DR.

RONALD BROWN (RONNIE)

Subject Coordinator
[email protected]
42213039
18.123

6 1 53 16 39

WEEK ONE:
Carbon Hydrogen Iodine Sulfur Yttrium
12.01 1.01 126.90 32.07 88.91

Learning Outcomes:
Be familiar with concepts: Demonstrate:
– Matter (composition and state) – Naming of compounds (molecular, ionic)
– Atomic structure (including electronic) – Writing chemical formulae
– Law of Conservation of Mass (by balancing chemical equations)
– Molecules and their representation
– Ions and ionic compounds
– Periodic table (trends and how it is used)
– Bonding types (covalent, ionic)

Chemistry is Often Called The Central Science

foundation for
larger systems

underlying
fundamentals

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Why Are Engineers Interested in Chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, and the changes it
undergoes.
- Brown, LeMay et al.

⚙ Engineering is the application of science and mathematics by which

the properties of matter and the sources of energy in nature are
made useful to people.
- Merriam-Webster

Borosilicate glass has high Why is concrete kept wet

thermal stability. Why? while it cures?
isoprene-based
polymer
(rubber)
flexible

iron & carbon Weeks 2-12 Extended

B2O3 (steel): stronger Project (Concrete)
(boron trioxide) aluminium-based
(alloy): lighter

Matter is Fundamental to Chemistry and Engineering

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
Matter can be classified based on its composition:

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Matter is Fundamental to Chemistry and Engineering
Matter can also be classified based on its state, eg. solid, liquid, gas.

solid ® gas: Law of Constant Composition: the relative

sublimation number of atoms of each element in the
compound is the same in any sample.

evaporation
freezing

eg. Ratio of H : O will be 2 : 1 for any sample

condensation melting of water.
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Concrete is a Heterogenous Mixture

Mixtures exhibit the properties of the substances that make them.
A heterogenous mixture varies in composition throughout the sample.
A homogenous mixture has the same composition throughout, i.e. components are
distributed uniformly in the same phase, eg. a solution.

Cross-section of concrete slab: calcium Solution of copper sulfate in water: ions

silicate hydrates, carbonates, sand and of an ionic compound (copper sulfate)
aggregates with an uneven distribution distributed evenly amongst molecules of
and non-uniform overall composition a compound (water) as a homogenous
(heterogenous mixture). mixture.
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Atoms Have Protons, Neutrons and Electrons
Most of the atom is actually space.

Atomic Mass Unit (u): 1 u = 1.66054 × 10–24 g

Protons and neutrons are roughly equal in mass.

(10 million Å in 1 mm) The relatively small mass of electrons is often
approximated to zero.

Atoms Have Protons, Neutrons and Electrons

Atomic Number = number of protons
- determines which element an atom is
- equal to number of electrons (atom is neutral overall)

Mass Number = protons + neutrons

- many elements naturally occur as isotopes (same element, different number of neutrons)
and therefore have varying mass numbers.

Notation:

Atomic Weight = an average mass found using all isotopes of an element weighted by their
relative abundances, used for performing calculations.

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How Are Electrons Configured in Atoms?
Iconic Depiction: Bohr Model:

energy level increases

Shell (n) Max. Electrons
1 2
comes from
2 8
3 8
4 18

Upon the discovery that subatomic particles exhibit wave-particle duality, a more complex
model was developed using quantum mechanics.
Within each shell, the 3D space within which electrons are most likely to be found has a
specific shape defined by the Schrodinger Equation. These are called orbitals.
s orbital: p orbital:
s = sharp p = principal

- There are also d orbitals (diffuse) and f orbitals (fundamental). Their shapes are more
complex: we will address these in the coming weeks. 9

The Periodic Table is Our Most Essential Resource

NOBLE GASES
ALKALI METALS

ALKALINE EARTH METALS

PNICTOGENS

CHALCOGENS

HALOGENS

T R A N S I T I O N M E TA L S

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Elements Are Metals, Non-Metals or Metalloids

– conduct heat and electricity.

– shiny, lustrous Solids (except Hg).

Tellurium (Te) Silicon (Si)

Antimony (Sb)

Boron (B)
– solid (eg. C), liquid (eg. Br), or gas (eg. Ne) at room temp. – properties are sometimes like metals and sometimes
like nonmetals.
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The Octet Rule, Valency and Lewis Structures

Bohr Model:

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We Can Represent Chemical Species Different Ways
Molecular compounds are composed of molecules
(almost exclusively non-metals).
Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine occur naturally as
diatomic molecules (not as single atoms, as in the case of the Noble Gases).

number of atoms of that element in one molecule of the compound

THIS sharing of electrons

is COVALENT BONDING.
Methane: Gives exact number of atoms of
each element in a compound.

Shows electronic information.

Lewis dot structure/diagram

(3D information)

Show order in which atoms are

attached.

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Atoms Gain or Lose Electrons to Form Charged Ions

When an atom gains or loses electrons, it becomes an ion.
– e– + e–
+ neutral –
cation atom anion
(protons = electrons)

Sometimes a group of atoms will gain or lose

electrons. These are polyatomic ions.

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Atoms Gain or Lose Electrons to Form Charged Ions

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Ions Form Ionic Compounds via Ionic Bonding

Ionic compounds (eg. NaCl) are generally formed between metals and nonmetals.

Electrons are transferred from the metal to the nonmetal. The oppositely charged ions
attract each other. This is IONIC BONDING.

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We Use Empirical Formulae for Ionic Compounds
For ionic compounds, an empirical formula is used. This gives the simplest whole number
ratio of atoms present in a compound.

vs.

Ionic Compound Molecules of a Compound

AB, i.e. A : B AB3

For ionic compounds, the ‘criss-cross’ method simplifies the process of deriving a formula.
- switch the digits from anion to cation and superscript to subscript (i.e. ‘criss-cross’).
- divide by common factor if possible.

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Nomenclature For Ions (And Their Acids)

Ions:
Polyatomic cations normally end in ‘-ium’.

For transition metals, specify charge

using Roman numerals in parentheses.

Name of metal, then ‘ion’.

Elemental anions end with ‘-ide’.

For related oxyanions, species with fewer O: ‘-ite’ and more O: ‘-ate’.
eg. SO 32− : sulfite, SO 42− : sulfate;
NO 2− : nitrite, NO 3− : nitrate

Acids of Anions:

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Prefixes Are Used for Naming Binary Molecules

The element closer to the left or bottom of the periodic

table is written first.
The number of atoms of each element per molecule is
specified using a prefix (unless it is one: mono is only used
on the second element).
⚙ The ending on the second element is changed to -ide.

CO2: carbon dioxide

N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide
CCl4:
CO:

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Organic Chemistry Has Its Own Nomenclature

Organic molecules are carbon-based.
Simple Hydrocarbons: Alkanes

(1 carbon) (2 carbons) (3 carbons)

(4 carbons = butane, then pentane, hexane, heptane, octane)

Simple Alcohols:

2
(isopropanol)

isomers

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Chemical Reaction Equations Must Be Balanced
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that
matter can neither be created nor destroyed within a closed system.
Therefore, in chemical reactions, there should be an equal number of atoms of each
element on both sides of the equation.
Stoichiometry is the relative ratio of reactants and products.
Combustion of Methane: Writing a Balanced Equation
When turning on a gas stove, methane burns with oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water.
Step 1. Write the equation (reactants ® products) indicates state (solid, liquid, gas,
aqueous)
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) ® CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
Step 2. Compare number of atoms of each element on both sides.

1C, 4H and 2O ® 1C, 2H and 3O

Step 3. If unbalanced, add coefficients in front of reactants/products. Start with atoms OTHER
than O and H, then balance H, then O. DO NOT CHANGE FORMULAE.

CH4 + 2O2 ® CO2 + 2H2O eg. 2H2O ≠ 2H2O2

1C, 4H and 4O ® 1C, 4H and 4O

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The Atoms Have Rearranged: Mass Was Conserved

+ +

one molecule two molecules one carbon two molecules

of methane of oxygen dioxide molecule of water

1C 4O 1C 2O
4H 2O 4H

Combustion reactions like this one are rapid and exothermic, producing a flame.
Realistically, incomplete combustion often occurs: insufficient O2 results in production of
carbon monoxide (CO).

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Acids React with Metals to Give Salts and Hydrogen
Relevant for Week 2 LAB 1
Example: Aluminium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid to give aluminium chloride and
hydrogen. Please provide the balanced chemical equation.

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Acids React with Metals to Give Salts and Hydrogen

Relevant for Week 2 LAB 1

More examples of reactions:

Mg(s) + 2 HCl (aq) ® MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Fe(s) + H2SO4 (aq) ® FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
…acid rain?
Related: why do Alkali Metals (eg. lithium, sodium, potassium) EXPLODE in water?

2 Cs(s) + 2 H2O (l) ® 2 CsOH (aq) + H2 (g)

2 H2(g) + O2 (g) ® 2 H2O (g)

Source: Open University (combustion)

This reaction is extremely rapid and exothermic: the heat produced can ignite the hydrogen.

The hydroxides produce an alkaline solution, leading to their group name (periodic table). 24
Acids React with Bases to Give Salts and Water
Relevant for Week 2 LAB 1

This is also called a neutralization reaction.

eg. hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide:

chemical equation: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) ® H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)

The reaction can be written as an ionic equation:

ionic equation: H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) ® H2O (l) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

net ionic equation: H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) ® H2O (l) these species are unchanged
from reactant to product and
are called spectator ions.

remove
spectator ions

Acids increase H+ concentration, bases increase OH- concentration.

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Acids React With Carbonates to Give Salts, CO2 and Water

Relevant for Week 2 LAB 1

Acid + Carbonate
eg. calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid:
CaCO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq) ® CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

Acid + Bicarbonate
eg. sodium bicarbonate and hydrochloric acid:
NaHCO3 (s)+ HCl(aq) ® NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

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Ions Can Exchange in Solution and Form Solids
Relevant for Week 2 LAB 1

If ions from different sources are mixed in solution, a precipitation may occur.

Example: when colourless lead nitrate solution is added to colourless potassium iodide solution,
insoluble yellow lead iodide precipitates immediately.
chemical equation: Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) ® PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq) ® PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

spectator ions

net ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) ® PbI2(s)

See Subject Handbook (p. 101) and Brown et al. 15th Ed. (p. 181)for solubility table to determine
which compounds are in the solid or aqueous phases (i.e. identifying the precipitate).

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Here Are Some Further Types of Chemical Reactions

SIMPLE SYNTHESIS: two reactants combine to form a single product:
A + B ® AB
Metal oxides in the earth give alkaline solution,
Example reactions: CaO(s) + H2O (l) ® Ca(OH)2(s)
leading to group name (alkaline earth metals).
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ® 2NH3(g)
Haber Process (industrial manufacture of ammonia).
DECOMPOSITION: opposite of synthesis: single product decomposes into two constituents:
AB ® A + B
Example reactions: 2KClO3(s) ® 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
CaCO3(s) ® CaO(s) + CO2(g)

DISSOLUTION: salts which are soluble dissolve and dissociate into their individual ions:
Example reactions: Is this a chemical reaction? Are bonds being broken?
KCl(s) ® KCl(aq), i.e. KCl(s) ® K+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Na2SO4(s) ® Na2SO4(aq), i.e. Na2SO4(aq) ® 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

DISPLACEMENT: one ionic species in an ionic compound is displaced by another in solution,

i.e. an exchange of ions occurs.
A + BX ® AX + B (single displacement), eg. Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ® ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
AX + BY ® AY + BX (double displacement/metathesis),
eg. BaBr2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) ® BaSO4(s) + 2KBr(aq)
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