Atomic Structure

The Science and

Engineering of
th
Materials, 4 ed
Donald R. Askeland – Pradeep P. Phulé

Chapter 2 – Atomic Structure

ABRIL-AGOSTO 2018 DECEM

 Atomic Structure

Objectives of Chapter 2
• The goal of this chapter is to describe the underlying physical
concepts related to the structure of matter.
• To examine the relationships between structure of atoms-bonds-
properties of engineering materials.
• Learn about different levels of structure i.e. atomic structure,
nanostructure, microstructure, and macrostructure.

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 Atomic Structure

Chapter Outline
• 2.1 The Structure of Materials: Technological
Relevance
• 2.2 The Structure of the Atom
• 2.3 The Electronic Structure of the Atom
• 2.4 The Periodic Table
• 2.5 Atomic Bonding
• 2.6 Binding Energy and Interatomic Spacing

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 Atomic Structure

Section 2.1
The Structure of Materials:
Technological Relevance
• Nanotechnology
• Micro-electro-
mechanical (MEMS)
systems-Airbag sensors
• Nanostructures

Figure 2.1

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 Atomic Structure

Table 2.1 Levels of Structure

Level of Structure Example of Technologies

Atomic Structure Diamond – edge of

cutting tools

Atomic Arrangements: Lead-zirconium-titanate

Long-Range Order [Pb(Zrx Ti1-x )] or PZT –
(LRO) gas igniters

Atomic Arrangements: Amorphous silica - fiber

Short-Range Order optical communications
(SRO) industry

Figures 2.2 – 2.4

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 Atomic Structure

Table 2.1 (Continued)

Level of Structure Example of Technologies

Nanostructure Nano-sized particles of

iron oxide – ferrofluids

Microstructure Mechanical strength of

metals and alloys

Macrostructure Paints for automobiles

for corrosion resistance

Figures 2.5 – 2.7

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 Atomic Structure

Section 2.2
The Structure of the Atom
 The atomic number of an element is equal to the
number of electrons or protons in each atom.
 The atomic mass of an element is equal to the average
number of protons and neutrons in the atom.
 The Avogadro number of an element is the number of
atoms or molecules in a mole.
 The atomic mass unit of an element is the mass of an
atom expressed as 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom.

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 Atomic Structure

Section 2.3 The Electronic Structure

of the Atom
• Quantum numbers are the numbers that assign electrons in an atom to
discrete energy levels.
• A quantum shell is a set of fixed energy levels to which electrons belong.
• Pauli exclusion principle specifies that no more than two electrons in a
material can have the same energy. The two electrons have opposite
magnetic spins.
• The valence of an atom is the number of electrons in an atom that
participate in bonding or chemical reactions.
• Electronegativity describes the tendency of an atom to gain an electron.

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 Atomic Structure

Quantum Numbers

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

N: he quantum shell to which
the electron belongs. A
quantum shell is a set of fixed
energy levels to which
electrons belong.

Figure 2.8 The atomic structure of sodium, atomic number

11, showing the electrons in the K, L, and M quantum shells

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 Atomic Structure

The number of energy levels in each quantum shell is determined by the azimuthal quantum
number l and the magnetic quantum number ml.

l = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n -1

S for l =0, p for l=1, d for l=2, for l=3

The number of values for the magnetic quantum number ml gives the number of energy levels, or
orbitals, for each azimuthal quantum number. The total number of magnetic quantum numbers for
each l is 2l + 1. The values for ml are given by whole numbers between +l and -l.

No more than two electrons with opposing electronic spins (ms +1/2 and -1/2) may be present in
each orbital.

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 Atomic Structure

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.9 The complete set of quantum numbers for each
of the 11 electrons in sodium

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 Atomic Structure

7s 7p 7d
6s 6p 6d 6f
5s 5p 5d 5f
4s 4p 4d 4f
3s 3p 3d
2s 2p
1s

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 Atomic Structure

Valence The valence of an atom is the number of

electrons in an atom that participate in bonding or
chemical

Atomic Stability and Electronegativity

Electronegativity describes the tendency of an atom to

gain an electron. Atoms with almost completely filled
outer energy levels

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 Atomic Structure

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.10 The electronegativities of selected elements
relative to the position of the elements in the periodic table

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Section 2.4 The Periodic Table

• III-V semiconductor is a semiconductor that is based on group 3A and 5B elements
(e.g. GaAs).
• II-VI semiconductor is a semiconductor that is based on group 2B and 6B elements
(e.g. CdSe).
• Transition elements are the elements whose electronic configurations are such that
their inner “d” and “f” levels begin to fill up.
• Electropositive element is an element whose atoms want to participate in chemical
interactions by donating electrons and are therefore highly reactive.

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 16
Figure 2.11 (a) and (b) Periodic Table of Elements
Atomic Structure

DECEM
© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™
The Periodic Table
© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™
 Atomic Structure

Section 2.5 Atomic Bonding

• Metallic bond, Covalent bond, Ionic bond, van der Waals bond are the different types
of bonds.
• Ductility refers to the ability of materials to be stretched or bent without breaking
• Van der Waals interactions: London forces, Debye interaction, Keesom interaction
• Glass temperature is a temperature above which many polymers and inorganic glasses
no longer behave as brittle materials
• Intermetallic compound is a compound such as Al3V formed by two or more metallic
atoms

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 Atomic Structure

The Metallic Bond

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.12 The

metallic bond forms
when atoms give up
their valence
electrons, which
then form an
electron sea. The
positively charged
atom cores are
bonded by mutual
attraction to the
negatively charged
electrons

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 Atomic Structure

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.13 When voltage is applied to a metal, the electrons
in the electron sea can easily move and carry a current

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 Atomic Structure

The Covalent Bond

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.14 Covalent bonding requires that electrons be
shared between atoms in such a way that each atom has its
outer sp orbital filled. In silicon, with a valence of four, four
covalent bonds must be formed

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 Atomic Structure

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.15 Covalent bonds are directional. In silicon, a
tetrahedral structure is formed, with angles of 109.5°
required between each covalent bond

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 Atomic Structure

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.16 The tetrahedral structure of silica (Si02), which
contains covalent bonds between silicon and oxygen atoms
(for Example 2-6)

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 Atomic Structure

The Ionic Bond

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.18 An ionic bond is created between two unlike atoms

with different electronegativities. When sodium donates its
valence electron to chlorine, each becomes an ion; attraction
occurs, and the ionic bond is formed

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 Atomic Structure

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.19 When voltage is applied to an ionic material, entire

ions must move to cause a current to flow. Ion movement is
slow and the electrical conductivity is poor (for Example 2-8)

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 Atomic Structure

Van der Waals Bonding

London forces - Keesom forces, and Debye forces

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.20 Illustration of London forces, a type of a

van der Waals force, between atoms

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 Atomic Structure

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

Learning™

Figure 2.21 The Keesom interactions are formed as a result of

polarization of molecules or groups of atoms. In water,
electrons in the oxygen tend to concentrate away from the
hydrogen. The resulting charge difference permits the
molecule to be weakly bonded to other water molecules

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 Atomic Structure

Mixed Bonding

Figure 2.22 (a) In

polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
the chlorine atoms
attached to the polymer
chain have a negative
charge and the
hydrogen atoms are
Mixed Bonding positively charged. The
chains are weakly
bonded by van der
Waals bonds. This
additional bonding
makes PVC stiffer, (b)
When a force is applied
to the polymer, the van
der Waals bonds are
broken and the chains
slide past one another

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

Learning™

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 Atomic Structure

Many ceramic and semiconducting compounds, which are

combinations of metallic and nonmetallic elements, have a mixture
of covalent and ionic bonding. As the electronegativity difference
between the atoms increases, the bonding becomes more ionic. The
fraction of bonding that is covalent can be estimated from the
following equation:

where ΔE is the difference in electronegativities

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 Atomic Structure

2–6(a) Aluminum foil used for storing food weighs about 0.3 g per square inch. How many atoms of
aluminum are contained in this sample of foil?

2–6(b) Using the densities and atomic weights given in Appendix A, calculate and compare the number
of atoms per cubic centimeter in (a) lead and (b) lithium.

2.3 (a) How many grams are there in 1 amu of a material? (b) Mole, in the context of this book, is taken in
units of gram-mole. On this basis, how many atoms are there in a pound-mole of a substance? Callister Ed 5

Unidad de masa atómica

Para otros usos del término UMA, véase Uma (desambiguación). La unidad de masa atómica
unificada (símbolo «u»)1 o dalton (símbolo «Da»)2 es una unidad estándar de masa definid
como la doceava parte (1/12) de la masa de un átomo, neutro y no enlazado, de carbono-12, en
su estado fundamental electrónico y nuclear,3 y equivale a 1,660 538 921 (73) × 10−27 kg (valor
recomendado por CODATA).4 La masa de 1 mol de unidades (NA) de masa atómica equivale a 1 g.

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 Atomic Structure

2.9 Suppose an element has a valence of 2 an atomic

number of 27. Based only on the quantum numbers, how
many electrons must be present in the 3d energy level?

2.16 Plot the melting temperature of the elements in the 1A

column of the periodic table versus atomic number (i.e.,
plot melting temperatures of Li through Cs). Discuss this
relationship, based on atomic bonding and binding energy.

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 Atomic Structure

2.49. El enlace secundario entre moléculas de gas y una superficie

sólida es un método común para determinar el área superficial de los
materiales porosos. Al disminuir la temperatura de un sólido muy por
debajo de la temperatura ambiente, un volumen medido del gas se
condensa, formando una monocapa de moléculas que recubre la
superficie porosa. Para una muestra de 100 g de catalizador de cobre
fundido, es preciso un volumen de 9 x 103 mm 3 de nitrógeno
(medidos a presión y temperatura estándar, 0 C y 1 atm) para formar
una monocapa por condensación. Calcúlese el área superficial del
catalizador, en m2/kg. (Supóngase que el área que cubre una
molécula de nitrógeno es de 0.162 nm2 y recuérdese que, para un
gas ideal, pV=nRT, donde n es el número de moles de gas.)
Shalkeford.

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 Atomic Structure

Fuerzas interiónicas para un par de iones

Fundamentos de la ciencia e
ingeniería de materiales
Cuarta edición
William F. Smith

DECEM 32
 Atomic Structure

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 2.24 The force-distance curve for two materials,

showing the relationship between atomic bonding and the
modulus of elasticity, a steep dFlda slope gives a high
modulus

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Atomic Structure

Fundamentos de la ciencia e
ingeniería de materiales
Cuarta edición
William F. Smith

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 Atomic Structure

Figure 2.23 Atoms or

ions are separated by
and equilibrium
spacing that
corresponds to the
minimum inter-atomic
energy for a pair of
atoms or ions (or
when zero force is
acting to repel or
attract the atoms or
ions)

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

Learning™

DECEM 35
 Atomic Structure

Energías interiónicas para un par de iones

Fundamentos de la ciencia e ingeniería de

materiales
Cuarta edición
William F. Smith

DECEM 36
Atomic Structure

Introducción a la ciencia
de materiales para ingenieros
Sexta edición
JAMES F. SHACKELFORD

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Atomic Structure

Callistter Ed. 5

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Atomic Structure

William Smith Ed. 4

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