararghe, Ethiopia. It is
situated 300-400 km from Addis Ababa over a range of 1671 to 2121 meters above sea level. Generally, the area lies
within a range of 09o04’48.0’’- 09o05’47.5’’N and 041o07’11.3’’- 041008’56.0’’E geographical coordinates where relics of
Harar coffee trees are found.
Sampling roots and AM fungi

Root samples of 5 dominant species of shade trees (Table 4.5) and coffee trees (3 coffee plants under each shade tree)
were collected by excavating soil using a handheld hoe starting from the trunk base and working out towards the fine
roots within 3 meters radius. Excavated soil samples were washed over 2 and 0.5 mm sieves. Twenty fine roots were
collected from the 0.5 mm sieve and brought into the laboratory, carefully washed with tap water, cut into 1cm pieces
and placed in 50% alcohol until processed (Frioni et al., 1999). Three samples of 200 g of soil were collected at 50 cm
depth from under the canopy of each tree for spore extraction.
Spores of AM fungi were separated from the soil by the wet-sieving/gradient centrifugation technique (Brundrett et al.,
1996). Spores were counted from 100 g aliquots of soil using a dissecting microscope with a magnification of 4x. Spores
were grouped into genera of different species according to morphological characteristics mainly spore size, shape,
colour, wall structure, hyphal attachment (simple, swollen or bulbous) and Melzer's solution reaction (INVAM, 2004;
Merryweather, 2004). Permanent slides were prepared for each different spore morphotypes with polyvinyl-alcohol and
polyvinyl-alcohol plus Melzer's solution (Merryweather, 2004), and diameter of spores was measured using camera (cc12)
mounted Olympus Bx 51 microscope which was connected to a software program (AnalySIS ® Soft Imaging Systems
GmbH version 3.2).
Roots were cleaned in 10% KOH (Kormanik and McGraw, 1982; Brundrett et al., 1994). Darkly pigmented roots were
further bleached with 10% H2O2 and acidified with 1% HCl. Cleaned roots were stained in trypan blue (0.05% in 14:1:1
lactic acid: glycerol: water). Proportional colonization (colonization of roots by AM fungi) was estimated using the
magnified intersection method. A hair line graticule inserted into eyepiece acted as the line of intersection with each root
at 200x magnification under the compound microscope (McGonigle et al., 1990). A reasonable estimate of percentage of
root length colonization (%RLC) was done from 100 or more intersections for each root sample (around 10 fine root
pieces per slide). At each intersection, there were six possible mutually exclusive outcomes. The line might intersect at (p,
q, r, s, t and u). Where: “p” represents intersection at no fungal structures, “q” arbuscules, “r” mycorrhizal vesicles, “s”
arbuscules and mycorrhizal vesicles at a time, “t” mycorrhizal hyphae but no arbuscules or mycorrhizal vesicles, and “u”
hyphae not seen to be connected to arbuscules or mycorrhizal vesicles.
150
Data were statistically analyzed using the program SPSS V.11.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL., USA). Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was applied to spore numbers and colonization percentages, and the means were compared by Duncan's
Multiple Range Test, P0.05.
Table 4.5. Coffee shade tree species and their respective geographical locations in Western Hararghe coffee
agroforestry studied for AMF colonization
Scientific name Family name Location

Acacia albida Fabaceae 09o 05’ 47.5’’ N
041o 08’ 06.3”E
Cordia africana Boraginaceae 09o 05’ 47.5’’N
041o 080’7.9’’E
Croton macrostachyus Euphorbiaceae 09o.05’ 15.1’’N
0410 07’ 11.3’’E
Erythrina burana Fabaceae 09o04’ 48.0’’N
041o08’ 57.2’’E
Milletia ferruginea Fabaceae 09o04’ 56.3’’N
041o 08’ 12.4’’E
Results
AM spores
Four genera and 9 species of AM fungi were identified from the different rhizosphere soils (Table 4.6). Characteristics
exhibited by the different spore types are also indicated. Type 1 (Glomus spp.) with four different species, type 2 (Gigaspora
spp.) with two different species and type 3 (Scutellospora spp.) with two different species were found under all tree species.
Spores of type 4 (Acaulospora spp.), which is of only one species, were found under 40% of tree species and at lower
densities than the first three types (genera) (Table 4.6 and Table 4.7).
Table 4.6. Characteristics of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi spores
Diam
eter Subtending Hyphal
Genera Colour Shape (µm) hyphae attachment Species
I(Glomus) Light yellow (Honey) Spherical 150- + Simple Sp1, Sp2, Sp3,
to Brown (even Black) 175 Sp4
II(Gigaspora) White to Gray Globose 350- + Bulbous Sp1, Sp2
600 /Swollen
III(Scutellospora) Brown Globose 100- + Bulbous Sp1, Sp2
to 150 /Swollen
Ellipsoidal
IV(Acaulospora) Brown to Black Round to > - - Sp1
Oblong 400
Where: + = presence of subtending hyphae - = absence of subtending hyphae (sessile) Sp = species
Even though generally high spore densities were recovered as compared to previous local studies (Muleta et al., 2003;
Yonase, 2005), spore densities varied under tree species (Table 4.7). The highest spore density was found under A. albida
and the lowest under C. macrostachyus. Spore density also varied significantly among different members of the same
family of shade trees: A. albida, E. burana and M. ferruginea in Fabaceae.
Table 4.7. Spore density in the rhizosphere of shade trees (spores per 100 g dry soil, n=6)
Species Total Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4

Acacia albida 1313±36a 1089±17a 171±7a 53 ± 2c -
Cordia africana 760±17 d 576±10 d 101±8d 68 ±3a 15±2a
Croton macrostachyus 670±17 e 521± 14 e 86±5e 56± 3bc 7 ± 2b
Erythrina burana 997±11c 807±12c 129±4c 61 ± 3b -
Milletia ferruginea 1098±31 b 892 ±15 b 149± 8b 57± 2bc -
Means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at 0.05 level, ± s.d.
151
Root colonization
All shade tree species were colonized by mycorrhizae (Table 4.8). Arbuscules and vesicles were observed in all tree
species. General hyphal colonization (HC%) varied between members of shade trees. While in Fabaceae, colonization of
A. albida, E. burana and M. ferruginia was statistically similar.
Table 4.8. Root colonization percentages of shade trees

Species HC (%) MHC (%) AC (%) VC (%)
Acacia albida 81±3a 62±4a 3 ±0.5de 16±0.6a
Cordia africana 67±3 bc 47 ±2 bc 7 ±0.3 a 10 ±0.1bc
Croton macrostachyus 69 ±3 bc 51 ±3 bc 5 ±0.9 bc 11 ±2bc
Erythrina burana 76 ±7ab 57 ±2ab 6 ±0.6b 12 ±3bc
Milletia ferruginea 81 ±5 a 60 ±4 ab 4 ±0.5 cd 14 ±0.6b
Where: HC, = Hyphal Colonization = 100[(G-p)/G]; MHC = Mmycorrhizal Hyphal Colonization = 100[(q+r+s+t)/G]; AC = Arbuscular
Colonization = 100(q+s/G); VC = Vesicular Colonization = 100(r+s/G).Where: G = (p+q+r+s+t+u) intersections inspected, p_ no fungal
structures, q _ arbuscules, r _ mycorrhizal vesicles, s _ arbuscules and mycorrhizal vesicles, t _ mycorrhizal hyphae but no arbuscules or
mycorrhizal vesicles and u _ hyphae not seen to be connected to arbuscules or mycorrhizal vesicles.
Percentages of coffee roots colonized by total hyphae (HC%) was generally higher than for the tree species with which
they were respectively associated. Mycorrhizal hyphal colonization (MHC%) of coffee trees under the canopy of all
shade trees presented the highest colonization percentage. Arbuscular colonization (AC%) is found to be greater in
coffee trees than respective shade trees in almost all the cases (Tables 4.8 and 4.9). On the contrary, vesicular
colonization (VC %) seemed to be larger in shade tree species than coffee trees underneath in many of the cases.
Table 4.9. Root colonization percentages of coffee plants under shade trees
Shade trees over Coffee HC (%) MHC (%) AC (%) VC (%)

Acacia albida 76.00±3.61
87±5 a 57.90±3.60
64±9 a 13.1±2.33
18±2 ab 5.00±1.70
4±0.3 d
Milletiaafricana
Cordia ferruginea 73±3bc 55±5ab 12±2bc 7±0.3ab
Croton macrostachyus 76±4b 56±4a 13±2bcd 5±2bcd
Erythrina burana 80±5ab 60±4a 15±2bc 4±0.3d
Milletia ferruginea 83±5ab 61±7a 16±2ab 2±0.6e
Where: HC = Hyphal Colonization = 100[(G-p)/G]; MHC, = Mycorrhizal Hyphal Colonization = 100[(q+r+s+t)/G]; AC = Arbuscular
Colonization = 100(q+s/G); VC = Vesicular Colonization = 100(r+s/G).Where: G = (p+q+r+s+t+u) intersections inspected, p_ no fungal
structures, q _ arbuscules, r _ mycorrhizal vesicles, s _ arbuscules and mycorrhizal vesicles, t _ mycorrhizal hyphae but no arbuscules or
mycorrhizal vesicles and u _ hyphae not seen to be connected to arbuscules or mycorrhizal vesicles.
Discussion
Four genera totaling 9 species of mycorrhizae were recovered from soils sampled from Western Hararghe coffee
agroforestry, Ethiopia. Glomus was the most dominant genus in all soils under each tree species both in species diversity
and spore density (Tables 4.7 and 4.8). Spores of Glomus was also found to be dominant not only in dry afromontane
forests of Ethiopia (Tesfaye et al., 2003b) and Bonga natural coffee forest (Muleta et al., 2007), but also in the tropical
rain forest of Xishuangbanna, China (Zhao et al., 2001), tropical rain forest in Mexico (Guadarrama and Alvarez-
Sanchez, 1999), and arid and semi-arid lands of north Jordan (Mohammad et al., 2003). Generally, the acidic nature of
the rhizosphere soil in the present study might have favoured this genus. Because it was indicated that generally, Glomus
species (with the exception of Glomus mosseae) were found to be distinctly acid-tolerant (Mosse, 1972; 1973).
The least-occurring spore type, Acaulospora, was absent under A. albida, E. burana and M. ferruginea and when present at
low spore densities. The reasons for low occurrence of this spore type are unclear. It may be influenced by host types as
a number of hitherto studies indicate that host-plant preferences exist (Halgason et al., 2002; Vandenkoornhuyse et al.,
2003; Johnson et al., 2003). This could either be due to differences in root anatomy or exudates from plant roots
(Gamalero et al. 2004; Norman et al., 1996). Cardoso et al. (2003) also indicated that spore production or colonization
could be influenced by the length of root of the plant.
The number of species (especially Glomus) isolated from any forest is always lower than that of pot cultures (Brundrett
et al., 1999). Thus, the number of species recovered in this study might be underestimated due to the fact that some
species may not produce their spores in the soil. In support of this, it was investigated that count on mycorrhizal
propagules is found to give more realistic estimate than spore density because it considered the life cycle of the fungi
(hyphal growth) in the soil that it also includes non-sporulating mycorrhizal species (Mitiku and Osrio, 2001).
The overall distribution of mycorrhizal spores was found to be different. For instance, A. albida, E. burana and M.
ferruginea harbored relatively greater number of spores than other hosts. Smallest number of spores was encountered
under C. africana and C. macrostachyus. Generally, a large number of mycorrhizal spores were extracted under each tree per
152
100 g of soil in this study than in other studies. In this work, the least average number of AM fungi spores extracted
(670/100 g) was larger as compared with the previous findings of Yonas (2005) who reported 57.9 spores per 100 g dry
soil of Acacia polyacantha in a dry savannah woodland ecosystem. Similarly, Shasho (2002) reported more than 300 spores
per 100 g soil beneath E. brucei from a highland woodland ecosystem. These differences in spore density may be due to
variations in environment, host trees, and edaphic factors among the study places. The population of spores in these
coffee gardens is the largest, may be due to the low level of disturbance in the soil. Similar results were obtained in Brazil
by Cardoso et al. (2003).
The pattern of root colonization was also found to vary among shade trees (even between members of the same
family). The variations in some species with relation to the degree of colonization and presence/absence of AM fungi in
the same or different collecting places indicate that environmental factors (the host environment) influence the presence
or absence of mycorrhizae and its colonization level (Alexander, 1989). Similarly, St. John (1980) indicated such a
variation of root colonization at genus and family levels.
A direct relationship was found between colonization percentage and spore density in soil in each tree species. Jasper et
al. (1993) and Frank and Morton (1994) have similarly observed sporulation to be correlated positively with mycorrhizal
colonization. Therefore, this may indicate that most of the spores in this study are colonizing ones. We can also
speculate co-colonization among different genera. The coffee tree roots were more heavily colonized by arbuscules
(AC%) than their respective shade trees (P<0.05). General hyphal colonization (HC%) and mycorrhizal hyphal
colonization (MHC%) were also seen to be slightly higher in coffee trees than respective shade trees.
The reasons for relatively heavier coffee root colonization are unclear. However, the implications may be important
for the coffee plant. Greater colonization in coffee may indicate lower relative available P, Zn and N for coffee than its
companion. Alternatively, this may be because of ecosystem functioning of the increased plant diversity around the
coffee tree. Grime et al. (1987) showed that the transfer of assimilates from one plant to understorey component is
facilitated through a common mycorrhizal network that may necessitate more mycorrhizal colonization. The differences
are important since mineral deficiency may result in lower productivity of coffee trees, or access to greater carbon may
increase production.
Similarly, it is not clear why AC% seems higher in coffee roots than in tree roots and VC% is lower in coffee than in
shade trees. However, this may be either because coffee tree roots are more colonized by non vesicle forming
mycorrhizal species, or may be due to the fact that coffee trees need to have nutrients immediately than to store it in
vesicles (nutrient storage sites). This supports the idea that transfer of assimilates from one plant to understory
component is facilitated more through arbuscules than vesicles (Grime et al., 1987). AM fungi could enhance plant
uptake of P and other nutrients, especially in nutrient deficient environment (Smith and Read, 1997). Similarly, Cardoso
et al. (2003) noted that greater mycorrhizal activity in the deeper soil layers may be important to make more P available to
the plant and thus increases the efficiency of nutrient recycling processes in the agroforestry systems. This again may be
related to root architecture. Nutrient availability had a much stronger effect on root architecture than the arbuscular
mycorrhiza (Cruz et al., 2004). The role of mycorrhizae was to increase the uptake capacity of the active zone. Hence,
the association might have favoured by the root architecture created under conditions of low resource availability.
Otherwise, it is well known that high soil P suppresses mycorrhizal activity mainly through its effect on the P
concentration in plants (Bowen, 1987; Menge et al., 1978).
The importance of mycorrhiza to coffee has been reported by several investigators indicating that coffee plants are
heavily mycorrhizal under natural conditions. These benefits include enhanced growth and increased P and Zn uptake of
young coffee seedlings in nursery conditions (Lopes et al., 1985; Siqueira et al., 1998); enhanced tolerance to nematodes
(Vaast et al., 1998) and increased survival of coffee plants after field transplanting and in agroforestry systems (Vaast and
Zasoski, 1992). Agroforestry systems can increase soil nutrient availability and accelerate P cycling because the deeper
tree roots can retrieve nutrients from lower soil horizons (Young, 1997); enhance the chemical and physical quality of
soils and increase soil microbial activity (Cooper et al., 1996).
Conclusion
A diverse population of mycorrhizae was observed as spores in coffee agroforestry gardens of Western Hararghe,
Ethiopia. Presence of spores was associated with high levels of mycorrhizae in the roots of both the shade tree species
and coffee plants growing under the shade species. Mycorrhizal colonization in coffee was higher than in the companion
forest species, indicating that mycorrhizae may be more helpful for coffee than the companion. These observations
indicate that management of coffee agroforestry gardens must consider the impact of various practices on the
mycorrhizae, and manage to maintain high levels of colonization in coffee. The specific management practices needed to
maintain mycorrhizae in this system are unclear, but lack of soil disturbance and management of litter fall (OM) may be
important and are worth further investigation.
153
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4.2 Department of Chemistry
4.2.1 The Effect of Cooperative Learning on Students’ Achievement in Organic Chemistry: A

Case Study of Haramaya University First Year Chemistry Students
Ayalew Temesgen
Abstract: The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of cooperative learning style on
achievements of first year chemistry students' learning outcomes in organic chemistry at Haramaya
University. Forteen female and 91 male students participated in the study. The sample students were
randomly divided into experimental (51 students) and control (54 students) groups based on their
section. The subjects in both the treatment and control groups were exposed to the same study unit
covered in organic chemistry-I. For the experimental group, the contents of the unit were treated with
cooperative learning style, while for the later, the same contents were dealt using the traditional lecture
method. To measure differences between experimental and control groups, identical pre-test, quiz,
assignment, and post-test evaluations were administered before and after treatment. The results
obtained indicated that there was no significant difference in the pre-test and assignments
achievement scores of students between the experimental and control groups, whereas, statistically
significant difference was observed between experimental and control groups with the two sample t-
tests (p<0.05) taken on the quiz and post-test achievement scores. Responses to the questionnaires
from the experimental group analyzed qualitatively indicated that cooperative learning style was
effective in acquiring chemistry concepts as they worked together in their group.
Keywords: Cooperative Learning; Lecture Method; Pre-Test; Post-Test; Attitude; Achievements
Introduction
Organic Chemistry is one of the major courses offered to students majoring chemistry. It is also offered to other natural
science students as a supportive course in all Ethiopian universities. However, students’ reflection and some study
revealed that Organic Chemistry course is considered as a difficult subject and students’ performance in this subject is
relatively low. According to Girija and Deepa (2004), the meetings held in the SADC region recognized that Organic
Chemistry is a difficult subject on teaching learning surface.
An important objective in teaching science in higher education is to enable students to acquire knowledge in order to
understand the nature of the world. In contemporary perspectives on education, knowledge cannot automatically be
transmitted from one person to others (Herron, 1996). Knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learner based on
the existing knowledge and understanding. But, most course materials in science education has typically been "taught" by
the lecture method (Cooper, 1995). In the lecture method, students go to class, listen, and take notes on the lecture of
the instructor. The lecture has been considered an efficient method to present the fundamentals of science, to emphasize
the key concepts and to model problem solving skills. However, the lecture method has many weaknesses in terms of
the learning processes. The lecture method allows students to passively receive information from teachers, and it pays
little attention to the processes of constructing knowledge and developing the cognitive abilities of students (Tesfaye,
2007).
Novak (1998) accentuated the need for educators to take advantage of the available knowledge base of learning,
learners’ knowledge construction, and instructional tools to improve educational quality, and a knowledge base that has
not been tapped sufficiently. Improving educational quality requires designing strategies, which can be used to improve
the teaching-learning of chemistry, and to make it more attractive to students, at least, placing learners in active rather
than passive roles (Moore, 2005). To improve the problem of teaching/learning process, educators suggested that
cooperative learning to be useful in enhancing meaningful learning. Cooperative learning is an approach to group work
that minimizes the occurrence of those unpleasant situations and maximizes the learning and satisfaction that result from
working on a high-performance team. A large and rapidly growing body of research confirms the effectiveness of
cooperative learning in higher education (Johnson et al., 2000).
In Haramaya University Chemistry department, I have seen many students working hard with course materials in
Organic chemistry. But, their examination results reveal that some students cannot express their answers clearly and
logically. They seem to work hard, but do not acquire the necessary knowledge. Some instructors are very keen to
facilitate students’ learning, to make them actively engaged in constructing their own knowledge, and to help them
develop their abilities in reasoning and logical thinking. We agree with Ruggiero’s statement (cited in Le Thi So Nhu,
1996) “the only significant change that is required is a change in teaching methodology”. Even though we require
students to have abilities of reasoning, logical thinking, and working independently, we still mainly lecture to them. But,
there is no significant difference observed in this manner. So, as a teacher we should have to change our methods,
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because“.---teaching of higher level reasoning and critical thinking does not depend on what is taught, but on how it is
taught”.
A number of research results provide empirical evidence that cooperative learning is a useful learning strategy in many
content areas such as mathematics, physics, and chemistry in developed countries. As such, no systematic study could be
located in Ethiopian higher education to evaluate the effect of cooperative learning in undergraduate organic chemistry
course. Thus, this study attempted to investigate the effect of using cooperative learning style in Organic Chemistry-I on
students’ achievements and assessed students’ attitudes toward cooperative learning style in Organic Chemistry.
Research Methodology
Description of Research Area
This research is a part of an experimental research that was aimed at investigating the effect of cooperative learning as a
tool in teaching-learning Organic Chemistry and its effect on the learning outcomes of first year chemistry department
students at Haramaya University, Ethiopia.
Sampling Procedure
The sample size for this study was determined based on the number of students’ enrolled at chemistry department for
2011/12 academic year. The nature of this study is quasi experiment design and the sampling procedure was quasi-
experimental sampling method. That means, first year students were completely assigned into two groups, i.e.,
experimental and control groups, in accordance with their section. The instructor (researcher) formed teams rather than
permitting students to choose their own teammates. When students self-select into teams, the best students tend to
cluster, leaving the weak ones to be left to themselves, and friends cluster leaving some students out of groups and
excluding others from cliques within groups. In this experiment, there are nine groups in case of experimental group,
which were formed randomly according to their sitting in the class. From these groups (nine), there were six groups
containing six members each while, three groups containing five members each, which give a total of 51 students.
The Experimental Design

During this study, the cooperative learning approach was utilized for the experimental group as a teaching-learning tool. There
was no such special treatment provided for the control group during the whole treatment period. The lecture teaching-
learning approach remained as teaching method for control group students. The same Chemistry lesson topics
prescribed for the experimental groups were administered to the control groups as well.
Group Design in Cooperative Learning Environment

In this study, combination of peer-led-team learning with mini lecture were used. Because these structures promotes
both individual and group thinking and reflection on issues, questions, or problem-solving. Among the group members
one is assigned as the leader/manager (manages the group and ensures that members fulfill their roles and work
cooperatively in a timely manner); and another one is given a responsibility of recordering group activities (records the
group’s answers and discussion outcomes); and the rest are reflectors (ensures that all possibilities have been explored by
posing questions such as “What other idea are there?” or “How can we look at this problem in another way?”).
Depending on the lesson objectives assignment, quiz is given to them in the class at the end of the lesson. This trend is
also followed outside the class and the researcher follow up activities. For convenience, one preliminary session were
assigned in the beginning of the first week to introduce cooperative learning approach to experimental group students to
minimize difficulties toward the method. According to Hardwick (2000) as cited in Ai Bin (2009), for cooperative
strategies to work, careful planning, inconspicuous observation and evaluation and preplanned adjustments (alternative
activities) are essential to help learners move consistently forward. So based on this, in this research the training of
cooperative learning is given to students based on Johnson and Johnson (1998) model. Cooperative learning is
instruction that involves students working in teams to accomplish a common goal, under conditions that include the
following elements:
 Positive interdependence
 Face-to-face promotive interaction
 Individual accountability (Personal responsibility)
 Interpersonal and small-group skills (Teamwork skills)
 Group processing
After ensuring that students of the experimental group had enough time for understanding the process of cooperative
learning, they were continuously encouraged to meet with their group two times per week for two hours. After they
finished their training, quiz and assignment were given based on Organic Chemistry lessons that covered in actual class
for both groups at the same time. During that period, each student in the control group and experimental group were
asked to submit their assignment on a series of learning tasks that was covered in actual class. To maintain uniformity,
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the treatment time for both groups is the same. At the end of this treatment period, the same post-test were
administered simultaneously to both groups of students.
Data Gathering Instruments

The relevant data from the subjects of the study were collected using multiple instruments listed below.
Achievement in Chemistry Assignment

The dependent variable in this study was the students' test results in Organic Chemistry class. Two tests (pre-test and
post-test) were constructed by the researcher in order to measure students’ achievements. Both the pre-test and post-test
examinations were evaluated by organic chemistry teacher who has teaching experience, in addition to the researcher.
The reason for evaluating the tests were to make sure that the questions were aligned with the course content and level
as well as designed along with the detailed description of the course content. After getting approval from Organic
Chemistry teachers, the test was administered to the students. The pre-test was offered to assess students’ prior
knowledge of the topics covered during the study (stereochemistry). The post-test measured students’ achievement
generally on the topic they learned (stereochemistry) at the end of the study period.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires were used as tools to gather relevant information from the subjects of the study. Therefore, two sets of
questionnaires, open ended and closed ended, were prepared to collect data on:
 Whether or not the method improves their achievement in organic chemistry
 Generally their opinion toward the method
 In responding to the questionnaires, all experimental group students were involved
Interviews
Interviews were used as data collecting instrument to get the views and opinions of students in addition to
questionnaires about: the effectiveness of cooperative learning as a teaching-learning tool, to what extent the method
enhances students’ understanding of Organic Chemistry concepts and its appropriateness in group work. For the
purpose, three students from the experimental group were randomly selected and interviewed in this regard.
Methods of Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative analysis methods. The quantitative data were analyzed
using both descriptive and inferential statistics to describe the data in terms of the mean, and percentage. From
inferential statistics, the t-test was used to test if there exists any statistically significant difference between the
experimental and control groups.

Comparison between experimental and control group students on the pre-test
One can see clearly from Table 4.10 that the mean score results and the two tailed t-test is not significant (p>0.05)
between the two groups of students and the two groups exhibited comparable characteristics. The result of two-sample
t-test on assignment (Table 4.11) indicates no significant difference. This could be because students might have copied
the assignment from each other or worked together. But as shown in Table 4.12, and Table 4.13, there is highly
significant difference between the two groups (p < 0.05) on the quiz and post test. This result revealed that the
experimental groups scored higher than the control group indicating the effectiveness of cooperative learning in
enhancing students’ achievement than traditional lecture method. In accordance with the present result, Emily (2006)
noted that cooperative learning model is ranked first in teaching approaches and it promotes greater higher-order
thinking, problem solving, and achievement.
Table 4.10. Comparison of pre-test results for experimental and control group students by using two sample t-test
First year chemistry students N Mean Variance t-value p-value

Experimental group 51 1.35294 1.19294 0.34797 0.72858
Control group 54 1.42593 1.11705
N=Number of experimental and control group students, P = probability. Comparison between experimental and control group students on assignment
159
Table 4.11. Comparison between experimental and control group students on assignment by using two sample t-test
First year chemistry N Mean Variance t-value p-value

students
Experimental group 51 8.35294 0.91294 -1.7681 0.08
Control group 54 8 1.16981
At the 0.05 level, the two means are NOT significantly different. Comparison between experimental and control group students on Quiz
Table 4.12. Comparison results of experimental and control group students on quiz by using two sample t-test.
First year N Mean Variance t-value p-value

chemistry students
Experimental group 51 4.17647 0.55824 -8.97554 1.3953E-14
Control group 54 2.40741 1.45353
At the p <0.05 level, the two means are significantly different.
Table 1.13. The two-sample t-test results on post-test for experimental and control group
First year N Mean Variance t-value p-value

chemistry students
Experimental group 51 28.12745 33.12843 -3.10437 0.00246
Control group 54 24.74074 29.41265
N=number of experimental and control group students, P= probability, SD = standard deviation. Survey of students’ opinions about cooperative learning
experience
The Likert scale employed has five levels of responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. In this study, the
scale was further rescaled into three for the sake of convenience. If the average obtained were above three (strongly
agree and agree), it was taken as a positive statement. If it were below three, it indicates negative response and opposes
the idea or the given statement. Three is considered as neither positive nor negative, but as an undecided.
Generally one can see from Table 4.14 that students have positive attitude in the organization of the group, their role
in their group, their contribution towards the success of the group, the approach in enhancing their achievement, the
effectiveness of the cooperative learning approach comparative to individual work, contribution of the approach to
understand the subject better, the contribution of the approach in bringing students that came from different nations
and nationalities together and work in group for common goals.
Table 4.14. Students’ response to questions related to cooperative learning experience
No. Statements % of respondents

Positive Undecided Negative
1. The groups formed represented multiple students 96 2 2
2. All members of my group were committed to the success of the group 90 2 8
3. I felt responsible for the success of each individual in the group 94 6 0
4. My group has sufficient time to complete the activities 88 4 8
5. The cooperative learning approach forced me to take on more responsibilities 92 6 2
for learning organic chemistry
6. The cooperative learning experiences in my class enhanced my learning 96 4 0
7. I listen to, and respect, the others' ideas and resolve conflicts in a positive 98 2 0
manner during cooperative learning
8. I share the load of my group in seeking solutions and in making suggestions 94 2 4
in organic chemistry class
9. I share my information, and take into account information from others 98 0 2
10. I contribute towards making each member of my group to do his/her set 96 0 4
piece of work
11. I am happy about the success of my group in organic chemistry assignment 100 0 0
12. I get more work done when I work with others 100 0 0
13. I learn organic chemistry more when I studied with a group 100 0 0
14. Cooperative learning helped me to develop social skills with my group 96 4 0
member
Students’ perceptions toward cooperative learning on open-ended questionnaire
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The following are some of the open-ended questions to which responses were given by the respondents.
1. Do you think cooperative learning would help you in your study and to achieve a good result in organic
chemistry test?
2. Do you think cooperative learning helped you to understand the subject better as opposed to individual work?
3. Do you have any other comments about cooperative learning from your cooperative learning experience?
Explain.
All of the experimental group students render appreciation to cooperative learning technique in Organic Chemistry.
Respondents of these questions gave their comments briefly by using their own language (Afan Oromo, Amharic) and
with English. Among students comment addressed on the questionnaires, some of them are discussed below.
Majority of students addressed “Yes, and when they explained their reason “…cooperative learning helped us to share idea with our partner
without any fear or with freedom”. They continued “…when we want to ask question in class we are ashamed of our instructor or our class
mates, due to different factors such as language difficulty,…etc. But, now it is better to ask our partner or group members and share idea
easily when we discussed with each other, which in turn help us to improve our achievement”.
Other students indicated that working cooperatively with their own partner had helped them to dig out problems and
find the answer for that problem. For example, one student said, “Doing cooperatively, with my partner helps me to know things
that I am unsure more clearly, how they are solved.” Also another student wrote, “When I shared my idea to my group members they
also share me their idea and experience, so this highlights gaps in my knowledge that I need to go back and read.”
The meta-analysis of vast research study on cooperative learning was done by Roger and David Johnson (1997) and the
result indicated that cooperative learning seems to be much more powerful in producing achievement than the other
interaction patterns and students are more positive about school, subject areas, and teachers or professors when they are
structured to work cooperatively.
Interview results of students’ opinion about effectiveness of cooperative learning

To gather relevant information on the effectiveness of the cooperative learning in Organic Chemistry class and to know
the attitude of the students toward the method, two students were interviewed from the experimental group. The
questions were the same with open ended ones. The three students felt that cooperative learning tutorials helped them to
understand the lecture content more clearly, because they made brief discussion on each topic and on each question with
their group members in class and out of the class. Among the interviewed students, one student said that:
“I have got an interesting experience from cooperative learning approach during Organic Chemistry class, because certainly I knew that it is an
enriching program/approach. Cooperative learning was extremely useful as it allowed me to discuss my idea with my friends, organizing the
concepts discussed, separating what was more and less important, which in turn enhance my achievement. It is a great tool for learning and
studying.”
This result is also in line with others researchers work. Conwell et al. (1988) interviewed 28 students who worked in
cooperative learning groups in intermediate science classrooms in an urban school and he reported that students
perceived their science achievement positively. Nearly two thirds rated their level of self-esteem as high, felt positive
about themselves when working in groups. More than three fourth of the students interviewed enjoyed working with
everyone in their group and they had no preferences based on race or sex for team mates.
General evaluation of the experimental group students on cooperative learning

General evaluation of the experimental group students on cooperative learning refers to the role of the group members,
their contribution towards the success of the groups, cooperative learning approach comparative to individual work, the
contribution of the approach to understand the subject better, the contribution of the approach in bringing students
who came from different nations and nationalities to work together for common goals. Cooperative learning is generally
a better approach as compared to the traditional method (Figure 4.3).
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Figure 4.3. General evaluation of the experimental group students on cooperative learning in organic chemistry class
Conclusion
From the comparison analysis between experimental group and control group students on the results of the quiz, and
post tests, the two sample t-test indicates that the experimental group students who were using cooperative learning tool
performed better than those who have learned with lecture method, but not on assignment. Therefore, it is suitable to
teach Organic Chemistry with cooperative learning method since it improves students’ achievement than the lecture
method. Similarly, qualitative analysis of the data gathered from students through questionnaires and interview indicated
that cooperative learning is effective tool in engaging students, helping each other, in helping them solve problems
together, to improve their achievement as well as communication and social relations, while no negative response was
reported concerning the effectiveness of the cooperative learning.
Recommendation
Based on his observation and active engagement in study, the researcher recommend:
 He encourage Chemistry department teachers to interject cooperative learning approach wherever possible in
their lecture class.
 It would be better if Chemistry teachers arrange their laboratories and classrooms in such a way as to give more
effective interaction among students.
 For future work, he recommend that the structure of the groups to be arranged according to students’
relationship, and to combine cooperative learning approach with other active learning approach such as
problem based learning in all natural science class in higher education, especially in developing countries like
Ethiopia.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deep gratitude to Mr. Ayalew Debebe, the former head of Department of Chemistry at
Haramaya University for his continuous professional guidance on matters pertaining to this paper. Also I would like to
forward my warm appreciation and great thanks to my friends: Mengistu Tulu and Meseret Amde, for their moral and
material support. Our thanks go to ‘Young Faculty Research Fund of Haramaya University’ through Collage of
Natural and Computational Sciences for sponsoring this research work.
162
References
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Seminar Paper Research Presented to the Graduate Faculty University of Wisconsin-Platteville In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree Master of Science In Education.
Conwell, C. R. et al., 1988, November). Students' perceptions when working in cooperative problem solving groups. Paper presented
at the North Carolina Science Teachers Association Convention. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
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Cooper, J. L., 1995. Cooperative learning and college teaching: Tips from the trenches. The Teaching Professor. 4(5): 1-2.
Girija S S and Deepa S. M., 2004. University students Performance in organic chemistry at undergraduate level:
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Town. South Africa. (http://khimiya.org/volume14/efficiency.pdf, assessed on July, 6, 2010)
Herron, J.D., 1996. The chemistry class room: formulas for successful teaching Washington, D.C: American Chemical
Society.
Johnson, D. W.; Johnson, R. T.; Smith, K. A., 1998. Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom, (2nd ed.);
Interaction Book: Edina, MN.
Johnson, D. W.; Johnson, R. T.; Stanne, M. E., 2000. Cooperative Learning Methods: A meta-analysis. University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis: Cooperative Learning Center, http://www.cooperation.org/pages/cl-methods.html (accessed July
5, 2011).
Le Thi S.N., 1996. A case study of cooperative learning in Inorganioc chemistry tutorials at the Vietnam national
university Hochiminh city: thesis summated in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of masters of
Science. P 11-30.
Gabel D. L., and Liang L. L., 2005. Research report on Effectiveness of a Constructivist Approach to Science Instruction
for Prospective Elementary Teachers. International Journal of Science Education Vol 27, No. 10, 19 August 2005, pp.
1143–1162
Moore, K.D., 2005. Effective instructional strategies: From theory to practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Tesfaye Demise, 2007. A comparative study on the effectiveness of lecture-cum demonstration method using chemistry
kit against lecture method in teaching chemistry. Master of education thesis, Haramaya University. P 1-94.
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5. COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

5.1 School of Foreign Language studies
5.1.1 Assimilation in Oromo Phonology

Dejene Geshe
Abstract: This study investigates the assimilatory processes taking place in the major Oromo dialects.
The area has not been thoroughly treated in some previous works. Thus, this work will throw light
onto the description of the language. The study describes the assimilatory processes prevailing in the
language in general and discusses some facts dialect specifically only when they are common in the
dialect in question. The study is a descriptive work and attention has been given to describing surface
realizations rather than theorizing the process. To conduct the study, the data have been elicited from
eight less educated speakers of the major dialects. The speakers were those who have not been away
for long time from their home villages so that they give appropriate data synchronically spoken. The
data have been phonemically and phonetically transcribed and descriptively analyzed. In Oromo,
bilabials and labiodentals in the Guji Oromo and velars in the Macha Oromo assimilate to alveolar
sounds. In this study, alveolar sounds assimilate to many sounds and act as the conditioning
environment for many assimilatory processes.
Keywords: Assimilation; Voicing, Devoicing; Glottalization; Deglottalization; Palatalization;

Nasalization; Coalescence; Vowel Raising
Introduction
The Oromo2 are one of the largest tribal groups in Ethiopia. Scholars such as Bender (1976) claim that “The Oromo
probably comprise the largest single tribal group in Africa.” The People inhabit large area “stretching from close to the
Sudan border in the West, through Addis Ababa, and beyond Harar in the East, from Northern Kenya in the South, up
and East of the Rift valley, and to Wallo in the North” (Gragg, 1982).
According to the recent population census, the language is spoken by around twenty-seven million speakers in
Ethiopia (Dejene, 2010). The language belongs to the East lowland Cushitic. Different scholars held different views on
the dialectal variations of the language. Gragg (1976) categorizes the language into three major dialects: “western, eastern
and southern.” Bender (1976), on the other hand, categorizes the language into eight major dialects: “Macha (western),
Tulama (central), Wello, Rayya (both northern), Eastern, Arsi, Guji and Borena (the last three southern).”
Some scholars have tried to study assimilation in Oromo, at least in passing. Waqo (1981) describes the phonology of
Macha Oromo. In this work he overviews the segmental assimilation of the dialect. This work would be a good input for
the present study and also helps to indicate gaps. Benyam (1988) superficially highlights the assimilation of segments in
the Rayya dialect. Benyam’s finding shows difference with the present study because he claims that the Rayya dialect is
influenced by Semitic languages. For instance, in the Rayya dialect vowel harmony, which is the typical feature of
Tigrigna (a Semitic language), occurs. But in other Oromo dialects this process is less evident. Dejene (2010) describes
assimilation in Kamisee Oromo Phonology. This study does not treat the assimilatory processes such as the assimilation
of velars to alveolars, the assimilation of bilabials and labiodentals to alveolars and others which have been given
considerable attention in the present study. Dejene’s work was dialect specific phonological description, while the
present study attempts to describe assimilation in the language in General.
The previous major findings, summarized above, reveal that assimilation in Oromo has been treated only superficially
and has not been investigated in detail and the assimilatory processes of many dialects have not been described properly.
Dejene (2010) argues that assimilation is the typical feature of the Kamisee Oromo Phonological processes, which is
once again a case in this study. But the previous findings did not give considerable attention to the process and they also
lack descriptive adequacy. The purpose of this study is then, to deeply investigate and describe the assimilatory processes
taking place across the major dialects in Oromo.
Methods
To conduct the study, the data have been elicited from eight speakers of the major dialects. The informants were less
educated and are those who have not been away for long time from their home villages so that they would give the
actual data synchronically spoken. To be sure that the data gathered from the eight informants is reliable, some more
other speakers of the language were asked. Moreover, as a speaker of the language and based on the researcher previous
2
The word Oromo refers to both the people and the language in the study.
164
experience, the appropriateness of the data gathered were carefully checked. In this study, phonemic description was
mainly used so that one could see the underling realizations. The Phonetic description was used only to show the surface
form in the assimilation processes under question. The data have been analyzed by using descriptive method. Little apple
has been made to theoretical analysis as the study is a descriptive work.
Phoneme Inventory
Consonant Sounds
Oromo has twenty-nine consonant phonemes. Five of them /v, p, z, s’, ʒ/ are loan segments and used only in loan
words.
Table 5.1. Oromo consonant phonemes3
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal

Stops Vd b d ʤ g
V1 p t ʧ k Ɂ
Ejc p’ t’ ʧ’ k’
Implosive ɗ
Fricatives Vd v z ʒ
Vl f s ʃ h
Ejc s’
Nasals m n ɲ
Lateral l
Tap/trill r
Glides w j
In Table 5.1, labial includes bilabials /p, b, m, p, p’/, labiodentals /v, f/ and the labiovelar approximant /w/, and palatal
includes palatals /ɲ, j/ and postalveolars /ʒ, ʃ, ʤ, ʧ, ʧ’/. Nasals, laterals, taps/trills and glides in the language are all
voiced, and there is no voiced-voiceless dichotomy.
Vowel Sounds
The language has five vowel phonemes presented in Table 5.2. The vowel phonemes have short vowels and
corresponding long vowels.
Table 5.2: Vowel phonemes of Oromo
i u
e o
a
Vowel length in Oromo is phonemic and the short and long vowels in identical environment contrast.
(1) lama ‘two’ laama ‘hunger’
hiɗi ‘You (SG) tie.’ hiɗii ‘lip’
Assimilation in Oromo
In Oromo, assimilation is a popular phonological process. The process predominantly takes place contiguously and
mainly at word or morpheme boundaries, hence mainly morpho-phonemic in nature. There are different types of
assimilation processes such as voice assimilation, glottalization, palatalization, etc. Each of these has been discussed in
the study with ample examples from the language. Though the interaction between consonants is keen, there are
assimilation processes which take place due to the interaction between consonants and vowels in processes such as
nasalization and vowel rising.
Voicing
In Oromo, the voiceless alveolar stop /t/ regressively and completely assimilates to voiced velar, alveolar and bilabial
stops /b, d, g/ and becomes [d].
3
Vd: voiced, Vl: voiceless, Ejc: ejectives
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(3)4 /ʧ’ab- t- Ø- e/ [ʧ’abde]

break- 3SF/ 2- SG- PRV ‘She was/ you were broken.’
/fid- t- an/ [fiddan]
bring- 2- PL: PRV ‘You brought.’
/fiig- t- Ø- e/ [fiigde]
run- 3SF/ 2- SG- PRV ‘she/you ran.’
In this process, one may wonder whether the underlying phoneme is /t/ or the variants /b, d, g/ because when the
phoneme comes after these sounds, it never occurs as /t/. But it could be readily traced from other environments. It
occurs as /mt, rt, lt/ etc. with the similar grammatical function. Thus, we can conclude that /t/ is the underlying
phoneme while [b, d, g] are the surface forms.
The following rule says that /t/ becomes [d] when it occurs after /g, d, b/.
b
/t/ [d] d
g
Consonant Devoicing
In Oromo, the voiced bilabial and velar stops /g, b/ become voiceless when they occur after the voiceless alveolar
fricative /s/, as shown in (4).
(4)5 /ʤig- s- Ø- e/ [ʤikse]

fall- CAUS- 1SG/3SM- PRV ‘He/I made fall.’
/gogs- i -t- Ø e/ [goksite]
dry- EPN- 3SF/ 2- SG- PRV ‘She/you made dry.’
/ʧ’ob- s- Ø - e/ [ʧ’opse]
pour- CAUS- 1SG/3SM- PRV ‘I /he poured (some liquid).’
/raab- s- Ø- an/ [raapsan]
distribute- CAUS- 3- PL: PRV ‘They distributed.’
Devoicing in some dialects, especially in Tulama around salaalee, is accompanied by metathesis. The above words will be
pronounced as follows in the dialect.
/ʤikse/ [ʤiske] ‘He/I made fall.’
/goksite/ [goskite] ‘ He/I made dry.’
The examples reveal that metathesis takes place at the end; otherwise, it would have blocked the devoicing process. The
pattern could be summarized as follows:
/gs/ [ks] [sk]
The following rule illustrates that /b/ and/g/ surface as [p] and [k], respectively when they are preceded by /s/.
b k __________ s
g p
Vowel devoicing
Constituent final short vowels in Oromo are devoiced and become breathy in citation form. Andrzejewski (1957) and
Dejene (2010) claim that the process occurs in Borena and Kamisee Oromo dialects, respectively. This study also affirms
that the feature occurs in the major Oromo dialects. The process has been described as follows following Andrzejewski
(1957).
(5)6 /ʤimma/ [ʤimma] ‘Jimma’ (name of a city)

/Ambo/ [Ambo] ‘Ambo’ (name of a town)
/fardi/ [fardi] ‘horse’(NOM)
/gadde/ [gadde] ‘He mourned.’
/jaadu/ [jaadu] ‘They think.’
4
2: second person
5
CAUS: causative, 1SG: first person singular, 3SM third person singular masculine, EPEN: epenthetic, 3: third
person, PL: plural
6
NOM: nominative
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The devoicing of constituent final short vowels in Oromo is not conditioned by the influence of other neighboring
segments. Rather it is because of the word boundary effect7.
The following rule reads that short vowels in Oromo are devoiced when they occur constituent finally.
/cv/ [cv] #_____
Glottalization
In the language, the voiceless alveolar stop /t/ is glottalized when it occurs after glottal sounds
/p’, t’, ʧ’, k’, ɗ /. The process has been illustrated in (6).
(6)8 a) /rip’- t- Ø- e/ [rip’t’e]
hide- 3SF/2- SG- PRV ‘She/you hid.’
/lit’- t- Ø- e/ [litt’e]
enter- 3SF/2- SG- PRV ‘She /you entered.’
/miiʧ’- t- Ø- e/ [miiʧʧ’e]
wash- 3SF/2- SG- PRV ‘She /you washed.’
/milik’- t- u/ [milik’t’u]
escape- 2- PL: IPV ‘You will escape.’
b) /baat- ɗ-e/ [baaɗɗe]
carry- 1SG- PRV I carried.’
/laat- ɗ- a/ [laaɗɗa]
give- 1SG- IPV ‘I will give ( something to somebody else.)’
In (a) the assimilation is mainly phonetically triggered because in all the given environments, except after /ʧ’/ in which
/t/ completely assimilates to the sound, it assimilates to the airstream mechanism (glottalic pressure initiation) of the
ejectives. The sound does not change its place of articulation and manner of articulation except after /ʧ’/. In example
(b), on the other hand, the assimilation is a total assimilation in which /t/ assimilates to the airstream mechanism and
voicing of the voiced alveolar implosive /ɗ /.
The following rules reveal that /t/ becomes [t’] when it occurs after /p’, t’, k’/; it becomes
[ʧ’] when it occurs after /ʧ’/, and becomes [ɗ] when it occurs after /ɗ/.
p’
a) /t/ t’ t’ _____________
k'
b) /t/ [ʧ’] [ʧ’] ______
c) /t/ [ɗ] [ɗ ] _____
Glottalization of Long Vowels

Long vowels are glottalized when they occur constituent finally in citation form. But they are not glottalized in genitive
constructions and when they are followed by another constituent. The process has been discussed in (7).
7) a) /kutuu/ [kutuuʔ] ‘cutting’
/duʔuu/ [duʔuuʔ] ‘to dye’
/hoolaa/ [hoolaaʔ] ‘sheep’
/k’alɗoo/ [k’alɗooʔ] ‘thin’
/ʔadii/ [adiiʔ ] ‘white’
/reʔee/ [reʔeeʔ] ‘got’
b)/ʔadii- fi diimaa [ʔadiif diimaaʔ]
white-CONJ- red ‘white and red’
/ʃamarree bareedduu/ [ʃamarree bareedduuʔ]
7
Word boundary effect is a process in which the word boundary or morpheme boundary itself will be a trigger,
without influence of a specific segment in the environment.
8
IPV: imperfective
167
girl beautiful ‘ a beautiful girl’

c)/ hoolaa koo/ [hoolaa koo]
sheep : SG - GEN ‘My sheep.’
/nama ʤimma- a/ [nama Jimmaa]
person Jimma- GEN ‘ a person from Jimma’
/hoolaa gurraʧʧa/ [hoolaa gurraʧʧa
sheep black ‘black sheep’
/ʔegee ɗeeraa/ [ʔegee ɗeeraaʔ]
tail long ‘long tail’
The fact emerging from example (a) is that constituent final long vowels are glottalized while in example (b) they are not
glottalized because of the genitive construction, and in example (c) the terminal long vowels in the first words are not
glottalized because they are followed by other words.
Deglottalization
In Oromo, as shown in (8), the voiceless velar and bilabial ejective stops /k’, p’/ are deglottalized when they occur after
the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/.
8) /ʧ’op’- s- Ø- e/ [ʧ’opse]
pour- CAUS- 1SG/3SM- PRV ‘He poured.’
/milik’- s- Ø- e/ [milikse]
escape- CAUS- 1SG/3SM - PRV ‘He hid (something).’
/dammak’- s- i- n- e/ [dammaksine]
scar- CAUS- EPN- 1PL- PRV ‘He scared (somebody).’
/lip'- s- Ø- e/ [lip’se]
blink- CAUS- 1SG/3SM- PRV ‘He/I blinked.’
The following rule illustrates that /k’/ and /p’/ become deglottalized to [k] and [p] when they are followed by /s/.
k’ k ________ [s]
p’ p
Deglottalization in Oromo also can be conditioned by the word or morpheme boundary effect. It is evident in the
following personal names illustrated in (9). The names have been formed from different words, but synchronically used
as a single compound word. The first element in the compounds is underlyingly Wak’a ‘God’. In relaxed speech, the
glottal sound becomes deglottalized and the terminal vowel is clipped in the word formation process. The /k’/ of the
word Wak’a ‘God’ is always a glottal sound in a citation form.
The other remarkable feature in the process is the complete progressive voicing assimilation of the voiceless velar stop
/k/ to voiced velar stop /g/, as shown in the first two examples. Based on the pattern in this process, deglottalization of
/k’/ into [k] first takes place, and /k/ finally undergoes voicing due to the influence of /g/.
Underlying form Surface form

(9)/waak’ gaarii/ [waggaarii]
/waak’ gaʃʃaa/ waaggaʃʃaa]
/waak’ tolaa/ [waaktolaa/waattolaa9]
/waak’ ʃuuma/ waakʃuumaa]
/waak’ ʤiraa/ [waakʤiraa]
/waak’ kennee/ [Waakkennee]
Nasal Assimilation
The voiced alveolar nasal /n/ assimilates to many obstruents and sonorants in the language.
Assimilation of /n/ to Fricatives
In the Tulama dialect, especially in Salale area, the sound undergoes complete progressive place and manner assimilation
with voiceless labiodental and palatoalveolar fricatives /f, ʃ/ and manner assimilation with the voiceless alveolar fricative
/s/.
(10)10 /danf- Ø- e/ [daffe]
9
Because velars assimilate to alveolars, /kt/ surfaces as /tt/ in Macha Oromo.
10
Hin…u is a discontinuous negative morpheme in Oromo
168
boil- 3SM- PRV ‘It become boiled.’

/hin- ʃakk- Ø- u/ [ hiʃʃakku]
NEG- hesitate- 1SG/3SM- NEG:IPV ‘He /I will not hesitate.’
/hin- saam- Ø- u/ [hissaamu]
NEG- rob- 1SG/3SM- NEG: IPV ‘He/I will not rob.’
The following rule reads that /n/ becomes [f, s, ʃ] when it occurs before this sounds.
f f
/n/ s ___________ s
ʃ ʃ
Assimilation of /n/ to Places of Articulation of Obstruents

Under this process, the sound progressively assimilates to the places of articulation of the obstruents. As given in (11),
the assimilation in this process is partial and the products are nasal sounds throughout.
(11) /hin- beek- Ø- u/ [himbeeku]

NEG- know- 1PL/3SF- NEG: IPV ‘I do not/he does not know.’
/ʧ’uunfaa/ [ʧ’uuɱfaa] ‘juice’
/sangaa/ [saŋgaa] ‘ox’
/saank’aa/ [saaŋk’aa] ‘timber’
/hin- kenn- Ø- u/ [hiŋkennu]
NEG- give- 1SG/3SM- NEG: IPV ‘He/I will not give.’
/leenʧ’a/ leeɲʧ’a ‘lion’
/hin- ʃaakal- t- Ø- u/ [hiɲʃaakaltu]
NEG- practice- 3SF/2- SG- NEG: IPV ‘You (SG)/She will not practice.’
/hin- ʤaam- t- Ø- a/ [hiɲʤaamta]
FOC- blind- 2- SG- IPV ‘You will be blind.’
/hin- ʧaappaa- esss- Ø- u/ [naɲʧaappessu]
FOC- seal- CAUS- 3SM/1SG - IPV ‘He will not stamp it.’
The following rule illustrates that /n/ surfaces as [m] when it occurs before /b/, [ ɱ] when it comes before /f/, [ɲ]
when it occurs before postalveolars /ʃ, ʤ, ʧ, ʧ’/ and [ŋ] when it is followed by velars /k, k’, g/.
a) /n/ [m] __________ b
b) /n/ [ɱ] __________ [f]
c) /n/ [ɲ] _________ ʤ

ʧ
ʧ’
g
d) /n/ [ŋ] __________ k
k’
Assimilation of /n/ to Sonorant

As (12) reveals, the voiced alveolar nasal sound /n/ regressively and progressively and totally assimilates to /l/ and /r/,
and progressively and totally assimilates to /j, w, m, ɲ/.
169
(12)11 /hin- raf- Ø- u/ [hirrafu]

NEG- sleep- 1SG/3SM- NEG:IPV ‘He/I will not sleep.’
/waan jabbuu/ [waajjabbuu]
thing thick ‘thick thing’
/kan Lataa/ [kallataa]
GEN Lata ‘Lata’s’
/gal- n- e/ [galle]
enter- 1PL- PRV ‘We entered.’
/ʔiʤaar- n- a/ [ʔiʤaarra]
build- 1PL- IPV ‘We will build.’
/kan Waak’aa/ [kawwaak’aa]
GEN God ‘God’s’
/kan Murteessaa/ [kammurteessaa]
GEN Murtessa ‘Murtessa’s’
/sun ɲaata/ [suɲɲaata]
DEM food ‘That is food.’
The following two rules show that /n/ becomes [l] and [r] when it precedes and follows them, whereas it becomes [j, w,
m, ɲ] when it is preceded by these sounds.
l l
a) /n/ r __________ r
j j
w w
m m
ɲ ɲ
b) /n/ 1 _____ l
r r
Assimilation of Velars to Alveolars

In this process, velars /k, k’, g/ sounds totally and progressively assimilate to alveolar sounds. This process is common
in the Macha variety of Oromo. The process has been discussed in (13).
(13)12 /gog- s- Ø- e/ [gosse]
dry- CAUS- 1SG/3SM- PRV ‘He/I made dry.’
/milik’- s- Ø- e/ [milisse]
escape- CAUS- 1SG/3SM- PRV ‘He /I let escape.’
/ɗoks- i- t- Ø- e/ [ɗossite]
hide- EPN- 3SF/ 2- SG- PRV ‘You (SG)/She hid.’
/dugda/ [dudda] ‘back’
/gog- t- e/ [godde]
dry- DIM- PRV ‘It became dry.’
/ɗug- n- e/ [ɗunne]
drink- 1PL- PRV ‘We drank.’
/sik’- t- Ø- e/ [sitt’e]
move- 3SF/ 2- SG- PRV ‘She/you moved.’
11
GEN: genitive, DEM: demonstrative
12
DIM: diminutive, SG: singular
170
/ɗak’na/ [ɗanna] ‘body’

/mak- t- Ø- e/ [matte]
mix- 3SF /2- SG- PRV ‘You (SG)/She mixed.’
As the assimilatory process in (13) reveals, the combination of /gt/ does not surface as [tt]. This is because the process
has been blocked by the voicing assimilation which takes place before the assimilation of velars to alveolars. Then, the
order will be:
/gt/ [gd] [dd].
The following rule reveals that velars become alveolars when they are followed by the alveolar sounds.
g t t
k s s
k’ d ________ d
n n
ɗ ɗ
Assimilation of the Alveolar Stops /d, t/ to /n/

In many dialects of Oromo, the voiced and voiceless alveolar stops /d, t/ regressively and completely assimilate to the
manner of articulation of the voiced alveolar nasal /n/ as shown in (14).
(14) /fid- n- e/ [finne]

bring- 1PL- PRV ‘we brought.’
/bad- n- a/ [banna]
disappear- 1PL- IPV ‘We will disappear.’
/hat- n- a/ [hanna]
steal- 1PL- IPV ‘We will still.’
/hirmaat- n- e/ [hirmaanne]
share- 1PL- PRV ‘We shared (something among/between us .)’
The following rule says that/ t/ and /d/ become [n] when they are followed by /n/.
t
d [n] ______ [n]
Assimilation of Labials and Labiodentals to Alveolars

In this process, bilabials /b, m/ and the voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ progressively assimilate to alveolars. This
feature is highly prevalent in the Guji dialect. As illustrated in (15), the voiced bilabial nasal /m/ partially undergoes
place assimilation with alveolars and surfaces as [n]. But the voiced bilabial stop /b/ and the voiceless labiodental
fricative /f/ undergo complete progressive assimilation with alveolars.
(15) /k’ab- n- a/ [k’anna]

have- 1PL- IPV ‘We do have.’
/ʧ’im- t- Ø- e/ [ʧ’inte]
strong- 3SF/ 2- SG- PRV ‘She/you (SG) became strong.’
/haam- n- e/ [haanne]
mow- 1PL- PRV ‘We mowed.’
/lik’ims- Ø- e/ [lik’inse]
swallow- 1SG/3SM- PRV ‘He/I swallowed.’
/ʧ’ab- s- Ø- e/ [ʧ’asse]
break- CAUS- 3SM/1SG- PRV ‘He/I broke.’
/gub- t- i/ [guddi]
burn- 3SF- IPV ‘She will burn.’
/ɗuf- t- Ø- e/ [ɗutte]
171
come- 3SF/2- SG- PRV ‘She/you (SG) came.’

/raf- n- e/ [ranne]
sleep- 1PL- PRV ‘We slept.’
/haf- t- Ø- e/ [hatte]
remain- 3SF/2- SG- PRV ‘She/you (SG) remained.’
/kaas- t- Ø- e/ [ kaatte]
wake up- 3SF/2- SG- PRV ‘She/you (SG) made wake up (somebody).’
In the above process, one may expect that /bt/ would surface as /tt/. But before the assimilation of bilabial to alveolar
takes place, the voicing assimilation, i. e, /bt/ [bd], takes place and such a sequence of voiced stops further
undergoes a place assimilation and surfaces as [dd].
Another interesting feature in the above process is the dissimilation of the sequence of /st/ into [ft], which gives input
for assimilation as in the word kaaste ‘she made wake up (somebody else)’. In this case two phonological processes,
dissimilation and assimilation, take place consecutively. The underlying form /kaaste/ undergoes dissimilation and
surfaces as [kaafte]. The sequence of segments /ft/ will be further subject to assimilation and surfaces as [tt]. Thus, the
order is illustrated as
/st/ [ft] [tt].
The following rule says /m/ becomes [n], and /b/ and /f/ become alveolarized 13 after alveolars.
b s s
m n n
_____
f t t
d d
Reciprocal Assimilation or Coalescence
(16) Shows that when/n/ is preceded by /ʤ/ and /j/ the combinations results in the voiced palatal nasal /ɲ/.
(16) /kabaʤ- n- e/ [kabaɲɲe]

respect- 1PL- PRV ‘We respected.’
/faʤaʤ- n- e/ [faʤaɲɲe]
dizzy- 1PL- PRV ‘We became dizzy.’
/gaj- n- e/ [geeɲɲe]
arrive- 1PL- PRV ‘We have arrived.’
/booj- n- e/ [booɲɲe]
weep- 1PL- PRV ‘We wept.’
The following rule reads that the combinations of /ʤn/ and /jn/ surface as [ɲ].
/ʤ+n/
/j+n/ [ɲ]
In the above assimilatory process, the other interesting feature is compensatory lengthening. In Oromo if the stem final
segment is one of /j, w, ɗ, h, ʔ/, the terminal consonants are deleted and the root vowels undergo lengthening when an
affix which begins in a consonant sound is attached to the stem (Dejene, 2010). In above examples, one may argue that
there is no deletion because the consonants involve in assimilation. But I argue that there is deletion plus compensatory
lengthening but the trace is still there in coalescence. For instance baj- t-e ‘she went out’ would surface as baate ‘she went
13
This terminology is not popular in linguistics, but I used it from the analogy of platalization, velarization, etc.
because this process is common in Oromo.
172
out.’ While in the word gaj-t-e ‘she arrived’ the surface form will be geesse ‘she arrived’. In baate the terminal consonant
segment has been deleted while in geesse the sequence /jt/ softens into [ss]. The vowel length in both cases resulted from
the compensatory lengthening, while the softening process is conditioned from the trace of voiced palatal approximant
/j/. Thus, we could conclude that there is compensatory lengthening in all environments, but the consonants are
sensitive to some phonological processes (assimilation in the above case) when the environment influences them.
In Arsi-Bale, Guji and Borana dialects, the combination of /j+n/ surfaces [nn]. It may give us the impression that the
voiced palatal approximant /j/ undergoes complete assimilation with the voiced alveolar nasal /n/ in the dialects under
question unless we critically investigate the underlying realization.
If we consider the relationship between /n/ and /ɲ/ in the aforementioned dialects and the other dialects in the
language, we learn that they are free variants. Let us substantiate our claim by the following examples:
/keeɲɲa/ [keenna] ‘ours’
/k’abeeɲɲa/ [k’abeenna] ‘property’
/ɗageeɲɲe/ [ɗageenne] ‘We heared’
Words in the first group are spoken in the Macha, Tulama, Kamisee and Hararghe dialects, while words in the right-
hand are mainly spoken in Arsi-Bale, Guji and Borena dialects. Whether a word is grammatical or lexical, it is
predominantly pronounced, based on the above analysis.
Thus, in the light of this analysis, we can argue that the combination of /j+n/ surfaces as [ɲɲ] in all dialects and finally
free variation will take place in Arsi-Bale and other aforementioned dialects. We can sum it up as follows:
/j+n) [ɲɲ[ [nn]
Assimilation of /t / to /ʔ/
In this process, the voiceless alveolar stop /t/ of the preposition ʔitti ‘at’ distantly assimilates to the word initial voiceless
glottal stop /ʔ/ in some areas in Tulama dialect. As (17) illustrates this process always takes place at morpheme
boundaries as follows.
(17)14 /si- itti ʔoʔ- e/ [sitt’oʔe]
you- at hot ‘you felt hot.’
/na- itti ʔaare/ [natt’aare]
meat smoke ‘Smoked at me.’
/ʔiʃee- itti ɗeerate/ [ʔiʃeett’eerate]
herat long ‘The size (of cloth)exceeded her.’
/si- itti ɗaamote/ [sitt’aamote]
you- at cold ‘You felt cold.’
/nu- itti utaale/ [natt’utaale]
1PL: OBJ- at jump ‘It jumped at us.’
/na- itti ʔiyye/ [natt’ijje]
meat shout ‘Shouted at me.’
It may be argued that the voiceless glottal stop / ʔ/ and the voiceless alveolar ejective stop /t’/ have a weak relationship.
But I claim that the conditioning factor for the glottalization is the voiceless glottal stop / ʔ/, which is orthographically
not yet recognized in the writing system of the language, but phonetically there. Their relationship is that / ʔ/ is a glottal
sound, while /t’/ is formed by glottalic egressive airstream mechanism. Thus, the underlining combination of /tʔ/ will
surface as [tt’] because /t/ assumes a phonetic feature of the glottal sound /ʔ/ and become glottalized. The process
results in reciprocal assimilation.
The following rule reads that /tʔ / becomes [tt’] at a word boundary.
/t/ [t’] _____ ʔ#
Vowel Nasalization
In Oromo, all vowels are nasalized when they occur before or after the nasal sounds /n, ɲ, m/. Dejene (2010) claims
that vowels in the Kamisee dialect are nasalized when they occur after nasal sounds. But the finding has been refuted by
the present study that vowels are nasalized when they occur before and after the nasal sounds. The process has been
discussed in (18) as follows:
(18)/nama/ [nãmã] ‘person’
/lilmoo/ [lilmõõ] ‘needle’
/lammii/ [lãmmĩĩ ] ‘relative’
/ʔamma/ [ʔãmmã] ‘now’
/manneen/ [mãnnẽẽn] ‘houses’
14
OBJ: objective
173
/fuɲɲaan/ [fũɲɲããn] ‘nose’
The following nasalization rules say that vowels are nasalized when they are preceded and followed by nasal sounds.
m
a) /v/ [ṽ] _______ n
ɲ
m
b) /v/ [ṽ] n ________
ɲ
Palatalization
Dejene (2010) claims that the superimposition of the front high unrounded vowel /i/ or the palatal approximant /j/
onto consonants preceding front high and front mid unrounded long vowels /i:, e:/ remarkably takes place in the
Kamisee Oromo dialect. Compared to the Kamisee Oromo dialect, palatalization in other dialects is fairly moderate, but
the colour is there. The process has been shown in (19).
(19) /diida/ [djiida] ‘outside’

/fiige/ [fjiige] ‘He/I ran.’
/deemte/ [djeemte] ‘You(SG)/she went.’
/seente/ [sjeente] ‘You(SG)/she entered.’
The following rule says that a consonant sound becomes palatalized when it is followed by front high and front mid
unrounded long vowels.
/c / [cj ] _____ i:
e:
Palatalization of /t, t’, d, l/

The remarkable palatalization process in the language takes place when the causative process occurs. (20) Shows that in
this process when /t, t’, d, l/ are followed by causative markers, -s,
-sis, -siis, -sisiis, the consonants surface as [ʧ, ʧ’, ʃ].
(20)15 /kut- sisiis- Ø- e/ [kuʧʧisiise]

cut- CAUS- 1SG/3SM- PRV ‘He/I made cut.’ /fit’- sisiis- Ø - e/ [fiʧʧ’isiise]
finish- CAUS- 1SG/3SM- PRV ‘He/I made finish.’
/fid- sisiis- - e/ [fiʧʧisiise]
bring- CAUS- 3SM- PRV ‘He/I made bring.’
/gal- s- i- n - e/ [gaʃʃine16]
enter- CAUS- EPN- 1PL- PRV ‘We made enter.’
/k’al- siis- Ø- e/ [k’aʃʃiise]
kill - CAUS- 3SM/1SG- PRV ‘He/I let (someone) slaughter (something).’
The following rules shows that /t/ and /d/ become [ʧ], /t’/ becomes [ʧ’] and /l/ becomes [ʃ] when they are followed
by /i/.
t
a) d [ʧ] ________ [i]
15
The causative markers have different roles in Oromo. Because it does not serve any purpose here to mention the
function of the causative markers in glossing, I just used CAUS to mean causative marker.
16
Some speakers of Oromo pronounce gaʃʃe as galʧine. In both cases the palatalization process takes place, but the
former shows complete assimilation, while the later is partial assimilation.
174
b) /t’/ [ʧ’] __________ [i]
c) /l/ [ʃ] ________________ [i]
Kebede (1994) argues that there is /i/ sound before the causative markers -s, -sis, -siis, -sisiis as -is, -isis -isiis -isisiis. But
Dejene (2010) argues that the synchronic fact does not support the position held by kebede. Logically speaking there
may not be any palatalization without some trigger (likely to be /i/ in the present case). But the departure point between
the two scholars is whether /i/ is synchronically there or not. The claim behind Dejene’s (2010) and the present study is
that the sound /i/ does not exist in any underlying realization in other environments. Thus, it is really difficult to readily
conclude that it is there synchronically. Therefore, it is argued that/ i/ is the conditioning factor, but it might have been
diachronically deleted and the palatalizing trace remained.
Palatalization of /t/
(21) Reveals that /t/ completely and regressively assimilates to the two postalveolar sounds /ʤ, ʧ’/.
(21) /kabaʤ- t- Ø- e/ [kabaʤʤe]

respect- 3SF/2- SG- PRV ‘She respected.’
/waʧ’- t- Ø- e/ [waʧʧ’e]
disturb- 3SF/2- SG- PRV ‘She/you disturbed.’
The following rule reads that /t/ becomes [ʤ] and [ʧ’] when it is preceded by these sounds.
ʤ ʤ
b) /t/ ʧ’ ʧ’ ___________
Palatalization of /n/17
In the Macha and Tulama dialects, the paltalization of /n/ is accompanied by metathesis and dissimilation. In this
process, the voiced alveolar nasal /n/ regressively assimilates to the voiceless palatal ejective affricate /ʧ’/ and becomes
[ɲ]. Another interesting feature in the process is metathesis accompanying the assimilation and the dissimilation of the
voiceless palatal ejective affricate /ʧ’/. When the underlying trigger of palatalization /ʧ’/ undergoes such a metathesis
process, it surfaces as a voiceless glottal stop /ʔ/. The process has been substantiated in (22).
(22) /miiʧ’ne [miiɲʔe] ‘We washed (something)’.

/waʧ’ne/ [waɲʔe] ‘We shouted or disturbed.’
/k’iʧ’ne/ [kiɲʔe] ‘We poured (some liquid) in a little amount’
Waqo (1988) thinks that the above process, i.e, when /n/ is preceded by /ʧ’/, /n/ is glottalized as [nʔ]. But the fact
emerging from the present study refutes the finding. As the examples in (22) reveal it is not the colour of the glottal stop
[ʔ] which is superimposed onto /n/; rather /ʧ’n/ results in fully flagged combination of [ɲʔ].
The order of the three processes will be as follow:
/ʧ’n/ [ʧ’ɲ] [ɲʧ’] [ɲʔ]
Vowel raising
The low mid unrounded vowel /a/ rises to the mid back rounded vowel [o] when it is followed by a voiced labiovelar
approximant /w/, and rises to the mid front unrounded vowel [e] when it is followed by the high front unrounded
vowel /i/ and the voiced palatal approximant /j/, as has been given in (23).
(23) a) /maʧaaj- t- Ø- e/ [maoofte/maʧootte18]

intoxicate- 3SF/2- SG- PRV ‘You/She became intoxicated.’
17
While it is possible to treat this feature under nasal assimilation or assimilation of /n/ to obstruents, I deliberately
treated it separately because it has a remarkable feature to be discussed as assimilation plus metathesis and
dissimilation.
18
It is pronounced as maʧootte in the Guji dialect because of the assimilation of bilabials and labiodentals to
alveolars.
175
/ʔurgaaw- t- Ø- e/ [urgoofte]
smell good- 3SF/2- SG-PRV ‘You (SG)/she smelt good.’
b) /murtaaj- s- Ø- e/ [murteesse]
decide- CAUS- 3SM /1SG- PRV ‘He/I decided.’
/haɗɗaaj- s- i- n- e/ [haɗɗeessine]
sour- CAUS- EPEN- 1PL- PRV ‘We made (something)sour.’
c) /gaj- n- e/ [geeɲɲe]
arrive- 1PL- PRV ‘We have arrived (at somewhere).’
/kaaj- t- e/ [keesse19]
put- 3SF- PRV ‘She put (something somewhere).’
/taaʔ- t- e/ [teesse]
sit- 3SF- PRV ‘She sat.’
As we observe from example (b), the stem final segments are /j/ and /w/ though it has been argued that the stem final
/w/ conditions the vowel rising. The reason here is that /w/ and /j/ are free variants in different dialects (Dejene,
2010), and the underlying segment to trigger the vowel raising process, thus, is the voiced labiovelar approximant /w/.
By the same token, the conditioning and the underlying stem final segment in example (c) is /j/, which surfaces as /j/,
and /ʔ/in different dialects.
The following rule illustrates that /a/ rises to [o] after /w/ and rises to [e] after /i/ and /j/.
o w
/a/ e _______ i
j
Assimilation of lateral and tap

(24) shows that in the Guji dialect of Oromo the voiced lateral alveolar approximant /l/ and the voiced alveolar tap or
trill /r/20 completely and progressively assimilate to the voiced alveolar implosive /ɗ/.
(24) /hirɗuu/ [hiɗɗuu] ‘not full’

/birɗate/ [biɗɗate] ‘He/I glimpsed.’
/falɗaana/ [faɗɗaana] ‘spoon’
/walɗaansoo/ [waɗɗaansoo] ‘struggle’
The following rule shows that /l/ and /r/ become [ɗ] when they are followed by this sound.
l
r [ɗ] ________ [ɗ]
Assimilation of /k’/ and /t’/ to /n/

In many dialects of Oromo, the voiceless alveolar ejective stop /t’/ undergoes progressive voice assimilation with the
voiced alveolar nasal /n/ and surfaces as the voiced alveolar implosive [ɗ], while the voiceless velar ejective stop /k’/
undergoes progressive place and voice assimilation with /n/ in the Macha dialect. The other remarkable feature in this
assimilatory process is that it is accompanied by metathesis, in which the sequences of /t’+ n/ and /k’+ n/ result in [n+
ɗ]. The process has been discussed in (25).
(25) /lit'- n- e/ [linɗe]

enter- 1PL- PRV ‘We entered.’
/fit’- n- a/ [finɗa]
finish- 1PL- IPV ‘We will finish.’
/hak'- n- a/ [hanɗa]
19
/jt/ and /ʔt/ softened into [ss].
20
In Oromo the sound/r/ is an alveolar tap /ɾ/ when it is not geminated, and an alveolar trill when it is geminated.
But for simplicity’s sake, I used the same symbol /r/ in both cases.
176
delete- 1PL- IPV ‘We will delete.’

/laak’- n- e/ [laanɗe]
mix- 1PL- PRV ‘We have mixed.’
The following rule shows that the combinations of /t’n/ and /k’n/ surface as [nɗ].
/t’+n/
/k’+n/ [nɗ]
Conclusion
Assimilation in Oromo is more of morpho-phonemic process and takes place mainly at morpheme boundaries. With
regard to the direction of assimilation, both progressive and regressive assimilations are evident in the study and
predominantly take place contiguously. The fact emerging from the study reveals that though assimilation mainly results
from the influence between consonant sounds, there are also assimilatory processes, which involve the interaction of
consonants and vowel sounds. In the process, the voiced alveolar nasal /n/ actively assimilates to sonorants and
obstruents. Many processes in the assimilation occur across the dialects while some processes are dialect specific. For
instance, velars in the Macha dialect and bilabials and labiodentals in the Guji dialect assimilate to alveolars.
Reference
Andrzejewski, B.W., 1957. Some Preliminary Observations on the Borana Dialect of Oromo. Bulletin of the School of
Oriental and African Studies XIX, 1957, 354-374.
Bender, M.L., 1976. The Non-Semitic Languages of Ethiopia. East Lansing: African Studies Center, Michigan state University.
Benyam Abebe., 1988. The Phonology of Rayya Oromo: A Senior Essay presented to the Department of Linguistics,
Institute of Language Studies, A.A.U.
Dejene Geshe, 2010. Kamisee Oromo Phonology: Unpublished M.A Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
Gragg, G., 1976, Oromo of Wallega in Bender (ed). The Non-Semitic Language of Ethiopia. The African Study Center.
Michigan State Univeristy.
Kebede Hordofa, 1994. Baatee (Wello) Oromo Phonology. Unpublished M.A Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa
University.
Waqo Tola., 1981. The Phonology of Mecha Oromo. Unpublished M.A Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
177
5.2 Department of History and Heritage Management
5.2.1 Socio-economic Conditions of the Peasants in Hararghe Highland, 1941-1974

Reta Duguma Keneni
Abstract: This paper attempts to throw light on the condition of peasants’ life in Hararghe after 1941.
An attempt is also made to shade light on the period of conquest in 1887 until 1941. The people of
Harar suffered first under Egyptian rule and then under neftegna-gebbar system with the conquest of
Harar by Menelik in 1887. As a region that resisted Menelik’s forces, the state confiscated all lands in
the region and granted it to those who helped in the conquest (governors, officials, soldiers, Church,
etc.) and to the growing influx of settlers until the occupation of Italian in Ethiopia. After the
liberation of the country, the state declared its reforms with a semblance that it was dedicated to
relieve the peasants of the malkagnas who demand various payments and services from the peasants.
Notwithstanding, however, the state wanted to quench its appetite by augmenting the tax collected
from the peasants to its treasury and to reduce those intermediate officials who alienated the state
from the tax. After 1941, the state resorted to granting the land to the patriots, soldiers, exiles and
others. The net effect of this land policy was that peasants in Hararghe were alienated from their land
and reduced to the status of servitude. Tenancy was a ubiquitous phenomenon. In most cases land
was curved out under the blurred term of ‘government land’, ‘state domain’ and the state granted it to
whom it wished but the peasants had to be evicted from their land or become tenant. Intensified land
measurement and its classification made the peasants still targets of exploitation and oppression since
tax assessors were not honest in the classification of the quality of their land. Owing to onerous tax
and various demands from the tenants by the government and the landlords in Hararghe, the peasants
were compelled to move to Ramis valley to resort to pastoralism or moved to Bale and Arsi to work
simply as tenants on qalad. Eventually, on the eve of the coming to power of the Derg peasant revolt
which broke out in Garamulata spread to Mechara, Michata, Habro, and Guba Koricha though it was
short-lived. The Derg eradicated the gebbar system, exploitative tenancy, extensive holdings and
absentee landlordism altogether. But the revolt leaders were decimated by the Derg on grounds of
allegedly supporting the bourgeoning nationalist organization.
Keywords: Socio-economic; Peasants; Tenant; Hararghe
Introduction
In former times, Hararghe was one of the 14th provinces in Ethiopia during the imperial and Dergue periods.
Historically, the region which is customarily dubbed Harar plateau has at no time constituted homogenous political
entity. Currently, the region of Eastern Ethiopia hosts four neighboring National Regional States: Afar, Somali, Oromia
(East and West Hararghe) and Harari, and Dire Dawa Administrative Council.
In general the physical landscape of eastern Ethiopia can be divided into hot and arid climatic conditions settled by the
Afar and Somali pastoralists, and Oromo settled areas which include the largest geographic area that runs east-west
direction ranging from hot lowlands to wet highlands, where agriculture is highly practiced (Emiru, 2001). According to
the Central statistical Agency (CSA, 2008), the total population of Eastern Ethiopia is 10,995,191. According to this
census, more than eighty ethnic groups are found in Eastern Ethiopia together with foreign nationals. Accordingly,
ethnic diversity is high together with the somewhat ancient population of the region and thriving trade in the region
lured more recent population settlement. Since the region is a vital outlet to the outside world, both legal and illegal trade
configuration must have created a good opportunities for new comers into the region from elsewhere in Ethiopia
(FDRE, Population and Housing Census Report, 2008). Even in the medieval period of Ethiopian history the region
remained a bone of contention between the Muslim state of Adal and the Christian highland kingdom over control of
the lucrative trade route leading to Zeila and Berbera. This eventually led to the war of Ahmed ‘Gragn’ in the 16 th
century (Trimingham, 1953; Tadesse, 1972). Another major development during this time was the Oromo population
movement, which brought the Barentu Oromo to the region of Hararghe. The first Oromo-Harari contact was in 1559
after Amir Nur succeeded Ahmed Gragn. Initially, relations between the Harari and the Oromo were not easy, but it
later developed into negotiated market relations despite the fact that it was not always smooth. While, the Hararis and
Oromo maintained and formed alliances and market relations over a long period of time, the Egyptian occupation of the
region from 1875-1885, adversely affected the relation between the two peoples. Nevertheless, with the Egyptian
evacuation from Harar in 1885, the independent existence of the emirate of Harar was restored under Emir Abdullahi
though short-lived until its conquest by Menelik after the bloody battle of Chelenqo that took place on 6, January 1887
(Sydney, 1984; Mohammed; 1973). It is with this later development, which has a long standing repercussion on the life
of the people in the region that this paper is intending to deal with.
Objective of the study
178
The overwhelming majority of studies conducted on Hararghe region focus on the political, social, economic and
cultural aspects of the people of Harari though studies on the condition of the life of the peasant masses in Hararghe is
scarce and at best fragmentary. Both expatriates and nationals have produced much works on Harar city and its peoples
from the ancient to the relatively more recent periods. These studies made a mere mention of the surrounding Oromos
in relation to the Harari, deals not so much about the Oromos outside the city and its surroundings. The only exception
is Professor Mohammed Hassen, who devotes his work to the traditional social, political and military institutions of the
Oromo outside the city making sober treatment on the subject. This study is an effort to fill in the gaps that intrigued
fuller understanding of the situations of peasant life in Hararghe albeit I do not claim that this study is exhaustive and
complete.
Generally the study has the following objectives:
 To trace the overarching impacts of Menelik’s conquest on the peasant masses of Hararghe from 1887 up until
the Italian occupation of Ethiopia in 1935/36
 To discuss Imperial government’s obsession to granting land to its favorites, soldiers and exiles after 1941 and
the concomitant increase in scarcity of land and eventually the relegation of the peasants to the status of
servitude
 To explore the intensification of land measurement, and augmentation of tax which became a burden to the
toiling masses
 To discuss how appointed officials in Hararghe were dishonest and nonchalant to the plight of the peasants
 To discuss how eviction, land scarcity and burden of taxation compelled the peasants in the region to move to
Bale and Arsi
 To briefly explain peasant revolt, measures of the Degue against revolt leaders and the land reforms taken by
the Dergue.
Methodology and source

Since historical methodology requires exhaustive investigation of source materials, this work is heavily dwelt on both
primary and secondary sources, published and unpublished documents, books, articles, journals, and manuscripts.
Particularly, corpses of manuscripts collection of the former Minister of Interior found at the Wolde-Meskel Archival
Center of the Institute of Ethiopian studies is a rich mine of manuscript collections on issues related to land tenure and
other environmental issues that one can explore. Oral informants, who are eyewitness accounts during the period under
the study, are consulted and used by crosschecking the information they have rendered with other sources in properly
and seriously controlled way.
Menelik’s Conquest of Harar

The evacuation of the Egyptian forces from Harar in 1885 gave emperor Menelik an opportune moment to carry out his
campaign for the conquest of Harar, a rich province which he had been coveting for. After launching the most
protracted and the deadliest campaign against Arsi Oromo, Menelik turned his attention to Harar. Thus, the battle of
Chelenqo that took place on 6 January 1887 marked a milestone in the long saga of the region. Menelik triumphantly
entered the city of Harar, the loci of Islamic learning and busy trade, bringing the region into the Ethiopian Empire. The
people of Harari, the Oromo, and the Somalis had no other option but to surrender to strange rulers who treated the
local people with their heavy hand.1 The conquest of Harar was very crucial in that it brought Menelik into the most
prosperous province which its proximity to the sea enabled him to import enormous weapons he used to fend off the
Italians at Adowa. Though wild looting and wanton killings were the hallmarks of his southern conquest the Hararis to a
certain extent spared such ominous act presumably because of the assurance that they gave to Menelik to pay indemnity
both in cash and kind. Notwithstanding, however, the Emperor had confiscated the Amir’s property, and some of those
who had fought against the Shewan forces at Chelenqo. He used these properties to prop up Christian clergy and the
garrison. Despite his somewhat magnanimous gesture towards the Hararis, however, the Oromos and the Somali were
ruthlessly treated. Menelik’s soldiers, particularly, the Gondaris who were reputed for raiding and plundering the local
people, dispatched to the countryside. In the words of Richard Caulk, they took the whole thing “down to dogs and
doves.” Every attempt at uprisings by the local people was coldheartedly put down by the occupying army. 2
Menelik appointed Dejazmach Mekonnen, later Ras, as governor of Harar and set off for Entoto on 7 February.
Following Menelik’s return to Shewa the Gondari soldiers hastened their raids, lootings and plundering the local
population. Captives were turned to slaves. The Gondaris resumed to raiding and looting the countryside. Thus, the
damage they brought to the Oromo was incalculable as the Oromos had no guarantee to their property and their lives. 3
The Establishment of the Neftagna-Gebbar system

Since the forces of Menelik was thinly stretched over the Danakil and the Ogaden regions owning to their hostile
climates, it was in the highland Oromo settled areas of Hararghe that the neftagna-gebbar established its hold firmly.4 Two
French travelers, Borelli and Rimbaud witnessed that several outposts were established at Gelemso and Boroma in
Chercher in May 1887. Rimbaud estimated the number of settlers who at the beginning flocked down to the province at
179
12,000 of whom 4000 men were armed with firearms. In the eastern highland regions Menelik’s soldiers too founded
garrison in areas like Babile, Jarso and the Giri areas near Jijiga .5
In the early 1890, Deja Mekonnen was promoted to Ras and additional forces were recruited from Tigre, Gondar,
Lasta, and Gojjam and also from Shewa, all came along with their families. Hayla Giorgis, Mekonnen’s biographer,
candidly illuminates about these forces that “Their number was so great that the people of Shewa said: The whole world
has followed him.6
At the outset the local people endeavored to put stiff resistance but put down and they were no longer capable of
offering further resistance.7 In the years that followed the battle of Chelenqo many garrison towns were established in
Ittu, Afran Qallo and Anniya areas serving as centers of neftagna administration. Particularly, it was in such highland areas
as Garamulata, Kombolcha, Wobberra, Qulubi, Kersa, Gursum, Chalenqo, Quni, Jarso, Harar, Jijiga, Ania, Gelemso,
and Boroma in Chercher that Ras Mekonnen’s officials, governors and soldiers moved and settled in different parts of
Hararghe. With the outbreak of the great famine of 1888 to 18928 even additional settlers from the north and Shewa
arrived in Harerghe. With the coming of a large number of settlers who were indiscriminately dubbed “Amharas” land
scarcity became heightened creating strain on the local people 9. As a consequence each major garrison area or awaraja
had to host a number of settlers ranging from 3000 to 6000 and less than this figure in other smaller districts. 10
These garrison towns were Christian Islands amidst of the “pagan” and Muslims for whom they thought should be
under their ruthless firepower. These areas were socially secluded from the local people different in many respects
among the people whom these new settlers demeaned and labeled them as “savage” and “infidels” deemed to be looted.
Though the peasants in Hararghe opposed to the new neftagna–gebbar system, the neftagnas who had firearms responded
ruthlessly and the local peoples were no longer capable of putting further resistance. At the same time the scourge of
famine that attended the conquest greatly reduced the number of population. Added to this was the administration of
the neftagnas which included the whole landowning class created by the Egyptian and as well as those emerging land
owning class outside the realm of Egyptian control in the province of Chercher.11
The traditional leadership hierarchy of damin (chief of a whole tribe), garad (chief of a village), malaq (chief of sub-
village) which was consolidated under the Egyptian, was acknowledged by Ras Mekonnen. Ostensibly, this administrative
system seems to have been Adal’s heritage. During the times of amirs, the city was divided into five gates each under
officials bearing the preceding titles. This system was later extended to farming regions for the purpose of taxation and
supervision of land under amir’s control. At the higher echelons of power were the dogins who were always Harari. The
Oromos who were usually titled garad and damin retained part of the taxes they collected and this increased their wealth
and linked them to the Harari both politically and economically.12 Hence, this traditional titleholders continued to
entertain the rights attached to these positions after the conquest of the region.
Under Menelik, this traditional position which was consolidated by the Egyptians remained undisturbed.13 The damin
chiefs and their subordinates, garads and malaqas were granted land as the southern chiefs were permitted to retain some
degree of authority over their regions. The size of the land granted corresponds to their title or status while in Chercher
province where Egyptian control did not extend; the Abba Burkas were allowed a gasha of land each. As a conquered
regions were alienated from their lands the state retained vast portions of lands in Hararghe which the emperor
distributed among his generals, officials, soldiers and settlers. Of course, land appropriation was carried out by Menelik’s
generals and their officials with the backing of the local balabats.14
After the conquest, the whole Hararghe highlands was claimed by the state as crown domain and the state used this
claim as a legal right to curve and distribute land to whom it wished. Ras Mekonnen extended the office of Damin, Garad
and Malaq to other areas outside Egyptian control and this traditional titleholders facilitated the exploitation of the local
people by Menelik’s governors, officials, soldiers and settlers. 15
The indigenous peasants living in the vicinity of the major garrisons were assigned to the neftagnas as gebbars or serfs of
the governors, officials, soldiers and settlers.16 Since money was scarce and the tax was paid in kind, the newcomers
continued quartering on the farming population of the conquered regions. At the same time, land distribution was
conducted parallel with assigning gebbars to soldiers of the garrison towns. The number of gebbars allocated to each
person commensurate with their rank, and status. Governors (Rases, Dejazmaches) may receive 1000 gebbars each, a
Fitawrari up to 300 gebbars, a Qagnazmatch up to 150 gebbars and ordinary soldiers between 10 and 20 gebbars.17
The land was distributed and allocated to the governors; the rank and file of garrison soldiers, settlers like the clergy, the
indigenous chiefs and the rest was designated government land. 18 The priests were also granted from three to five gashas
of measured land in Hararghe. Semon land was granted to the Churches: Egziabher Ab (Asebe Teferi), Sellassie (Herna),
Mikael (Doba), Qullubi Gabriel, Quni Giorgis. Priests from Gojjam, Gonder and Menz (from northern Shewa) came
along with their tabots, sistra, praying stick and made conquest and blatant occupation of any land they found appropriate
and established Churches. Prominent officials were also ordered the establishment of Churches in their realm. At the
beginning some priests were given qelab or provisions as a salary for their services.19
By the year 1894 Ras Mekonnen employed various steps to make available more lands to the growing number of
settlers to appropriate it to his large soldiers and civilian administrators. One of the measures taken was the introduction
of qalad system (the instrument used to measure the land was a piece of rope called qalad, its size varied from 40 to 80
hectares) which was previously began with the conquest of Shewan Oromo in 1879 20 and this helped to parcel out
unmeasured land into plots. In the surrounding areas of Harar where demographic pressure was high one gasha out of
180
the excess holdings of eighty garads was appropriated and designated government land to be distributed to persons
whom the state wished to favor. In Garamulata and eastern Chercher where population density was somewhat low one
gasha was curved out of the holdings of ten garads and then registered as government land.21 Not to impinge on the size
of the land holdings of the peasants, the extent of qalad in Harar was fixed at a reduced size than that of Shewa. When
qalad was available, soldiers and civil servants were given maderya land in lieu of salary. Some immigrants were allocated
land as rist on account of settlement and long term use. The qalad system which was introduced by Ras Mekonnen
enabled the appropriation of vast areas of land for its own purposes or to reward institutions and individuals who
facilitated the conquest. Essentially, land measurement was relatively intensified in Chercher province of today’s west
Harerghe than in the eastern parts, where quter gebbar or unmeasured land was not uncommon. In the surrounding region
of Harar where the highland population was concentrated land shortage became very high. 22 With the appointment of
more and more Malkagnas (the term malkagna originally meant commander of 1,000 men. In Harar it applies to all ranks
of neftagna who owned gebbars) over most of the districts in the vicinity of Harar particularly after the death of Ras
Mekonnen in 1906 those with small plots constituting the poorer garads were even reduced to near serfdom. 23 The state
continued to curve out land by taking different measures in the guise of excess holdings.
When Ras Teferi Mekonnen (later Emperor Haile Sellassie) became the governor of Harar in 1910, he set on to
increase government land by restricting the maximum ceiling of holdings a garad or malaq supposed to own. In view of
that extensive land survey which necessitated the introduction of a measurement unit which referred to as Jarib was
initiated in 1912. Land was measured and the maximum holdings of a garad and malaq was circumscribed at 600 Jaribs
(77.52 ha) and 300 Jaribs (38.76 ha), respectively. Ras Teferi sent first Qagnazmatch Habte Wold and later Blambaras Jire to
Garamulata, Wobberra and Midhaga Lola to measure the land and distribute among garads and malaqas according to the
maximum ceiling of holdings lay down for them. A vast land was measured and excess lands of the garads were coined
out as government lands. The land which was acquired in this way was sold to the original occupiers given that they had
the wherewithal to afford it. The remaining was divided and allotted to new settlers, government officials and soldiers as
maderya land or offered to notable chiefs and favorites as rist or permanent holdings.24
In 1919 the government reduced the amount of land tax, which had been heavy and onerous under the Egyptian rule,
with the view to increase the number of taxpaying tenants and also to lure new settlers. In the scarcely populated parts of
Wobberra and Metta lands and as well in Chercher new garads were designated and tenants were made to settle on their
land. The tenants enjoyed usufructuary rights and the right to inherit their property to their children as far as they paid
land tax. The hereditability of land consequently led to the fragmentation of land in size as the young men marry up to
four wives who given birth many children to a single father. In some families the number of children who laid claim to
the land on the death of their father was as many as eighteen. Due to the large number of inheritors the land was further
divided and reduced to small plots. In the year 1930s there was a sheer dearth of cultivable land in the highland regions
of Hararghe given that there were about 300,000 settlers in 1939 .25
Many tenants had small plots of Shebata (a unit of land measurement which its size varies from individual to individual
or from ordinary farmer to the chiefs usually ranging from 0.24 to 16.22 hectares, the average holding being 4.29
hectares) land with the least having two hectares and the maximum 8 hectares. When they divided it among their families
the size of their land diminished and eventually becoming fragmented plots which could not meet their sustenance. Most
families left their premises and moved to other places vying for qalad (measured) land to work simply as tenants of the
grantee offering erbo (1/4th) or sisso (1/3rd) of their produce. Some of the gebbars who had 15 or 39 hectares paid to garads
a customary gift called bercha (usually in cattle) as a guarantee for continued tenure and for not incurring the disfavor of
the garads or any other grantee.26
During the Egyptian occupation of Harar, the ceiling of the holdings of individual peasant was not defined and the tax
exacted from them was back-breaking as it failed to consider the size and the quality of their plots. This problem
persisted even after the conquest of Harar by Menelik since the category of the peasants’ land and the ceiling of their
holdings was not clearly defined. A garad who had settled a large number of gebbars on his land (600 Jaribs) had to collect
more taxes commensurate with their number than one who had settled few gebbars on the same size of land. The tax
payment would become heavier the more the number of gebbars settled on a garad land and its size become progressively
diminished even when it was divided among each family. This trend was ubiquitous in Metta, Qulubi and right up to the
Burka country and no overt efforts were made by the state to ease this problem though land measurement was recurrent
and granted to its officials and the local chiefs.27
In Harar Ras Emru had tried to disposs the malkagnas the right to seek labor from gebbars except that those who had
settled on their personal land hudad in their malkagninet. His efforts were to restrain the malkagnas from looking for corvee
labor, the construction of their houses and repairing their fences. In 1922-23 Tekla Hawariat who was the more radical
person in the Chercher sub-province of western Harar endeavored to remove malkagninet in general by assigning state
pensionaries with uncultivated land as free hold. Nevertheless, his attempt to tax the owners of this and other gult
holders earned him accusation of being a Bolshevik relating him to the Russian revolution. 28
In 1923 Tekle Hawariat established the whole Chercher areas as Tafari’s gult (absolute property) and conducting
extensive land measurement. The land holding of a garad in eastern Chercher remained the same size as that of a garad in
Harer with a length of 9 ropes and 6 in width (30.37 ha). On the other hand, the Burka system of the western Chercher
was somewhat larger and it was fixed at 11 ropes in length and 7 in width (43.30ha). Instead of the Abba Burkas who
181
played intermediary role the tenants were made unswervingly accountable to the government. Since the area was reputed
for its coffee production Tekle Hawariat levied land-use taxes six times greater than the one paid in Harar highlands and
in due course making the region an area of unpleasant destination for those farmers who were coming from Harar
highlands and yearning for land.29
In the Chercher sub-province of Masla and Hawaracha districts which were reputed for coffee production new garads
were appointed and Tekle Hawariat put heavy taxes. The gebbars in the area were forced to pay 150 birr per plots of their
land. The tenants continued periodic appeals though favorable response did not come. 30 However, Tekle Hawariat made
some reforms in the collection of Zakat, a local variant of the tithe which he planned to eventually abolish. He also
levied tax on khat with the view to disgruntle the planting of khat (inebriating plant). The revenue collected showed a
dramatic increase from less than 100 to 200,000 Eth. Birr of which the greatest amount went to the state treasury to prop
military organization.31
In 1930 Ras Teferi Mekonnen assumed the throne and carried out several measures to solve land shortage in Harar
highlands. By September 1930 he passed a decree which declared the measurement of all lands in Harerghe by qalad. In
April 1931 Dejazmach Emeru Haile Sellassie, the governor of the province, carried out land measurement in Harerghe
and the garads and the malaqas were left with their 600 and 300 Jaribs, respectively. Excess land was measured in qalad and
earmarked as government land to be distributed to new settlers with the support of a malkagna, a member of the gentry
who was granted land for his service to the government. The granting of land was not given merely as wages (maderya)
but also to settlers from the north who were granted metoriya land (in lieu of pension) for their service to the
government.32
In the early 1930s the Ethiopian state was earnestly coveting to increase its revenue from the land taxation as the
highest proportion of revenue was expropriated by different intermediary tiers who estranged the state from taxpaying
cultivators of the land. The government also came to realize the burden that the peasants shouldered as the land holders
imposed multiple exactions on them without contributing anything to the state treasury. During this period the
government’s intention was to abolish the intermediary levels that constituted different groups whom it granted
landholding rights and the right to collect tribute. In the early 1930s, the government made initial endeavor albeit their
implementation was interrupted by the Italian invasion in 1935.33
Intensified land measurement, classification, grant and the concomitant augmentation of tax: their
repercussion on the peasants in Hararghe, 1941-1974
During the Italian occupation in Ethiopia the gebbar system was abolished although the Italians required regular quotas of
recruited force for road and public works.34 With the restoration of the government in 1941 the government sought to
eliminate intermediary tiers to increase its revenue by way of converting tribute to tax. The first tax proclamation in this
regard was made in 1942 and the tax rate on both measured and unmeasured land was fixed at half the rate of 1935.
Accordingly, the tax rate for forty hectares (gasha) was set at 15 Eth. Birr for cultivated land (lam), 10 for semi-cultivated
(lam-taf), and 5 for uncultivated land (taf). In 1944 another decree was issued and the tax was increased on measured land
to Eth. Birr 50, 40 and 15 per gasha of lam, lam-taf, and taf, respectively. Hararghe was also one of the many regions in
Ethiopia which was subjected to this rate on its measured lands.35
In Hararghe much of the revenue from land taxation had come from the highland regions. The land was divided into
measured and unmeasured (quter gebbar). The measured land was categorized into cultivated, semi-cultivated and
uncultivated lands. The tax was also imposed based on this classification. In Chercher awaraja the size of a gasha (qalad)
land was fixed at about 433, 125 square meters while in Harar and other awarajas it was decided at about 303, 750 square
meters. In Chercher the number of gebbars who settled on a gasha land invariably range from about six to as many as
twelve, while in other awarajas of Hararghe the size and the fertility of land as well as the number of gebbars who were
supposed to settle on a gasha land was not defined. By virtue of being gebbars all the peasants were obliged to pay uniform
tax regardless of the size and fertility of their lands. In Chercher, with the exception of those peasants in Masla and
Hawaracha districts, most of the lands in the rest regions were somewhat measured and the land tax was made to be paid
according to the size and quality of their land. In the upper Chercher the peasants were somewhat paying taxes based on
the new tax regulation though Masla and Hawaracha districts were under onerous tax.36
The process of land measurement in Masla and Hawaracha had been started before the Italian invasion, but its
classification and implementation for taxation purpose was interrupted by the Italian occupation of Ethiopia. The
peasants in these two districts, which were noted for their fertility of soil and coffee production, had to pay land-use tax
incongruent with the new tax decree since they paid as set before 1935 which was imposed on them by the ex-governor
of the awaraja, Takala Hawariat. This created a great burden to the toiling masses. In these two districts the land tax for
the first quality measured land was fixed at 65 Birr per gasha and even in some areas they were forced to pay 150 Birr per
plots. Contrary to these two districts of Chercher, the peasants in other areas of Chercher and Harar regions were more
or less paying 26 Birr per their holdings. The tax system in these two districts neither considered the size of the peasants’
holdings nor the quality of their lands. In these districts the number of gebbars which had to settle on a gasha land was
neither defined like that of the rest of Chercher areas. Nor could maximum ceilings of holdings were initiated like that of
Harar regions where garads and malaqas were granted 600 and 300 Jaribs, respectively. Thus, the peasants in the same
Governorate General of Hararge were under different tax systems and this distressed the peasants since their request did
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not secure hearings from the officials who were nonchalant to the peasants’ misery. Neither the state was much
concerned though its decrees were recurrent with a semblance that it was committed to ameliorate peasants’ misery. 37
In 1944, the government sent workers to east of Chercher in the highland regions of Harar and the neighboring
awarajas to carry out land classification to be conducted with the auspices of garad, malaqas and chiqa shum so as to carry
out the new tax regulation which was fixed by the decree. In the previous time (pre-1935) the malkagnas in Hararge
imposed numerous exactions from the peasants by accruing the fruits of their toil in the form of tribute, the peasants
were offering various services like grinding grains, providing mutton during holidays, giving corvee labor on their hudad,
offering transportation services to the malkagnas which took much of their labor time. The new tax regulation was meant
to ease these entire manifold burdens on the peasants. Notwithstanding, however, this new tax decree per se did not solve
peasants’ problems in Hararghe since the peasants were compelled to pay uniform tax despite the different size and
varied quality of their land.38
The government’s intention to send its officials to Harar in 1943/44 was for classification and assessment of taxes and
as well as registration of land held by the local balabats and peasant cultivators. This measure was undertaken not to
respond favorably and sympathetically in favor of the peasants request but to find out excess land. These officials
discovered that some of the garads concealed their large holdings on accounts of being encroached by their rivals. As a
consequence, the Office of the Governorate General of Hararghe sent to each awaraja a copy of registration book
bearing lists of gebbars who were registered earlier in 1919. This was done to verify lest the garads concealed and not
registering the land under their disposal and to know the number of peasants who settled on their lands.
Notwithstanding, however, the peasants who settled on excess land chiefly in Wobberra and Garamulata, where the
garads and malaqas were allotted land in Jaribs, were reduced to become tenant. Earlier the local balabats curved and took
the best land for themselves and they permitted from one up to twenty or more gebbars settling on their land. The
remainder was earmarked as government land which was kept under the disposal of the state to reward its officials and
favorites with grants of such land. The garads and malaqas hence helped in assigning and registering tenants on malkagna,
and government lands and as well as his lands, and overseeing tax payment by the tenants. When the qalad tay (those
who measure the land) were sent to Wobberra and Garamulata they measured the holdings of a garad and malaq and
what was left of the maximum ceiling allotted to them was confiscated as surplus land of the garad and malaq and
designated government land. The qalad tay discovered several garads possessing excess land on which many gebbars as
many as twenty were settled. These gebbars who had already settled on these excess lands were reduced to become the
tenants of the grantee. 39 The gebbars were not even granted a fixed size of land.
The maximum land ceiling a gebbar should possess was not determined. Whenever a garad’s land was measured it was
not uncommon to discover excess land and those gebbars who settled on them were reduced to become tenants of the
grantee. The remaining gebbars of a garad had to shoulder the tax burden. This was frequent after 1942. Though the
ceiling of landholdings of garads and malaqas were decided, those of the gebbars were not defined. In Wobberra and
Garamulata, and Fadis, and Midhaga Lola sub-districts were the regions where land was measured and excess land was
transferred to the hands of the government. While in Gursum and Harar awarajas where there were relatively vast lands,
a gasha was carved from 10 garads and in Nole where land was scarce a gasha land was carved as government land from 80
garads. In the previous times, at least at the outset, gebbars who were dispossessed of their land and become landless in
this way had to be provisioned in grains or fed by garads. If they received provisions for their up keep from garads they
were required to pay tax. Later they refused to take ration and paying taxes. 40 But in the post-liberation period those
gebbars who were alienated from their land due to land measurement refused to pay land-use tax since their land was
granted to others. In Nole most of the garads own less than 600 Jaribs and others had large and still some others small.
Though they own varying proportion they were subjected to the same tax rate which they opposed it. On the other hand
those peasants who had lost their land by qalad were once exempted from tax but they were later obliged to pay the tax. 41
There was no regulation as to the size of land a gebbar should receive in Jaribs and the number of gebbar a garad should
administer. In Nole and Gursum where garads and malaqas had not been granted lands in Jaribs those gebbars who lost
their land through land measurement were exempted from tax. But in Wobberra and Garamulata since excess land was
taken away from them the remaining gebbars had to shoulder tax burden and those gebbars who settled on these excess
lands were transformed to become the tenants. Though the land held by the peasants was not precisely defined in most
parts of Hararghe, in Chercher from 6 up to 12 gebbars settled on a gasha land and a gebbar’s holdings range from 27 to 55
Jaribs. Similarly peasants in Hararge held from 10 up to 15 Jaribs and in some areas from 100 to 200 Jaribs. As already
discussed above the size of land held by the gebbars varied in size, some small and others had large and this made taxation
unfair and put the peasant in misery. The province of Hararghe decided to ease the matter by limiting the holdings of
gebbar at 50 Jaribs which was 1296x50=64,800 m2 or six hectares and 4.800 m2. The tenants who held more than the size
allowed (50 Jaribs) were subjected to pay tax commensurate with the size of land or those who held less than 50 Jaribs
pay a reduced tax but were not compensated by other plots. If garads and malaqas held a vast land beyond what was
allowed for them, excess land was carved as government land.42
In some hot areas and lowlands of Gursum and Harar awarajas, peasants had large size of more than 50 Jaribs of land
although their land was poor. However, they were obliged to pay 8, 12 and 6 Birr for the tithe, tax and education,
respectively, which altogether totaled 26 Birr. This became a heavy burden and many of them left for other areas to
escape the burden of tax as they were compelled to pay high tax rate on poor land. This tax rate was equal with those
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having fertile land. The land in these areas was not measured and classified and hence this made tax system unwarranted
in view of the fact that it was incompatible with the category of their land. Some of the peasants whom the burden of
tax forced to leave their homestead were either forced to search for what was vaguely called government land to make it
cultivable by occupation or conquest of the land.43
Land classification and the inherent problems

In Chercher awaraja many peasants who had worked as tenants on the rist-gult land preferred to move to the different
districts of the region by making conquest and occupation of what was then coined out as government land. They
cleared the land and made it cultivable and lived on it with their families for many years. But when the government
granted these lands to its favorites peasants who had the wherewithal to afford were either allowed to purchase at least a
third of their holdings or forced to become tenants of the grantee. However, the governors and officials were indifferent
to handle and embark upon problems meted out to the tenants who had labored in toiling the land for a long period of
time. Apart from this there was another problem which was faced by the tenants pertaining to tax assessment and
category of the land. The government sent officials for the purpose of land category in 1945 44 and their task was
characterized by chaotic registration and inaccurate classification. The poor land was categorized and registered as semi-
fertile while semi-fertile land was registered as fertile. Though the regulation laid down underscored that the gebbars
should appeal within twenty days from the time of classification, this did not seem to have been so either due to lack of
awareness on the part of the peasants or the officials intentionally denied them hearings so as to stifle and discourage
further complaints. Again in 1950 officials were assigned to classify and make land assessment. By this time the peasants
vehemently requested the officials to correct chaotic classification which ignored the quality of their land. The response
of the officials to the peasants was even infuriating to the extent that they came to upgrade its category, and register poor
land under semi-fertile and semi-fertile as fertile and augment the tax accordingly. This made taxation unjust and put the
peasants in despondency as the landlords were retaining much and delivering some portions of what they had collected
from the tenants and the government was earnest to siphon off much revenue from tenants and channel it to its
treasury. The peasants attempt to secure hearings from awaraja governors or finance offices did not fell on receptive ears.
Though awaraja and woreda governors and their respective finance offices were supposed to supervise and oversee and as
well as scrutinize fair classification of the peasants land they were not keen to have it quickly enforced. The peasants’
matters were even left to the rist-gult owners.45
In Chercher awaraja there were rist-gult owners who held the position of woreda governorship. They had employed their
faithful men in the woreda judge and their own security forces who were subordinate and paid allegiance to them. They
exercise outright power over any matter and presided over issues arising in their respective areas. There were no
appointed government officials to oversee and monitor matters arising from their regions. As consequence there is no
doubt that the tenants had not been protected from multiple obligations imposed on them and the state per se did not
seem to have secured the revenue which it claimed it should deserve. Though the government did not remove owners of
rist-gult from their position it appointed its own judge and clerks to their courts, a naib (representative of qadi) and a
secretary to qadi and police force for security. The owners of rist-gult were urged to channel salaries of these workers to
government treasury.46
In Gursum awaraja where the tenants were evicted from rist-gult land the government claimed its outright power to
assign gebbar or either left the matter to the rist-gult owners themselves. There also happened conflict among rist-gult
owners when one of them persuaded each other’s tenants to leave another’s land and to work on one’s land. There was
no regulation as to rist-gult administration that monitor the relationship between and among rist –gult owners on the one
hand and the tenants on the other. As a consequence the tenants were under double jeopardy, harassment, severe
treatment and had no legal protection from the state since they were exposed to marauders who stripped the tenants of
all their human quality while at the same time extracting the fruits of their toil for their sustenance.47
The traditional chiefs also played a conspicuous role as a liaison between the local people and the government as well
as the officials executing government orders, collecting taxes and keeping peace and order and being obedient to the
government. In return for the services rendered they were granted sisso land and collect annual tribute in the area under
their jurisdiction. In the post-liberation period the administration of the governor general of Hararge sought to buttress
the balabats to tip them with special offerings and per diem besides what was traditionally allowed them so that they would
become loyal conduits. Unlike those balabats in the low land areas who were supported and provided with rations by the
government, the balabats in Harerge highlands were liken with gebbars paying taxes like them. In the general meeting of
the province of Harerge the issue was discussed simply not to mitigate peasants’ grievances by letting the balabats enforce
better and fair treatment of the peasants rather they showed some tendency to be sympathetic to the balabats who would
better facilitate for squeezing and reaping the fruits of the peasants’ toil. Thus, they were permitted to retain two percent
out of the total amount of taxes collected from the peasants.48
In Harerge province land measurement and classification was inconsistent since all the peasants possessing large or
small size of plots were subjected to a uniform tax. Different measurement units were employed and hence there is no
doubt that the peasants were under severe and precarious life as they were obliged to pay whatever amounts levied on
them. In relation to this, land measurement units and classification of the quality of land was incoherent in Masla and
Hawaracha districts of Chercher awaraja. In the upper Chercher it was apparent that the Abba Burkas took the best
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chunk of land for themselves and settle gebbars on the remaining land and transfer other gebbars to another place when
the space was not enough to accommodate them. However, implicit in the discussion of the evidence at my disposal is
the pervasiveness of uniform tax regardless of the size and quality of the peasants land in Hararghe. Problems related to
the assignment of gebbars, land measurement and classification of the quality of land had adverse effect that debilitated
peasants’ efforts at productivity and put them in despondency. However, when the issue of remeasurement and
redistribution of land was raised, the general council meeting of the province admittedly regretted, for its impracticality
on the ground that this would adversely affect the administration of the province but had no courage to implement
them.49
Even worse still to the peasant lots in Hararge in the post liberation period was the conversion of Maderya land (which
was earlier given in lieu of salary to those in government services and land which was revocable on termination of their
term of office), to free hold by the government to its favorites. Added to this, the government intensified its grants from
its large reserve, which was held under the blurred term of government land to its patriots, exiles, soldiers and civil
servants.50
In Hararge the government granted vast lands to its officials and soldiers in different awarajas of the province. Some of
them had many maderya lands in two or three awarajas albeit the regulation outlawed possession of maderya land in more
than one area.51 According to the proclamation on November 5, 1952/53 the government intensified land grant to its
favorite as maderya lands in Chercher, Wobberra, Harar, Garamulata, and Dire Dawa which were made convertible to
freehold. The main beneficiaries of this proclamation were civil servants, the police, the imperial bodyguard, the clergies,
Nech lebash and the nobility. The government sustained its extensive grants of land to soldiers, civil servants in Hararge in
the post-liberation period. In Chercher 1947 alone there were about 670 soldiers who stationed in Asabe Tafari under a
military officer, Shaleqa Ejigu Hailu, each with grants of maderya land in the province. Later about 400 soldiers were
transferred to Harar headed by the same officer.52
As a report from the office of Governorate General of Hararge to the Ministry of Interior made clear, there is no
doubt that a vast portions of land was granted as permanent hold to its favorites in various awarajas, woredas and mikitil
woredas of the province. The report reveals that most of maderya lands in Hararghe province were granted as hudad. For
instance, in Wobberra and Dire Dawa awarajas alone there were about 184 grantees who received maderya land as hudad.
Extensive grant of maderya land as a permanent hold was widespread in Kombolcha, Fadis, and Jarso districts of Harar
awaraja, in Meta, and Chelenqo districts of Wobberra sub-province, and Kersa, Water, Yebeta, Lange, Warabile, Bululo,
Dulo and many other areas of Dire Dawa awaraja. Thus, the conversion of maderya land (which was earlier revocable, but
now held permanently) was made convertible to rist or permanent hold. Thus, privatization process of land in Hararge
was intensified and this had its own ramification in the region in that most of the peasants on these lands were relegated
to the status of tenants and hence tenancy became the most wide spread phenomena in the province. 53
In Chercher most of the lands in the region were somewhat measured and distributed to the Amharas. Chercher hosts
a large number of settlers. The nobility, notable men and women and the clergy had large rist holdings. For instance,
large rist holdings of Asfawossen found in Boroma, Tekle Hawariat’s in Herna and Wolde Tsadiq‘s in Asabe Teferi. The
region of Chercher had the highest concentration of tenants serving the Amharas.54 The landlords took half of the
tenants produce. Until the malkagnas were called before threshing, the tenants were not allowed to touch their harvests.
Neither could they collect coffee from their field without prior knowledge of the Malkagnas. As regards to coffee, the
malkagnas took half of the tenants’ coffee production in farasula (1 farasula=17k.g). Besides, the tenants were obliged to
transport his produce to the house of the Malkagnas who often lived in towns. In the absence of the landlords their wokil
(representatives) acted on their behalf to supervise everything the tenants make towards the improvement of his
production. In return the wokils were compensated by grants of a portion of malkagnas’s land for his up keep. Since
Chercher was reputed for its fertility of soil and coffee production, particularly, Boke in Gelemso, most coffee lands
were owned by the Amharas. Ahmed. Apart from offering the fruits of their produce the tenants worked on malkagnas’s
personal holdings twice a week, work during special occasions like weeding and public holidays, clearing animal dung,
grinding grains, mending fences and others. There were atbia dagnas ( village judges) who were responsible for handling
cases related to issues in case the tenants concealed parts of their produce and lest the tenants lay a hand on eshet (unripe
crop). With the intensification of land grant to officials and fragmentation of family plots most tenants moved to the
sparsely populated areas of Hararghe. They moved to Daro Labu, Ardi, and Anchar regions neighboring Arba Gugu in
Arsi.55 The burden of taxation and all sorts of exaction demanded from tenants compelled and pushed them to search
for cultivable land in pastoralist areas or in scarcely populated areas of the province and beyond`. 56 This might have also
been the case in most of the regions as land measurement was persistent throughout the province.
The state sustained its grant to civil and military officials in Herna and it was customarily granted to officials as many
as 10 or 15 gashas. Men like Fitawrari Ergate and Qagnazmatch Shifa owned such large size. Large portion were owned by
some prominent men. In Herna for instance, Dejazmatch Wolde Sellassie, owned vast areas of coffee land whom the
tenants satirically yelled saying that do all these vast portions of land belong solely to Deja. Wolde Sellassie?’ With the
allotment of land burning and clearing forests became common phenomena in areas of Nole Oromo (Goro Gadi). In
Herna land measurement was recurrent in Guagur, Chafe, Bante and Wagur. Those who undertook land measurement
were not honest and often free from being bribed by different gifts and they were slaughtered mutton in return for the
favor they had done to the grantees or claimants. Along with land measurement litigation was also a day today
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phenomena. The overwhelming court cases were related to disputes over land issues of claim and counter claim, and
over boundaries of their plots. Murdering was not uncommon among litigants. 57 Despite this the state continued to
allocating land without regard for the implication it had on the peasants. Not only granting land as permanent hold or as
hudad by the state but the government also continued to grant land to its favorites by assigning kuter gebbar land.
In 1952 many officers were sent to Gursum to assign kuter gebbar (unmeasured land). Some of the officers were
fraudulent in assigning the land to the officials and civil servants of the government. One of the officers sent to Gursum
awaraja to carry out the task was metoaleqa Tsegaye Desta (from ministry of defense) and his secretary Wolde Mikael
Worku (sent from the Ministry of Finance). According to the report from the Governorate General of Harar, the officer
was a pathological fraudulent in assigning land to the grantees. 58 On several occasions the Office of the Governorate
General of Hararghe and its Bajirondi (treasurer) urged the Minister of Interior to send back the officer to Harar to let
him make clear his task to the province. The ministry did not favorably responded to their request in sending the officer
even though a series of letters were dispatched by the Governorate General of Harar in Hidar 29, 1952 E.C. This vividly
depicts that the ministry and the officials were disorganized in their task given that they were not much concerned to the
large section of the peasants who were under numerous obligation and unfair category of their land. 59 There was no
guarantee to the peasants’ right to ownership of their land since the government evicted them from their land at any
time as it saw fit. This case was true in Bate Mikitil woreda of Haramaya district where the state ordered the daminas to
evict the peasants from their land.
In Bate sub-district, Abdo Yuya and Shanko Gala, who were the daminas over the areas of today’s premises of
Haramaya University, compelled the local people to put their thumbnail mark on a paper as an approval of their
willingness to acknowledge relocation and leave their ancestral land. According to one informant the size of the land was
about 25 gashas. Another informant claims that the size of the land was about 33 gashas.60 Instead of compensating the
peasants with some plots of land somewhere else in the area, the government dispossessed, and expelled the peasants
from their ancestral land through its conduits. The peasants were simply ordered to search for mankut land (confiscated
land for tax failure) and most of them moved to Jarso and Kombolcha but had to fight with other peasants and ended
up their life in the fight over land. Some lucky peasants were able to secure mankut land in Adelle, Garahubata and
Baldhata.61 Still some others had no any other option other than working as daily laborers for their sustenance in what
was then called the Imperial College of Agriculture. In Bate there was a sizeable rist land to the north west of the
university, which belonged to Princess Sara, wife of prince Mekonnen. Some portion of the land was occupied by the
peasants and the rest was swampy areas reserved as grazing land. Its fodder was sold to the local people and the revenue
went to the state treasury. The local people were charged some 2 to 6 Birr to feed their cattle. This grazing land was
called aflama (compensation). In Bate peasants moved to Wobberra and Chercher either for tax failure or fragmentation
of family plots.62
In Hararghe, there were duplicity in assigning the land and arbitrary eviction, and also many claimants entered to
litigation on what was called the government land whether it was occupied by peasants or not. In Kurfa Chale Woreda of
Garamulata awaraja where Haji-Adem Seido and Haileleul were damin and garad, respectively, it was reported that there
was more than two gashas of land which garad Haileleul was suspected of concealing the land. Many claimants such as
Haileluel W/Tensay, Lulseged Girma, Ato Francois Gebreyes, Ato Alemayehu Molla, Weizero Ayelech Menhale and Ato
Seyoum Feleke were people who laid claim to this land. There were several areas where gashas of land were asked in the
guise of government land. In Dagu mikitil woreda of Garamulata specifically in Derbale kebele under Usman Adem
daminship and Suleyman Tuse garadship similar issues emerged. The land between Wobberra and Garamulata awarajas in
the districts of Metta and Bedenno to the left and right of Woldiya Lamesa River there was an estimated 10,000 gashas of
land. The Minister of Interior urged the governor to clarify its size in gasha, previous holders, reasons for withdrawal or
eviction, its current status, whether it had claimant or not. 63
In 1955 in Garamulata a gasha land which was estimated at about 3,333 1/2 gasha land existed and the government
ordered Ato Hailemariam Seifu to carry out land measurement. The report underlines the financial arrangements for
those who would assign Kuter gebbar land, the qalad tay. The governorate general asked the Ministry of finance to allow
their budget for the qalad tay. This clearly depicts that the government was preoccupied with intensified land
measurement and to reap much more from the peasants through tax which became a burden to them.64
In Wobberra awaraja there were problems related to the land tax from the year 1947-1956. The office of Bajirondi
(treasury) of the governorate general of Harar estimated that the total land tax arrears at about 17 9,356.31 Birr for the
specified period in Wobberra awaraja. The woreda and mikitil woreda governors were called on by the awaraja governor to
make clear raison d'être for failure to collect taxes. The meeting which was held in June 1957 was chaired by Deputy
Endarase Shambel Aemiro Sellassie and attended by officials of other departments in the governorate general of Harar.
The land tax arrears of Meta, Dedar and Goro Gutu districts were calculated at 22,853.94; 28,430.37 and 8251.35 Birr,
respectively. A close examination of the evidence at our disposal unearths many defects in the tax collection from the
tenants. There was no proper mechanism of controlling the tax collected in the awaraja. The duty of properly
documenting and recording statistically the tax collected from the tenants was lacking. Even the woreda and mikitil woreda
governors did not immediately deliver the taxes collected to the state treasury. The peasants in the awaraja were on some
occasions obliged to pay twice. Those who were unable to pay the tax were coerced by the police and thrown into prison
without any charge from the court. The tax collectors had found nothing to confiscate or sell tenants’ property when
186
they failed to pay the tax. In most cases tenants were forced to leave their homestead on failure to pay the tax due.
Though the woreda governors were blamed for not collecting the tax overdue before the end of each year the governors
of Goro Gutu, Dedar and Meta such as Shawul Degafa, Tilahun Wolde Hiwot and Seyoum Dinbaru respectively were
fined a one month salary. Notwithstanding, however, the governorate general of the province never took any meaningful
and pragmatic measure to relieve the peasants of their grievances. The Office of Bajirondi (treasury) of the province of
Hararghe per se had no proper statistical record of tax collected from different awarajas. The figure which it estimated
regarding tax arrears in the awaraja itself was quite high transcending the figure literally recognized by the governors. 65
In the Ogaden sub-province of Hararghe similar tax overdue was reported from the year 1950-1955. Different measures
were suggested by the province to take back the tax arrears. But it was difficult to get the cultivators to force them pay
the tax since they were pastoralists and mobile. In Jijiga district similar tax arrears was also reported. 66
An overview of Taxation in Hararghe by Sub-province

In Hararghe province agricultural tax was collected from the peasants and as well from the nomads by levying on their
cattle. It was the largest province in size and ranks third in the contribution of the tax to the state surpassed only by
Shewa and Wello provinces. According to the 1960 statistics, Hararghe contributed 9.2 percent, out of the tax which was
supposed to be collected (25.7 million) from the 13th provinces. In terms of tax default for 13 years (1947-1960)
Hararghe’s share was 2 percent of the total unpaid tax of the whole country which put the province seventh among the
debtors. The total tax revenue of the province for 16 years (1947-1962) was increased by 44.8 percent.67 This increase
was achieved through additional taxes of education and health on the land. Moreover, the size of land put under
cultivation increased resulting in increase in the total revenue from land tax. The increase was the highest in Jijiga, Adal-
Isa and Chercher. In Hararghe in 1962 there were 421, 258 hectares of measured land and 71, 502 units of kuter gebbar.
About 2,810,311 Birr were expected to be collected from the region. The tax paid by kuter gebbar land owners was the
highest accounting for 83.6 percent of the total collectable tax. It was estimated that forty hectares were equal to 10 to
15 kuter gebbar land units. In Hararghe the land tax payment per gasha of fertile, semi-fertile and poor land was fixed at 80
or 73.5, 64 and 24, respectively. With regard to kuter gebbar, the land was categorized into five classes in order of their
fertility fixed at 32, 27, 24, 16 and 8, respectively. 68
Analysis of tax payment of both measured and kuter gebbar land in Hararghe province shows that about 83.6% of the
possible collectible tax annually is paid by the kuter gebbar owners. It is assumed that 10 kuter gebbar land units make one
gasha or 40 hectares. On the basis of this an owner of 10 kuter gebbar land units pays at least four times more than the
gasha holder. It is obvious that there was inconsistencies in tax payment between measured and kuter gebbar land owners.
There was also disparity even among maderyaa, rist-gult and sisso-gult holdings. For instance, maderya owners were exempted
from tax. Rist-gult and sisso gult did not pay the full rate of 15, 10 and 5 of land tax on different fertility of per gasha but a
reduced rate of 3.5 across varied fertility of gasha. For land tax, tithe, health and education taxes, owners of rist-gult and
sisso gult paid 68.5 or 62, 57.5 and 22.5 of fertile, semi fertile and poor land, respectively, instead of the full rate of 80 or
73.5, 64 and 24, respectively. In 1947 the Ministry of Finance estimated that $ 12,399.9 amounts were not collected from
both measured and kuter gebbar lands because of tax exemption to owners of these lands. From this total, the kuter gebbar
make up 50.8% or about $ 6, 294.2 excluding maderya or Church lands. The above estimate was very meager in view of
the fact that most of the rist-gult owners were reluctant to have their lands registered in the early 1947 tax book. Yet the
registration of rist-gult land had to be postponed four times from 1949 to 1952. It is obvious that owners of this land
were not paying the tax due until their land was registered in tax book. 69
Had all the rist- gult been registered and taxes were paid accurately the government would have secured $6.6 million.
When we look at maderya land owners they were exempted from land tax except tithe, education and health since the
owners did not have ownership rights until 1955. For the last 16 years about $268, 000 was lost by the government from
this land tax alone. In 1955 the government gave full ownership right to owners of maderya land and the total number of
maderya land decreased greatly. On the other hand, since the Coptic Church retained the land taxes from its holding
nothing went to the Ministry of Finance. It was only in 1959 that the Church allowed the Ministry of Finance to collect
its tax on account that the tax collectors were abusing tax receipts. The Church decided that the Ministry of Finance was
to take over the tax collection. In return the Church allowed the Ministry of Finance a 2% for service. In the 16 years
period from 1947- 1963 the Church had collected about $1.6 million of land tax. The granting of tax exemption to
maderya and rist-gult made the government to lose over $740,000. Had the Church land, rist-gult and maderya land were not
granted tax exemption the government would have collected about $8.4 million from 1947-1963.70
In general, when we compare the various sub-provinces of Hararghe the total contribution of tax illuminate that Harar
accounted for 37.3%, Chercher 18.9%, Garamulata 13.5%, Jijiga 6.2%, Dire Dawa 5.1%, and Adal-Isa 2.1%. However,
when we see the total yearly average imbursement from 1960-63, Dire Dawa paid 86%, Chercher and Wobberra each
81%, and Harar and Garamulata 78% each , and Adal-Isa 32.9%. Out of the total $2.8 million yearly assessment from
the recorded taxable of 421, 258 hectares and 71, 502 kuter gebbar lands, an average total of 68.5% was collected. In
Hararghe only 25.2% of the total measured land and 74.2% of the total kuter gebbar land was recorded in tax books.
Indeed the burden of taxation fell on the shoulders of the peasant masses in the region who responded to this problem
differently while the government remained nonchalant to their plight. The majority of the peasants in Hararghe were
relegated to the status of tenants, who were subjected to different demands of the landlords. In 1968, a government
187
survey of Hararghe province the distribution of holdings by type of land tenure shows that 46% of the holdings were
owned, 49% rented, and 5% partly owned and partly rented from other. Renting shows the existence of tenancy.
Hararghe is a vast area and ecologically varied and the disparity in percentage of tenancy is considerable. In Chercher the
richest agricultural area 89% of land holdings were occupied by tenancy, while in the district of Harar zuria awaraja 89%
of the holdings were by owners most of them Harari. According to Bahru, tenancy was the most widespread in Hararghe
(75%) followed by Shewa (67%) and Kafa (62%).71
Tenancy Agreement
When we see the agreement between the tenants and landlords, in most cases it was oral and for indefinite time. The
common duration of time of tenancy for poor and fertile lands varied from three to one year, respectively. The rental
agreement was either in cash or kind. The tenancy agreement ended when the landlords evicted the tenants either for
failure to give rent payment, or the landlords want the land in case they get better rentals. On the other hand, the tenants
terminated when their land is getting poorer and the landlords increased the rentals and as well as when the landlords
demanded from them several services or when the tenants’ health get deteriorated. If the tenants got better land and in
case of disagreement with the landlord and inability to pay fees were some of the cases of ceasing agreement.72
The tenants were expected to give labor services like cultivating virgin land, building irrigations, planting trees and
making cattle sheds and fences and others. Tenants were not compensated for their relentless part of their
improvements on termination of their agreements. Farm expenses were covered by the tenant with few exceptions w
here landlords help with labor or seed in times of tenants’ poor harvests. The most appropriate time for termination of
tenancy was either by the landlords or tenants was right after harvests or sometimes before the next seeding period
which was in the month of January to February.73
The implication of the government’s land policy in Hararghe

The land policies of the Ethiopians in Hararghe had two implications for agricultural production. First land became
concentrated in the hands of state that had an insatiable appetite for more land. Officials of the Ethiopian state and its
supporters came to posses large tracts of land and restricted the indigenous cultivators to their ancestral lands which
diminished in size as population increased. Second the ruling elite possessed the right of allocation and therefore,
controlled right to use all lands. Land hungry farmers were discouraged from migrating to new lands, thus increasing
population concentration on lineage lands and diminishing the size of land owned and worked by farming families. In
the long run the difficulty of acquiring land led to increased fragmentation as tenant holdings were broken up as a
consequence of expropriation, population growth and inheritance by multiple heirs. Cultivators at first responded to the
problem of land scarcity by moving from densely populated garads to thinly populated areas. Some tenants settled on the
lands of garads who admitted them for the customary bercha a payment in sheep or cattle. Others became sharecroppers
working for other tenants who owned large tracts of land. Still some others migrated from Wobberra, Harar and
Garamulata to Chercher, Bale, Ardi, and Anchar, neighboring Arba Gugu of Arsi to work on qalad land and even to the
uninhabited areas of Chercher in Ramis valley and reverted to pastoralism. These processes, migration, sharecropping
and to a limited extent, reversion to pastoralism continued.74
Peasant Revolt
Owing to onerous taxation, multiple obligations and evictions from their land the peasants in Hararghe restored to
revolt in the late 1960s and early 1970 inspired by the peasant revolt in Bale. Particularly it was started in Gara Mullata
and from there spread to Chercher province of western Hararghe like Habro, Mechara, Michata and several other places.
In Gara Mullata the revolt was started by men like Jarra Abba Gada and Hasan Ibrahim (Elemo Kiultu). In Chercher
Mohammed Jilo was responsible for organizing the revolt in Gub Koricha, Habro, Mechara, and Xumuga (near Arsi).
Mohammed Gildi and Aliyi Nuru also organized and led a revolt in Mechara. They evoked terror on many landlords
who escaped to other areas like Gololcha. But most of the revolt leaders were decimated by the Derg on grounds of
having subterranean relations with the then emerging Oromo nationalist organization. Among these were Mohammed
Jilo (killed at Kuba Koricha), Elemo Kiltu (Habro, Wacu), Mohammed Gildi (at Mechara), and Aliyi Nuru (at Michata).75
Revolution and Reform

With the coming to power of the Derg, Proclamation for Public ownership of rural lands was made in April 1975 which
irrevocably changed the political economy of Ethiopia including Hararghe. Further Proclamation of Government
ownership of urban lands and extra houses proclamation of July, 1975 reduced disparities in the distribution of wealth.
Eliminated extensive holdings and absentee landlordism and the privilege of Harar versus Oromo, ended. Some Harari
served the malkagnas system under the damin and in many Oromo areas as middlemen now became the forces of
resentment. Harari themselves emerged from an understratum background, albeit a comparatively comfortable urban
one. They had succeeded in adjusting to the rule of outsiders by providing essential clerical services and they had gained
some property by using these positions wisely. Yet they shared with the Oromo the loss of political independence and
control of their political destiny. The Oromos were reduced to servitude because of the widespread tenancy under the
188
empire, the Harari disenfranchisement came as a result of much needed reforms in Ethiopia. In 1975 having lost their
farms and urban properties, the Harari in the old city view themselves victims. 76
Conclusion
Hararghe was brought to the Ethiopian empire state after the bloody battle of Cheleqo. As the region that resisted the
conquest fiercely the people in the region faced the wrath of Menelik and his soldiers who confiscated the property of
those who participated in the battle and distributed the booty among his soldiers, settlers and the clergies. Different
garrison centers were established and people living close to these centers were assigned, to mention Mohammed
Hassan’s word, to be eaten by governors, officials, clergies and settlers who quartered on farming population. The
people in the region were obliged to provide whatever they needed. To strengthen the conquest settlers were encouraged
and large number of them flocked down to the province. The effect was to create land shortage in the region and strain
and stress on the farming population. Large portions of land which were curved under what was vaguely called state
domain, government land whether the peasants settled on them or not, the state allocated to those whom it wished to
reward without any regard for the peasant masses in the region. After 1941 the state declared its successive reform
proclamation with a pretext to ameliorate the burden that fell on the shoulders of the peasants but to siphon off much
revenue from land tax to its treasury. It intensified land measurement and grant to the patriots, exiles, soldiers and its
favorites until 1970s which ultimately led to eviction, burden of tax and widespread tenancy in Hararghe. The peasants
responded to the problem by moving from densely populated garads to thinly populated areas. Even a good number of
them were resorted to pastoralism in the lowland areas of the region and many other moved to Bale and Arsi to work on
qalad as tenant. But, the Derg eliminated tenant and landlordism though the leaders of peasant revolt did not spare the
heavy hand off them.
References
1Mohammed Hassen, Menelik’s Conquest of Harar, 1887, and its effects on the Political Organization of the
Surrounding Oromos up to 1900”. Conference on the history and Society in the South Ethiopian Periphery, Stanford
University, March, 1981, pp. 234-35.
2Ibid.
3Ibid, p.236.
4Emiru Haile Sellassie, Kayehut Kemastawusew (Addis ababa: Addis ababa University Press, 2001 E.C.), pp. 94-95.
5Richard Caulk, The Occupation of Harar; January 1887”, Journal of Ethiopian studies IX(2)1-20, pp.6-7.
6Ibid, p.7.
7Emiru, p.92.
8Mohammed, pp.236-37.
9Ezkiel Gebissa, Leaf of Allah:Khat and the Transformation of Agriculture in Harerge, Ethiopia,1875-1991(James
Currey and Ohio University Press,2004), p. 44.

10Emiru, pp.94-97.
11Mohammed, p.237.
12Sydney Waldron, 1984. The political Economy of Harari-Oromo Relations, 1559-1874”. In North East African
Studies, vol. 6. No. 1-2, Michigan state University, pp. 35-37.

13Caulk,pp. 18-19.
14John Markakis, Ethiopia: Tradition of anatomy, p.444.
15Eskiel, p. 43; Negatu W/Giorgis, Development Planning and Its Implementation, 1952 E.C, p14.
16Mohammed, p237.
17Addis Hiwet, Ethiopia. from Autocracy to Revolution (London: Merlin Press, 1975), p.31.
18Addis, p.31; Markakis, p.138.
19Informant: Abba Fesseha.
20Eskiel, p.43 ;Markakis. p, 137- 138.
21Eskiel,p.43, Negatu, p.14-16.
22Ekiel, p. 44 ; Informant: Abdullahi Ahmed.
23Caulk, 1967-70, p. 13.
24Eskiel, p.44; Negatu, p. 5.
25Eskiel, p. 45.
26Negatu, p. 17.
27Negatu, p. 16.
28Richard Caulk, ‘Armies as predators: soldiers and Peasants in Ethiopia c.1850-1935” In The International Journal of
African Historical Studies, XI, 3(1978),pp.89-490.

29Eskiel, p. 45.
30Negatu, p.16.
31Bahiru Zewde, Pioneers of Change in Ethiopia: The Reformist Intellectuals of the early twentieth century (Addis
Ababa: AAU press, 2002), p. 61.
189
32Eskiel, p. 45.
33Markakis,p. 148.
34Richard Caulk,Armies as predators… 491 ; Informant: Askale Wolde-Ab.
35Bahru, A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-1991(Oxford: James Currey, 2002), pp.192-193.
36Negatu, p.2.
37Ibid, pp.2-3.
38Ibid, p. 3.
40Ibid, p.4.
41Ibid,p. 5.
42Ibid, p.3-6.
43Ibid, p.6.
44Ibid.
45Ibid, pp.6-7.
47Ibid, pp.7-8.
48Ibid, p. 8.
49Ibid, pp.8-9.
50Bahru, A History of Modern…,p.191.
51(A letter from the office of the G.G of Harar to Fit. Tesfaye Enqusillassie, Harar awaraja governor and shum of the
town, Nehase 3 1949 Ref. no. 8655/u/1/33).

52File No. 612/22. Tikemt 2/1939E.C.
53Ref. no. 1861/3, hidar 1946E.C; ref.no. 1480/3 tikemt 1946E.C.
54Tekle Hawariat, pp. 357-359.
55Informants: Askale Wolde-ab and Abdullahi Ahmed.
56Informant: Abdullahi Ahmed.
57Informant: Askale Wolde-ab.
58(Fita. Aemiro Sellassie Abebe, Deputy Endarase megabit 30 1951), meskerem 10, 1953.
59Governorate General of Harar, Hidar 29, 1952E.C,
60Informants:Abdullahi Ahmed and Askale Wolde-ab.
61Informant: Qadi Umer Adem.
62Informant:Abdullahi Ahmed.
63(letter to the ministry of interior, Dept of rist and Wul principal director megabit 1953 , Dej,. Kifle Ergetu, Endarase,
ref. no. 2/2987/412/28153); (from dept. rist and wul municipality and vice minister ref. no. l/4384, Tehsas 16/1952,
Dej wolde amanuel T/Haymanot; (from Asfaw Minaleshewa, Dept. of rist and wul ref.no. L/1139.
64(ref. no. 2441/3 Tir 16, 1947).
65(Fine no. 2/6048/1077/8 office of the G.G of Harar. From fit. Aemiro Sellassie Abebe, Deputy Endarase, pp.1-8).
66Ref. no. 39/11/1/34, Mekerem 4/1949E.C. ; Ref. no. 1275/3 hidar 17, 1947E.C.
67Sileshi Wolde-Tsadiq, Land Ownership in Hararghe Province, Bulletin No. 48 Imperial College of Agricultural and
Mechanical Arts, Haile Sellassie I Univeristy, Dire Dawa Ethiopia, June 1966, p. 10.
68Ibid, p.11.
69Ibid, pp. 21 -23.
70Ibid, pp. 18-22.
71Ibid;Sydney Wadron, The political economy Harari-Oromo Relationships, 155-1975, RSP Documentation center,
pp.28-29; Bahru Zewde, A Modern history…, p. 192.

72Demissie Gebre-Michael, ‘Land Tenure in Bate. Alemaya Mikitil-Woreda, Harar, Imperial College of Agricultural and
Mechanical Arts, Haile Sellassie I Univeristy, Dire Dawa Ethiopia, June 1966, p. 15-20.
73Ibid.
74Ezkiel Gebissa, pp.44-52; Informant: Askale Wolde-ab.
75Informants: Yusuf Mume and Sheik Abduljebar.
76Sydney Waldron, pp. 34-36.
190
6. Extension Activities
6.1 Pre-extension Demonstration of Two High Yielding Common Bean Varieties
(Haramaya and Chercher) in Habro and Boke Districts, West Hararghe Zone
Teklemariam Keneni, Moges Dereje, and Bulti Teso
Abstract: Common bean is becoming increasingly important in eastern Ethiopia because of the
recurrent late onset and early termination of rainfall. It is an important crop under various
intercropping systems and used for soil fertility management, and as emergency and security crop.
However, its productivity is below 13.2 qts/ha, especially in eastern Ethiopia due to soil depletion,
low technology intervention and farmers’ lack of awareness of improved common bean varieties that
have a yield potential of 17-40 qts/ha on research stations and 13-21qts/ha on-farmers’ field. The
major emphasis of this project was to demonstrate the two released common bean varieties
(Haramaya, food type and chercher, canning type) in Habro and Boke districts of West Hararghe
Zone during Belg and Meher seasons. Its specific objectives were to demonstrate the two improved
common bean varieties with the local checks; to evaluate their performances and identify a variety that
meets farmers’ choice in Belg and Meher seasons. Four kebeles were identified from the two districts
based on their common bean production potential from which 12 target farmers were selected based
on their willingness to demonstrate the technology. Training was given to the target farmers including
the district and kebele extension agents on the modern common bean production. Farmers’ days were
organized at the maturity and harvesting time during the two seasons. Chercher variety was selected
first, Haramaya second and the local common bean third based on their maturity dates, color and
market demand. Farmers preferred Chercher variety for use during Belg season and Haramaya variety
during rainy season to fully fetch its yield potential. The data shows that an average yield for Chercher,
Haramaya and the local varieties across the two districts during Belg to be 17.9, 13.5, and 7.9 qts/ha,
respectively. The corresponding yield during the Meher seasons was 20.1, 21.2, and 10.2 qts/ha,
respectively. This result shows that target farmers were able to increase common bean yield from the
previous 13.2 qts/ha to around 21.2 qts/ha because of the interventions conducted through
demonstration of the technologies together with associated trainings.
Keywords: Improved Common beans; Technology; Demonstration; Belg; Meher
Introduction
Common bean is becoming increasingly important in eastern Ethiopia because of the recurrent late onset and early
termination of rainfall, which force the farmers to use short duration corps. It is an important component of crop
production in Hararghe under various intercropping systems. It is used as soil fertility management, as emergency and
security crop and as a supplemental animal feed (Chemeda and Bulti, 2006; Tana and Chemeda, 2006). The major
problems of common bean production in Eastern Ethiopia are: inaccessibility to improved common bean varieties, low
extension intervention, and inferior performance of local varieties.
To address these constraints, Harmaya University (HU) developed six improved common been varieties along with its
improved practices during the last 10-15 years, of which five are food beans (Gofta, Ayenew, Haramaya, Dursitu and
Kufanzik) and one navy (white) variety (Checher). The merits of the new varieties include high yield (17-40 qts/ha on
research stations and 13-21qts/ha on-farmers’ field), tolerant to major diseases, excellent growth habit, early maturing
(82-114 days) and adaptive to wider agro ecology of 1300-2000 m.a.s.l. (Chemeda and Bulti, 2004).
Most of the technologies developed were not demonstrated and transferred to the end users through appropriate
extension methods to complement the work conducted on research stations, and to provide more realistic evaluation of
the new technology under farmers’ condition. The process also provides an excellent opportunity for farmers to learn,
evaluate, and participate in the recommendations drawn on the specific technology. Furthermore, it can encourage and
strengthen researchers-extension–farmers- stakeholders and policy makers’ dialogue and provide opportunity to jointly
identify research thematic area, participatory technology generation, transfer and utilization. Hence, the objective of this
project was to demonstrate the two recently released common bean varieties (Haramaya and Chercher) with the local
one in Habro and Boke districts during Belg and Maher to select the variety (ies) that meet farmers’ criteria and thereby
increase target farmers common bean production from 10.5- 21 qts/ha.
191
Methodology
Description of the Study area
Western Hararghe Districts (Boke and Habro) are situated at altitude of 1357-2800 m.a.s.l. Their annual rainfall ranges
from 500 to 1200 mm. They have bimodal rainfall distribution, the small rainy season which occurs in February and the
main rainy season that occur between June and September. The major crops grown in the districts are sorghum, maize,
teef and haricot beans, groundnut, coffee and chat. Western Hararghe farmers grow common bean twice per year
(during Belg and Maher especially in Habro). The Belg production is sol and larger, whereas Maher is mostly intercropping
with various major crops. They usually sow teff after the harvest of Belg on the common bean fields in Habro.
Sampling technique
Habro and Boke districts were identified from western Hararghe Zone using purposive sampling technique based on
common bean production potential. Two kebeles were identified from each districts. Three model farmers were selected
from each kebele depending on common bean production potential, full interest to participate in the project during the
two seasons (Belg & or Maher), ability to allocate the required land for the three common bean varieties (two improved
and one local varieties). The name of the target farmers, their respective districts and peasanbt associations (PAs) is
indicted in Tables 6.3 and 6.4.
Training
Training is one of the important extension methods to enhance and integrate the farmers’ indigenous knowledge and
skill with improved practices. Accordingly, training need assessment before and after technology demonstration was
made. Six development agents (4 in Habro and 2 in Boke districts), 2 district extension experts one from each district,
and 12 target farmers (6 from Habro and 6 from Boke districts) attended the trainings on the common beans agronomic
practices before sowing (Tables 6.1 and 6.2). Each target farmer provided 10mx20m of land for the two improved
common beans and one local common bean varieties demonstration in Belg and Maher. Neccessary packages were
distributed together with the varieties. The varieties were sown in April, 2009 for Belg and in late July, 2009 for Maher
because of the late onset of rainfall in both seasons. Field days were organized in June, 2009 for Belg and September
2009 for the Maher seasons. The performance of each improved common bean varieties were evaluated against the local
check in each kebele in terms of their yield performances, diseases tolerance, maturity dates and market demand (Tables
6.3, 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6).
Results
Table 6.1 showed that target farmers’ knowledge and skill on improved common bean agronomic practices was very low
but increased after training.
Table 6.1. Training needs assessments before and after training on the target farmers
Before Training Assessment After Training

Farmer’ No. Farmer’ No.
No. Questions M F Total % M F Total %
1 Land preparation 3 - 12 25 11 - 12 91.6
2 Row planting - - 12 0 10 - 12 83.4
3 Spacing - - 12 0 10 - 12 83.4
4 Weed control 6 - 12 50 12 - 12 100
5 Disease control - - 12 0 11 - 12 83.4
6 Harvesting 4 - 12 33.3 12 - 12 100
7 Post Harvesting Mgt. - - 12 0 9 - 12 75
8 Crop rotation 6 - 12 50 12 - 12 100
9 Soil fertility 6 - 12 50 12 - 12 100
Table 6.2 showed that development agents’ knowledge and skill on improved common bean agronomic practices to be
quite low before the training, which was greatly improved after undertaking the training.
192
Table 6.2. Training needs assessments before and after training for development agents
No. Questions Assessment Before Training Assessment After Training

Number of DAs Number of DAs
M F Total % M F Total %
1 Land preparation 3 - 6 50 6 - 6 100
2 Row planting 2 - 6 33.3 6 - 6 100
3 Spacing 3 - 6 50 6 - 6 100
4 Weed control 4 - 6 66.7 6 - 6 100
5 Disease control 3 - 6 50 6 - 6 100
6 Harvesting 1 - 6 16,7 6 - 6 100
7 Post Harvesting Mgt. 1 - 6 16.7 6 - 6 100
8 Crop rotation 4 - 6 66.7 6 - 6 100
9 Soil fertility 4 - 6 66.7 6 - 6 100
Farmers’ Days
Farmers’ days were conducted at flowering stage and and at harvesting stage. At flowering stage, crops resistances to
different diseases and drought tolerance ability were evaluated. At harvesting stage, the yield performances were
evaluated (Figure 6.1.). During the Belg season, a total of twelve target farmers, 4 development agents, 2 district
extension experts and 55 follower farmers were participated in Habro and Boke districts
Figure 6.1. Improved common beans evaluation
Evaluation at harvest
During the Maher season, a total of twelve other target farmers, 2 development agents, 2 districts’ extension experts, 63
follower farmers participated at both districts. The common beans were compared and prioritized based on participants’
criteria as follows:
Haramaya improved common bean variety was selected first for its grain and biomass yield and Chercher for maturity
date and drought resistances during summer in Habro district. But Chercher was rated first and Haramya second in Boke
district in both seasons based on yield performances and earliness in maturity. There was serious rain shortage in Boke
district, consequently Haramaya variety need more time to mature.
The target farmers and participants decided to share the available seed they harvested to other follower farmers and
also decided to grow the two improved common bean varieties. But, they decided to grow Haramaya common bean only
during the main rainy season as it need extended period of rain to fetch its full production potential.
193
Table 6.3. Name of target farmers, and grain yield of common bean varieties during Belg season in Habro and Boke
districts
District Yield/plot (200m2) in qt. Yield qt /ha.

No. Name of Farmers PAs Chercher Hara Local Chercher Hara Local
1 Ahemed Sali Habro Waachu 0.30 0.28 0.14 15.00 14.00 7 .00
2 Abdalla Usman “ “ 0.36 0.20 0.12 18.00 10.00 6.00
3 TeshagerTeshome “ “ 0.42 0.33 0.90 21.00 16.50 4.50
4 Demisie Belachaw “ Badada 0.22 0.18 0.13 11.00 9.00 6.50
Toatal 1.30 0.99 0.48 0.65 49.5 24.00
Mean 32.5 24.75 12.00 16.3 12.40 6.00
5* *Mohamed Amin “ “ 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 .00 0.00
6* *Eshetu Kinfe “ “ 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
7 Abrahim Amed Boke Dhera Jamb 0.55 0.45 0.24 27.5 22.5 12.00
8 Ahemed Hasen ‘ ‘ 0.30 0.16 0.15 15.00 8.00 7.50
9 Miftiha shekrashid “ “ 0.50 0.34 0.18 25.00 17.00 12.50
10 Miftha Haji ‘ :” 0.37 0.22 0.13 18.50 11.00 6.50
11 Alemayehu Kebede “ Kersa 0.22 0.17 0.11 11.00 8.5.00 5.50
12 Debebe Makeshe “ “ 0.75 0.40 0.28 37.50 20.00 14.00
Total 2.34 1.74 1.09 117.0 87.00 58.00
Mean 0.39 0.29 0.18 19.50 14.50 9.70
*Indicted that the common bean demonstrations on the two farmers’ plots were affected by drought and there were no yield.
Table 6.3 shows that the highest mean yield/ha was recorded in Boke during the Belg season by Chrcher improved
common bean (19.5qt/ha) which was followed by Haramaya (14.5qt/ha) and the local variety (9.7qt/ha), respectively
and the order was similar in Habro district, but there was yield difference between the districts.
Table 6.4. Name of target farmers, and yield performances of bean varieties in Maher season in Habro and Boke districts
No. Name of Farmers District PAs Yield /plot(200m2) in qt. Yield qts /ha.
Chercher Hara Local Chercher Hara Local
1 Tasfa Demeke Habro Luugoo 0.30 0.35 0.17 15.00 17.50 7.50
2 Hashum Usmael “ “ 0.60 0.80 0.32 30.00 40.00 16.00
3 Mohamed Abrahim “ “ 0.50 0.50 0.28 25.00 25.00 14.00
4 Worku Endrias “ Efa Gamachu 0.40 0.65 0.24 20.00 32.50 10.00
5 Saniyo Ahimed “ “ 0.34 0.60 0.18 17.00 30.00 8.50
6* *bdella Saniyo “ Kufa Kas 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 2.14 2.90 1.19 107.0 145.0 60.00
Mean 0 .43 0 .58 0 .24 21.40 29.00 12.00
1 Megarsa Husien Boke Dhera Jamb 0.25 0.25 0.13 12.50 12.50 6.50
2 Hayati Ahimed ‘ ‘ 0.40 0.25 0.18 20.00 12.50 9.00
3 Jafar Sirajo “ “ 0.23 0.21 0.14 11.50 10.50 7.00
4 Shifaraw tadasa ‘’ ” 0.42 0.28 0.13 21.00 14.00 6.50
5 Amadin Yusf “ Kersa 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
6 Debebe Makeshe ‘ ‘ 0.60 0.35 0.25 30.00 17.50 12.50
Total 1.90 1.34 0.83 95.00 67.00 41.50
Mean 0.38 0.27 0.17 19.00 13.40 8.30
*Indicted that the farmer’ demonstration field was attacked by drought
Table 6.4 shows that the highest mean yield/ha was recorded in Habro during the Maher season by Haramaya variety
(29 qt/ha) which was followed by Chercher variety (21.4 qt/ha) and the local variety (12 qt/ha). But, the highest mean
yield/ha was obtained from Chercher variety (19 qt/ha) in Boke district which was followed by Haramaya (13.40 qt/ha)
and the local variety (8.3 qt/ha) during the same season. The mean yield differences were due to the inconsistency in
rainfall in both districts during the growing seasons.
194
Table 6.5. Summary of agronomic data of common bean varieties in the two districts during Belg season
No. Agronomic Data Common beans Varieties Remark

Chercher Haramaya Local
1 Date of planting Late April Late April same rainfall delay
2 Maturity date End of June End of June End of June
3 Resistance to diseases high average low
4 Resistance to drought High average low
5 Harvesting Date End June Early July Early July
6 Color white brown mixed
7 Market Demand High Average low
8 Average yield 17.9 13.5 7.9
Table 6.6. Summary of agronomic data of common bean varieties in the two districts during Maher Season
No. Agronomic Data Common beans varieties Remark

Chercher Haramaya Local
1 Date of planting Late July Same Same Rainfall delay
2 Maturity date Mid Oct. End Oct. Late Oct.
3 Resistance to diseases High Average Low
4 Resistance to drought High Average Low
5 Harvesting Date End Oct Early Nov. Early Nov.
6 Color White Brown Mixed
7 Market Demand High Average Low
8 Average yield 20.2 21.2 10.2
Table 6.7. Farmers’ selection criteria and responses’ to the packages
Farmers’ Selection criteria Improved common bean cultivars vs local

No. Haramaya Chercher Local Remark
1 Yield High V. high Low
2 Date of Maturity Late Early Medium
3 Drought Résistance Medium High Low
4 Diseases Resistance High V. high V.low
5 Colors V.good Excellent Mixed
6 Market demand High V. high Low
7 Farmers’ Rank 2 1 3
Farmers’ decision: target farmers have decided to grow the two improved common bean varieties and share the
available seed to other follower farmers who eagerly follow the demonstration activities.
Discussion
The two improved common bean varieties were compared with the local and both improved common bean varieties
(Chercher and Haramaya) met the farmers’ criteria. The variety that can be suitable for Belg and Maher seasons were
also identified. Cherecher variety is suitable for Belg season since it is early maturing and Haramaya variety for the Maher
as it is relatively late maturing. Depending on rainfall requirement, yield potential and other quality attributes, however,
Chercher variety was selected first by farmers’. This variety has high market demand, shorter maturity date and it is
drought tolerant. It was learnt that demonstration of new technology using appropriate extension methods such as
training and farmers’ days are among the best approaches in technology transfer. Experiences were shared among target
farmers, followers, researchers, agricultural development agents, and other stakeholders through group discussion on the
specific improved practices during the farmers’ days.
In general, participants’ capability and skill on the improved common bean production technologies increased and
thereby their common bean production increased from 8.0 qts/ha to 20.70 qts/ha as a result of the demonstration made
on the two common beans technologies along with training and farmers days. The ground for further popularization and
dissemination of the two improved common bean technologies was established.
Possible Suggestions
1. Optimum use of rainfall through land preparation before the arival of rainfall and use of early maturing varieties.
2. Researchers’ should be involved in pre-extension demonstration activities after technology generation to facilitate the
timely dissemination of the same to the wider community.
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3. Motivation system should be developed to encourage researchers.

4. Districts and Kebele level extension agents’ should give priority for the technology transfer activities.
5. Enough skilled manpower, vehicles and budget should be assigned for the research and extension department so that
the office can fully achieve the activities of technology transfer.
6.2 Scaling-up of Improved Faba Bean Variety (Gachena) and Improved Field Pea Variety
(Meti) in Meta, Deder and Goro-Gutu Districts, East Hararghe Zone
Teklemariam Keneni, Moges Dereje and Kindie Tesfaye
Abstract: Faba bean and field pea are the most important legumes in Ethiopia. These crops are used
as a source of food, feed, and cash to farmers. Moreover, they play an important role in sustaining the
productivity of framing systems through the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Despite their great role
and availability of high yielding varieties (18-30 qt/ha and 15-25 qts/ha on research stations and 15-25
qts/ha and 13-22 qts/ha on farmers’ field for faba bean and field pea, respectively) in the country,
their production in eastern part of Ethiopia, particularly in East Harahghe zone is very low (7.5-9.8
qts/ha and 6-8 qts/ha for faba beana and field pea, respectively). This is attributed to the severe
diseases to the local faba bean and field pea crops, farmers’ inaccessibility to the production
technologies, and lack of improved agronomic practices. To address these constraints, the
demonstrations of improved varieties were conducted on 12 target farmers in Goro-Gutu, Dedar and
Meta districts of East Hararghe Zone during 2009/10. Farmers involved in the technology
demonstration obtained an average yield of 29.3 qts/ha of faba bean and 22.7 qts/ha of field pea
across the three districts. As a result, the target farmers and the followers have shown high interest to
use these technologies to improve their production sustainably starting in 2010/11 cropping season.
Hence, this work was designed to scale up faba bean and field pea technologies in Goro-Gutu, Dedar
and Meta districts during 20010/11 to achieve the wider dissemination of the same in the 3 districts
and its adjacent districts. A total of 180 farmers for field pea and 90 farmers for faba bean were
selected based on their interest to the packages across the 3 districts. Training was given and a total of
18 qts of the two technologies of which 9 qts field pea and 9 qts faba bean seed were distributed to
the respective kebeles and the recommended agronomic practices was followed. Farmers’ field days
were also organized. As a result farmers’ field pea and faba bean production increased from 8 to 20.2
qt/ha and from 9 to19.4 qts/ha, respectively, and the wider distribution of the technologies were
achieved.
Keywords: Faba bean, field pea technologies, technology scaling up
Introduction
Highland crops such as faba bean and field pea are produced in the highland and semi highland regions of Ethiopia with
altitude ranges from 1800-3000 m.a.s.l. These are crops used as a source of food, feed, and cash to farmers. Moreover,
they play an important role in sustaining the productivity of farming systems through the fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen. The area under faba bean cultivation is estimated to be 474,892 ha, leading the pulse category in area coverage.
The total faba bean production reached about 4.47 million qts with an average yield of 9.4 qt/ha. The two crops
contribute about 30% of the total pulses produced and cover about 33% of the total area under pulse (EEPAPDMRD,
2004).Whereas the area under field pea is 175,000 ha and it’s annual production is 1.5 million qts with an average yield of
8.4 qt/ha. (MoARDCDDCVR no. 8, 2005).
The production of faba bean and field pea in the eastern parts of the country, especially in East Hararghe Zone, has
faced very low level of production. Yields were only 7.5-9 qts/ha and 6-8 qts/ha, respectively. These is due to sever
diseases attack of the local faba bean and field pea crops, farmers’ inaccessibility to improved faba bean and field pea
technologies, weak technologies intervention, and lack of improved agronomic practices (EHARDO, 2008).
To address these constraints demonstrations of the recently developed improved faba bean and field pea varieties for
the eastern part of Ethiopia by Haramaya University (HU) have been conducted. This varieties have a yield potential of
18-30 qt/ha for faba bean and 15-25 qts/ha for field pea on research stations and 15-25 qts/ha and 13-22 qts/ha on
farmers’ field. The demonstration involved 12 target farmers in Goro-Gutu, Dedar and Meta districts of East Hararghe
Zone during 2009/10. The result revealed that farmers involved in the demonstration obtained an average yield of 29.3-
qts/ha from faba bean and 22.7 qts./ha from field pea across the three districts. As a result, the target farmers and the
followers’ have shown high interest to use these technologies to improve their faba bean and field pea productions
sustainably starting from 2010/11 cropping season. Hence, the principal objective of the project was scaling up of the
demonstrated faba bean and field pea technologies in Goro-Gutu, Dedar and Meta districts during 20010/11. Its specific
objectives were to improve farmers’ faba bean and field pea productivity and to achieve the wider dissemination of the
same in the 3 districts and its adjacent districts.
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Methodology
Sampling technique, technology distribution
Using purposive sampling technique Meta, Goro-Gutu and Deder districts were identified based on their highland pulse
production potential and awareness to the faba bean and field pea technologies. Three peasant associations (PAs) were
identified from each districts based on their awareness to the faba bean and field pea technologies during the
demonstration season. The PAs were Kulubbi-slama, Burka–Jalala, Chafe-anneni from Meta district; Warji-Jalala, Biftu–
Diramu, Hora-Waligala from Goro-Gutu district, and Chafee-Gurmu,Walta’a-guddina and Cheka-gemachu PAs from
Dedar district. A total of 180 farmers for field pea and 90 farmers for faba bean were selected based on their interest to
the packages. In terms of distribution, 60 farmers for field pea and 30 farmers for faba bean were selected from each
district.
Farmers selected for the field pea technology provided about 500-1230 m2 of land and those farmers who were
selected for faba bean technology provided about 750-850 m2. Training on the improved production practices of the two
technologies was given to the selected farmers and the development agents before sowing the crops. About 5-13 kg of
field pea and from 10-12 kg of Faba bean seed were distributed to each farmer in mid June 2011. In total, 18 qts of the
two crop varieties (9 qts each) were distributed to the respective Kebeles’ in early June 2011. The farmers sow the seeds
with the recommended agronomic practices, that is spacing of 20x5 cm and 40x10cm; seeding rate of 106 kg/ha and 134
kg/ha for field pea and faba bean, respectively under the supervision of the respective development agents of the
Kebeles.
Farmers’ days
Field day (Figure 6.2) was conducted at dough stages of the crops at Kulubi-salama PA in Meta district and evaluated
diseases tolerance, maturity dates and field stand of the crops. More than 20 researchers, 14 GOs, 7 NGOs, 37 farmers
(7 female and 30 male), 12 districts experts, 6 DAs attended the farmers’ day. Discussion was made among stakeholders
and experiences were shared on the technologies of the two crop varieties. Farmers’ day participants’, farmers who
didn’t get the technology, and stakeholders who participated on the farmers’ day from different districts and
organizations were highly motivated and requested the University to access the varieties and production technologies
inorder to improve faba bean and field pea productions using these technologies and to disseminate to the wider
community.
Faba-bean Field Pea

Figure 6.2. Field evaluation during the farmers’ day
Data collected: Date of planting, disease occurrences, harvesting date and yield performance, participants’ responses
and other related data were collected and documented.
Data type, collection & analysis: Both primary and secondary data were collected through group discussion, interview
and observation and analyzed by descriptive statistics and interpretive data analysis methods.
Results and discussion

Farmers that participated in the technology scaling up after awareness creation about the technologies through
demonstration, training and farmers’ days were found to enhance the process of technology promotion and
dissemination to the wider community. A total of 270 farmers participated in the technology scaling up process in the
three districts, of which 180 participated on field pea and 90 farmers on faba bean technologies. As a result of the
technology scaling-up process and trainings, yields of field pea and faba bean increased from 8-20.2 qt/ha and from 9-
19.4 qts/ha, respectively. Different stakeholders appreciated the process of technology scaling-up during farmers’ day
and suggested to be used as one approach for a wide dissemination of the different types of technologies. However, the
197
above processes need strict follow-up by the districts’ and Kebeles’ extension agents including the principal extension
team and end user.
Table 6.8 reveals that the highest mean yield/ha recorded in field pea was 21.6 in Deder and followed by Meta and
Goro-Gutu with 20.0 and 18.7 qt/ha, respectively. The table also shows that about 5-13 kg improved field pea seed was
distributed to the sample farmers and produced from 100 kg–214 kg with an average mean yield of 20.1 qts/ha from 500
m2 - 1230 m2 in the six PAs across the three districts. In general, the grand mean of field pea across the three districts
was about 20.2 qts/ ha.
Table 6.8. Field pea yield performance at sample farmers’ in the three districts during 2011
No of Seed/P Plot in m2/ Seed/f Average Average yield

No Districts Name of PAs farmers A in kg farmers’ a-rmers yield/plot (kg) (qt)/ha
1 Meta Chafe -annani 6 30 500 5 100 20.0
Total 6 30 500 5 100 20.0
2 Gorogutu H/waligala 5 42 600-1200 6-12 148 15.9
B/diramu 5 50 1000 10 212 21.5
Total 10 92 360 37.4
Mean 180 18.7
3 Dedar C/Gurmu 5 25 200-500 5 100 21.0
Gemachu 5 44 625-1230 6-13 214 24.2
Leman-walta 5 25 500 5 103 19.6
Total 15 94 417 64.8
Mean 139 21.6
Grand Total 6PAs 216 877
Mean Across
Districts 146.2 20.1
Table 6.9 indicates that the highest mean yield/ha in faba bean was observed in Deder district with 21.6 qt/ha followed
by Goro-Gutu and Metta districts with mean yield of 20.7 and 16.2 qt/ha, respectively. The table also reveals that the
farmers produced from 59 kg–175 kg and the average mean yield was 19.4 qts/ha from 350m 2 - 850 m2 in the eight PAs
across the three districts. Generally, the grand mean of faba bean across the three districts was by far better than the
local production.
Table 6.9. Faba bean yield performance at sample farmers’ in the three districts during 2011
Name of No of Seed/P Plot in m2/ Seed/far Average yield/ Average yield

No Districts PAs farmers A (kg) farmers’ mers (kg) plot (kg) /ha (qt)
1 Meta Muti 5 50 800 10 155.00 19.60
c/Annani 5 50 800 10 123.00 16.90
Salama 5 50 500 5 59.00 12.12
Total 3 15 150 337.00 48.62
Mean 112.30 16.20
2 Gorogutu H/waligala 4 48 850 12 156.30 19.90
B/diramu 2 20 850 10 175.00 21.50
Total 6 68 331.30 41.40
Mean 165.7 20.70
3 Deder C/Gurmu 5 40 350-750 5-10 140.00 24.60
Gemachu 3 30 750 10 141.70 20.20
L/walta’a 7 70 750 10 150.70 19.90
Total 15 94 432.40 64.70
Mean 144.10 21.60
Grand Total 8PAs 36 312 1100.40 154.70
Grand mean 137.60 19.40
Source: Field data
Conclusion
Technology scaling up through extension is found to be one of the effective steps in the process of technology transfer
and technology diffusion to the wider community after demonstration, training and farmers days in which farmers,
researchers and different stakeholders participated. In general, wider distributions of the field pea and faba bean
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technologies were enhanced using scaling-up extension method. Yield increase of field pea and faba bean by participant
farmers was observed in this study and a fertile ground for further dissemination of the technologies was established.
Challenges
Districts and Keble development agents’ give less attention to such type of project. Some farmers have still unable to
grow the crop varieties according to the package/recommendation. So, capacity building is necessary through further
training and demonstration till the farmers develop the capability to adopt the technologies. Heavy rainfall at the early
stage of crop growth and shortage at flowering stage is another problem.
References
CIAT Bean Improvement website:[email protected]
East Hararghe Zone agricultural Rural Development Office, 2009 report
EEPAPDMRD (Ethiopian Export Promotion Agency Product Development & Market Research), May 2004, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Kinde Tesfaye, 2008. High land pulses improvement research output report, HUREO.
Mohamad, H.S. 2008. Assessment of production technologies on Faba bean in the River Nile Stat, MSc Thesis in
Agricultural Economics submitted to Sudan Academy of Sciences, Khartoum.
T/Mriaim Keneni, 2009. Pre -Extension Demonstration of Faba bean and field pea varieties in Deder, Meta &
Gorogutu Districts (unpublished report), Haramaya University, Research and Extension Office.
Tomas Jane and Rojas-Molia Marim, 2010. Faba bean breeding for disease resistance: Field crops Research (2010,
115(3):297-307. National Center for Biodiversity information at USA. htt://www.sciencedirect.com/.
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6.3 Scaling-up of Improved Groundnut Seed along with Management of Rootrot through
Seed Revolving Strategy in Dire Dawa and Harari Region and Gursum and Babile
Districts of East Hararghe Zone of Oromia Region, Ethiopia
Teklemariam Keneni, Moges Dereje, and Adamu Tefera
Abstract: Due to numerous diseases and insect pests of groundnut to a much larger extent than many
other crops, there is less domestic production of groundnut. Per capita consumption of edible oil in
1995 in urban and rural areas was 3.55 and 0.55 kg/annum, respectively, which is by far less than the
recommendation of 6.9 kg/capita/year made by Ethiopian Nutrition and Health Institute for
adequate nutrition. Pre-extension demonstration on groundnut root rot disease management has been
made for the last two years using seed treatment with and without mancozeb. Improved groundnut
seed along with the management of root rot through seed revolving strategy by using model farmers
has been made in Babile and Gursum districts, Harari region, and Dire Dawa administrative council
with the objective of scaling-up the technology. A total of 150 farmers were selected from the
indicated study areas based on farmers’ interest to use the package, trend in groundnut production,
and accessibility for continuous follow up. Practical training on the application of the package was
given to the farmers. A total of 30 quintals of improved groundnut seed were distributed along with
12 kg mancozeb fungicide. Trials of seed treatment with mancozeb fungicide and pure seed had
shown more than 58% yield increment and the farmers’ interest has increased to use the packages.
Generally, the result revealed that the technology reduced the groundnut production failure due to
root rot; farmers’ knowledge and skill increased on the adoption of the technology and groundnut
production increased from 11.5 qt/ha to 17.6 qt/ha.
Keywords: Groundnut Rootrot Management; Improved Groundnut Seed; Seed Revolving Strategy
Introduction
Groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) is one of the world’s principal oil seeds. It is grown in countries having warm climates at
altitudes ranging 500-1700 m.a.s.l. throughout the world where other crops can’t be produced due to drought (Freeman
et al., 1999). It is the 6th important oilseeds in the world. It is grown on 26.4 million ha worldwide with a total production
of 37.1 million metric tons and an average productivity of 1.4 ton/ha. Its production is largely concentrated in Africa
and Asia, accounting for 40% and 56% of the global area and 25% and 68% of the global production, respectively
(Nigum et al., 2004). In Ethiopia groundnut is the 2nd economically important oilseed crop after noug and largely
produced in the eastern part of the country (Getnet and Nigussie, 1992). It serves as a source of cash, food with high
protein, carbohydrate and fat contents for many small scale farmers. The estimated total land under groundnut in the
country is 41,578.7 ha. Among the 16 high yielding groundnut varieties developed in Ethiopia, 9 were suitable for the
eastern part of the country. Despite this fact, its productivity remained very low, which is only about 7.5-11.1 qt/ha of
dry pods compared to 18-25 qt/ha yield potential of the improved varieties.
The major factors for the low productivity groundnut are low level of technology interventions, less accessibility to
groundnut packages, groundnut root rot disease and drought. The study conducted by Tarekegn et al. (2007) at different
sites of Babile district found that soil born fungi were mainly responsible for root rot of groundnut and seed treatment
with mancozeb at the rate of 4 gms/kg seed was very effective in reducing the diseases and improving the yield. Efforts
were made by HU in demonstrating and promoting these recommended packages during the years 2008, 2009 and 2010
in Babile and Gursum districts; Harai Region and Dire Dawa Administrative Council. Plots planted with mancozeb
treated seeds had higher plant stand and resulted in higher yields and the farmers’ showed interest to use the technology.
The objective of this project was to scale up the groundnut packages through seed revolving strategy in Babile, Gursum,
Dire Dawa and Harai region to minimize groundnut root rot disease risk and thereby increase the groundnut
productivity from about 8-11qt/ha to 14-22 qt/ha during 2010/11.
Methodology
Sampling, training and package distribution
A total of 150 farmers, 30 from Dire Dawa, 40 from Harari regions, 40 from Babile, and 40 farmers from Gursum
districts were selected based on their interest to use the packages, potential for groundnut production, and accessibility
for continuous follow up. Practical training was given to the framers and respective development agents on the
application and care to be taken in the use of the chemical. The dressing was done in the presence of development
agents and the farmers just during sowing time. Four types of improved groundnut varieties were used. These are Roba,
W-961, Sedi and Sulamith. The seeding rate used were 110, 70, 60, and 100 kg/ha, respectively. A total of 30 qt of
groundnut and 12 kg of mancozeb were distributed to the four locations. A field day was organized and different
stakeholders participated, and discussion was made regarding to the package. Most of the participants and followers
200
showed interest to get these technologies from the university/district or through organizing themselves. The farmers
mentioned the seriousness of the groundnut root rot and the necessity of the use of the chemical in the future.
Data collection and analysis

Response of farmers and field day participants on the package was gathered; farmers’ field were observed to evaluate the
crop stands. The entire farmers’ groundnut dry pod yield data were collected and analyzed using descriptive statistics.

Farmers involved in groundnut seed multiplication using the package through revolving seed strategy increased their
groundnut production on average from 8 qt/ha to 17.6 qt/ha (Table 6.10). The result shows that using the integrated
groundnut technology (mancozeb and improved seed together) minimized crop failure due to groundnut root-rot and
increased groundnut production by 58%. The table also shows that there are yield differences among the four varieties,
and Roba stood 1st, Shulamith 2nd, w-961 3rd and Sedi last. This was also true for market demand as the respondents said
during the first demonstration. However, their maturity date is the reveres, and Sedi is the earliest (85days), followed by
W-961 (95 days), and Shulamith (130 days). Farmers selected the varieties during previous demonstrations based on
maturity date, market demand, yield performance, seed size and color, nature of vegetative growth (erect or runners,
usually they prefer the erected one because of the ease of work).
Table 6.10. Results of scaling-up of improved groundnut varieties over locations
Region/ No of Average plot seed/Farm- Average Average

No. District PA farme-rs Variety size in ha er in kg yield/plot (qt) yield/ha (qt)
1. Babile Ab/kadir 20 w-961 0.22 15 4.10 18.20
Tulla 20 Roba, 0.22 15 4.60 21.80
2. Gursum K/Oromia 8 Wrere-961 0.25 15 4.40 17.50
Awdal 8 Wrere-961 0.25 15 4.25 17.00
Elalami 7 Wrere-961 0.25 15 4.10 16.20
Odaoromia 4 Wrere-961 0.25 15 4.40 17.80
3 Shulamith 0.19 15 3.60 19.20
3. Harari Kile 30 Roba 0.19 15 4.20 22.40
Waldaya 10 Roba 0.19 15 3.30 16.50
4. D/Dawa Awale 40 Sedi 0.25 15 2.00 13.50
Total 150 4 22.50 qts
Grand means (over location) 17.60
Conclusion
Using integrated groundnut root-rot management through seed dressing with mancozeb fungicide and improved seed
showed to be an effective method of minimizing the challenge from groundnut root-rot. A seed multiplication through
revolving seed strategy is found to be one of the best way of extension methods in the scaling-up of the groundnut
technology to the wider community, which has lead to increase in groundnut productivity from 8 qts/ha to 14-22 qt/ha,
thereby improving seed shortage of the area. That means, participating farmers in seed multiplication served as an
ambassador in disseminating the technology to adjacent kebeles. Field day is also another effective extension method
that helped as additional tool for disseminating the technology.
References
Adugna Waktola, 1992a. Groundnut Breeding in Ethiopia. Oilseeds Research and Development in Ethiopia:
Proceedings of the first National Oilseeds Workshop, 3-5 December 1991, IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 51-56 pp.
Freeman, H.A., Nihgam, S.N., Nklley,T.G., Ntare, B.R., Subrahamanyan, P. and Boughton, D.,1999. The World
groundnut Economy, Facts Trends and Outlook. Iicrust, 502324, Ptancher, India. 52 p.
Haramaya University Research and Extension Office, 2010, Annual Report.htt://www.haramaya.edu.et accessed on 29
September 2010.
Nigum, S.N.:Giri A.V. and Redy, A.G.S., 2004. Groundnut Seed Production Manual. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra
Pradesh, India: International Crop Research Institution for the Semi arid Tropics. 32 pp.
Tarekegn Gelata, Purshotun K. Shakhuja, Wijnanad J. Swart and Tamado Tona, 2007. Integrated Management of
Groundnut Root-rot Using Seed Quality and fungicide Seed Treatment. Integrated Journal of Pest Management, 3(1): 53-
57.
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6.4 Scaling-up of improved Teff variety (Kuncho-RIL-355) through Seed Revolving Strategy
in Gurawa and Tullo Districts, East and West Hararghe Zones
Nigussie Dechasa, Teklemariam Keneni, Moges Dereje and Adamu Tefera
Abstract: Teff is endemic to Ethiopia and it is adapted well to the changing environment resulting to
lower risk to the farmers. In some environments where farmers may face complete crop failure due
to moister stress, teff is the crop of choice to be harvested. It is estimated that teff contributes 4 to 5
billion Birr to the gross domestic product of the country annually. The major limitation of teff
production in the eastern part of the country is its low grain yield due to low teff technology
intervention and less accessibility to improved seed. To address these constraints, Haramaya
University extension team had conducted pre-extension demonstration in Gurawa district of East
Hararghe Zone and Tullo and Habro districts of Western Hararghe Zone during 2010. The target
farmers got better yield as a result of the intervention and the follower farmers have shown high
interest to use this technology to improve their teff production. The main objective of this project was
to scale up improved teff variety (Kuncho-RIL-355) through seed revolving strategy in Tullo and
Gurawa districts during 2011 and thereby improve teff productivity and reduce seed shortage. The
project areas were identified based on suitability of the agro-ecologies, accessibility for continuous
follow up, and district’s willingness to seed revolving strategy. Selection of number of peasant
associations per district and number of target farmers per PA was decided in consultation with
districts agricultural and rural development offices. Target farmers were selected based on their
willingness to transfer the amount of seed they received to follower farmers at harvest, to follow
appropriate agronomic practices during the implementation process, and to give full information
about the technology to the researchers when required. A total of 250 target farmers were selected
from the two districts (150 from Gurawa and 100 from Tullo). Refreshment training was given to
farmers and Kebele development agents. About 13 qts of Kuncho teff variety was distributed to a
total of 250 farmers. Teff productivity of participant farmers has increased from 9 qts to 15.2 qts/ha
on average (more than 60% yield increment). The same amount of seed was collected from the first
receivers and transferred to the followers during 2012 through the respective districts and Kebele
extension agents. The method is considered as one of the extension approaches to transfer and scale-
up improved technologies, especially of teff to the wider community if the districts, Kebele level
extension agents, and other concerned stakeholders give the necessary attention for its effective
implementation.
Keywords: Teff-technology; Scaling-up; Revolving Seed Approach
Introduction
Teff (Eragrostis tef) is one of the ancient and most important indigenous staple cereal crops grown in Ethiopia. Teff has
paramount importance in alleviating food deficiency, as it is one of the principal cereals grown in the country. Teff
occupies the largest acreages 2.21 million hectares covering 28% of the total land area under cereals with annual
production of 2.29 millions tons in the country (CSA, 2005). The principal use of teff grain is for making Injera, a major
staple food in Ethiopia. Teff is highly nutritious and ranked second by FAO next to peanut in terms of kilo caloric
compared to all other crops (FANTA, 2004); and it provides about two-third of human nutrition in Ethiopia (Uraga,
1997).
Economically, both the grain and the straw of teff fetch higher domestic market prices than other cereals and also
internationally exported. According to Staliknechet et al. (1993) teff grain has already found a niche as grain and flour in
the healthy food market of the United States. Teff is adapted to diverse agro-ecologies from sea level up to 2800 m.a.s.l
in Ethiopia, and grows well under stress environment better than other cereal crops known worldwide. To date, 4395
teff germplasm have been preserved by the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation of Ethiopia (Demissie, 2000). Twenty
improved teff varieties that give from 14-25 qt /ha on farmers’ field and 18-35 qt/ha on research stations have been
developed and recommended for the different agro-ecologies since 1970 (Ashok et al., 2005; MoARD, 2006). A number
of extension activities have also been conducted in disseminating teff technologies in different parts of the country
(Teklu et al., 2001; HU, 2010). In spite of huge efforts made in developing and transferring tef technologies in the
country, its productivity still ranges from 7.40-9.80 qt/ha in the eastern part of Ethiopia, especially in East and west
Hararghe Zones, due to less accessibility to improved teff technology and weak extension efforts (EHZARD and
WHZARD, 2009).
To this end, efforts were made by Haramaya University in demonstrating teff variety (Kuncho- RIL-355) technology in
Gurawa district of East Hararghe Zone and Tullo and Habro districts of West Hararghe Zone using 12 target farmers’
during the year 2010 and the farmers obtained better yield (17.2 qt/ha on average). As a result, the follower farmers
showed high interest to use this technology to improve their teff production. Therefore, the objective of this project was
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to scale-up Kuncho teff variety with its production package through seed revolving strategy in Tullo and Gurawa
districts during 2011 to improve teff productivity and thereby alleviate improved teff seed shortage of the areas.
Methodology
The project areas were selected based on the suitability for Teff production, accessibility for continuous follow up and
districts’ agreement to implement the project. The selection of the number of peasant associations per district and
number of target farmers per PA was decided in consultation with the respective districts agricultural and rural
development offices. A total of six Kebeles, three from each district, were selected based on its teff production potential
and inclination of farmers towards production of Teff. Target farmers were selected based on their agreement and
willingness to share the amount of seed they received for the nearby follower farmers after harvest, and allot about 2000
m2 plots of land for technology promotion (on the basis of 5 kg seed/farmer), willingness to follow appropriate
agronomic practices during the implementation process, give full information about the technology to the researchers
and other farmers when required.
A total of 250 target farmers in equal proportion were selected from the two districts. Agreement was signed between
the districts, the target farmers and Haramaya University (HU) to transfer the amount of seed they received to the
follower farmers’ at harvest. Refreshment training was given to the farmers and the respective Kebeles development
agents about the technology. About 12.5 qt of improved teff seed was distributed to 250 farmers in June 2011. Field
supervisions were made by HU extension team at appropriate time for the seed quality control. Farmers’ day was
organized at vegetative stage of the crop. Experience sharing was made among different stakeholders such as 25
researchers, 35 follower farmers, 9 government bodies, and 4 NGOs. As to the extension methods, training, field days
and group and individual extension methods were used. All the necessary data such as response of the stakeholders,
grain yield performance of the variety on each farmer’s plot and other relevant comments were recorded during the
project preparation as well as implementation periods.

Distribution of seed through seed revolving strategy was found to be one of the best approaches in scaling-up
technologies and thereby improving seed supply of the area. That means, participating farmers in seed multiplication
using such strategy helps to enhance the process of technology promotion and dissemination to the wider community.
Farmer’s knowledge and skill increased through adoption of the seed revolving strategy/approach. Farmers teff
production was increased from 9 to 15.2 qt/ha (by more than 60%). Different stakeholders appreciated the revolving
seed strategy during farmers’ day and suggested to be used as an approach in disseminating similar types of technologies
for other crops like potato, wheat, and field pea since these crops do not easily cross pollinated. The strategy can also
address many farmers in a short time and less cost. But it needs carful follow up by the districts and Kebeles extension
agents including HU extension team in the implementation process to control seed quality. The same amount of seed
was collected from the first receivers and transferred to 250 follower farmers to be grown during 2012.
Table 6.11 shows that better teff grain yield performance was recorded in Gurawa district especially in Rasa Janata
Kebele (17.5 qt/ha) and the least yield in Tullo district in Kirakufis Kebel (12.9 qt/ha). According to the respondents,
“un-even yield performance was because of irregular rainfall distribution”. The average yield of teff in Gurawa district
was 16.7 qt/ha and that of Tullo was 13.7 qt/ha. The overall grand mean of teff yield across the two districts was about
15.2 qt/ha, which is far better than the yield of traditional teff production system (7.40- 9.80 qt/ha) of the areas.
Table 6.11. Teff yield performance at sample farmers in the two district during 2011 (n= 250 farmers)
No of Seed/PA Seed/farme Average Average

No Districts Name of PAs farmers (qt) rs (kg) yield/plot (qt) yield/ha (qt)
1. Gurawa L/ilatatesa 80 4 5 3.10 15.80
L/somolo 40 2 5 3.40 16.70
R/janata 30 1.5 5 3.50 17.50
Sub Total 3 150 7.5 50.00
Mean 16.70
2. Tullo/Hirna K/kufis 30 1.5 5 2.60 12.90
R/fura 40 2 5 2.70 13.70
O/nagaya 30 1.5 5 2.90 14.50
Sub Total 3 100 5 41.10
Mean 13.70
Grand total 6 250 12.5 91.10
Grand mean 15.20
Source: Field data, Average area (plot) used per farmers was 0.2 ha
203
Conclusions
Distribution of seed through seed revolving strategy was found to be one of the best approaches in scaling up of teff
technologies and thereby improving seed shortage constraints in the area. Field days was also found to be another
effective extension method that can help as additional tool for disseminating the technology, since many stakeholders
gather and make discussions on the issue for its applicability in the context of technology scaling-up. Farmers’ teff
production on average increased from 9 to 15.2 qt/ha as a result of utilizing teff technology. From the result of scaling-
up project, we can conclude that using improved technology improves productivity and food security. It was believed
that at least about 750 farmers will be reached through the revolving seed strategy at the end of 2013 if its
implementation process is properly followed.
References
Daniel Tilahun, 2008. Adoption and Intensity of Use of Teff Technology Package in Yilmana Densa District, West
Gojam Zone, Amahara Region, MSc Thesis. Submitted to Haramaya University, Ethiopia.
Ashok. K. , Sarial L. and Gugsa,2005. Genetic Improvement of Teff (Eragrostis tef): Past Achievement and Future
Challenges for alleviating poverty and Enhancing Development in Ethiopia, Proceedings of the “ Conference on
poverty and Development in Ethiopia: Challenges and Options”Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 6-7 May 2005(eds.) Getnet
A. , Belay S. and Mulugeta F. PP. 102-127.
CSA (Central Statistics Agency), 2005. Agricultural Sample Survey. Agricultural sample Survey, 2004/05, volume I:
Report on area production of major crops (private peasant holdings, Maher Season). Statistical Bulletin 305. Addis
Ababa.
Demissie Abebe, 2000. Tef Genetic Resources in Ethiopia. In: narrowing the Rift, Tef Research and Development,
Proceedings f the “International Workshop on Tef Genetics and Improvement” Debre Zeit, Ethiopia, 16-19
October 2000(eds) Tefera H.Belay G. AND Sorrells M.pp. 27-31.
East Hraraghe Zone Agricultural and Rural Development. 2009. Annual Report.
FANTA, Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance, 2004. Htt://www.fantaproject.org/
HURE (Haramaya University Research and Extension).2010. Pre-extension demonstration of improved tef
variet(Kuncho- RIL-355) in Gurawa district East Hararghe Zone and Tullo district West Hararghe Zone.
Unpublished report, Haramaya University Research and extension office.
Moard (Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development) ,2006. Crops varieties Manual,2006, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Staliknecht, G. F., Giberston K.M. and. Echof J.L., 1993. Teff: Food crops for humans and animals. pp.231-14. In: J.
Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.) new crops. Wiley, New York.
Teklu Tesfaye, Fassil K., Abera D., Elias Z. Kifu B. AND Legesse D., 2001.Teff Technology Transfer and Adoption. In:
Narrowing the Rift, Teff Research and development, Proceeding of the “International Workshop on Tef Genetics
and Improvement” Debra Zeit, ETHIOPIA, 16-19 October 2001(eds.) Tefera H., Belay G. and Sorrely M.pp. 255-
264.
Uraga K., Fite A. and Biratu E., 1007. Effect of natural fermentation on nutritional and ant nutritional factors of tef
(Eragrostis tef) Ethio.J.Health Development pp: 61-66.
West Hraraghe Zone Agricultural and Rural Development. 2009. Annual Report.
204

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Haramaya University Office of Research Affairs

Proceedings of the 29th Annual Research and Extension Review

Edited and compiled by:

Mengistu Urge (PhD)

Printed in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Inquires should be addressed to:

2. COLLEGE OF BUISNESS AND ECONOMICS ............................................ 104

3. COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES............. 124

4. COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES ........ 143

5. COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES ........................ 164

6. EXTENSION ACTIVITIES ................................................................................... 191

1. College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

Wassu Mohammed and Simeret Burga

1.1.1 Maintenance of Sweet Potato Genotypes at Haramaya University

Background and Justification

Materials and methods

Activities to be accomplished during the remaining period

Table 1.1. Sweet potato germplasms collection at Haramaya University

No. Variety No. Variety No. Variety No. Variety

1.1.2 Maintenance of Potato Genotypes at Haramaya University

Background and Justification

Materials and Methods

Completed Groundnut Research Activity

1.2.1 National Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Variety Trial

Keywords: Environment; Genotype; ICGV-88357; NC-AC-2748 X Chico

Results and Discussion

Table 1.3. Agronomic descriptions and yield of BaHa-jidu and BaHa-gudo

Mean dry pod yield t/ha Dry pod yield

On-going Groundnut Research Activities

1.3 Sorghum Research Program

Completed Breeding Activities

1.3.1 Regional Varity Trial for Highland Areas of Eastern Ethiopia

Highlight of the results

No. Variety Yield (kg/ha) Days to 50% flowering

Highlight of the result

No Entry Name Yield (kg/ha) Overall plant aspect* Remark

No Entry Name Yield (kg/ha) Overall plant aspect* Remark

No Entry Name Yield (kg/ha) Overall plant aspect* Remark

1.4 Small Cereals Research Program

Materials and Methods

Results and Discussion

Altitu Stem rust Leaf rust Yellow rust

1.4.2 East African Wheat Rusts Trap Nursery (EAWRTN)

Materials and Methods

Results and Discussion

Set I. Commercial Varieties

Set III. Stem rust differentials

Entry No. Stem Rust Differentials Stem rust scoring

Set IV. Leaf rust differentials

Entry Leaf Rust Differentials Leaf rust scoring

1.5 Common Bean Research Programme

1.5.1 Regional Variety Trials

Table 1.10. Description of common bean regional variety trials

Trial title Market class No. of No. of No. of

1.5.2 Collaborative National Yield Trials (Ongoing activities)

1.5.3 On-farm and On-station Verification of Candidate Varieties

Table 1.11. Major characteristics of improved common bean varieties

Variety name Days to Yield (kg)

Origin and pedigree