Questions and Problems • P-1

Questions and Problems

CHAPTER 1 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion Diffusion VMSE resource available
SS Student solution available in WileyPLUS Tensile Tests VMSE resource available
Metallic Crystal VMSE resource available

1.1 Select one or more of the following modern items Golf clubs
or devices and conduct an Internet search in order Golf balls
to determine what specific material(s) is (are) Kayaks
used and what specific properties this (these) Lightweight bicycle frames
material(s) possess(es) in order for the device/item 1.2 List three items (in addition to those shown in
to function properly. Finally, write a short essay in Figure 1.9) made from metals or their alloys. For
which you report your findings. each item, note the specific metal or alloy used
Cell phone/digital camera batteries and at least one characteristic that makes it the
Cell phone displays material of choice.
Solar cells 1.3 List three items (in addition to those shown in
Wind turbine blades Figure 1.10) made from ceramic materials. For each
Fuel cells item, note the specific ceramic used and at least one
Automobile engine blocks (other than cast characteristic that makes it the material of choice.
iron)
Automobile bodies (other than steel alloys) 1.4 List three items (in addition to those shown in
Space telescope mirrors Figure 1.11) made from polymeric materials. For
Military body armor each item, note the specific polymer used and at
Sports equipment least one characteristic that makes it the material
Soccer balls of choice.
Basketballs 1.5 Classify each of the following materials as to whether
Ski poles it is a metal, ceramic, or polymer. Justify each
Ski boots SS choice: (a) brass; (b) magnesium oxide (MgO);
Snowboards (c) Plexiglas®; (d) polychloroprene; (e) boron carbide
Surfboards (B4C); and (f) cast iron.

CHAPTER 2 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion Diffusion VMSE resource available
SS Student solution available in WileyPLUS Tensile Tests VMSE resource available
Metallic Crystal VMSE resource available

Fundamental Concepts an atomic weight of 53.9389 amu. On the basis

Electrons in Atoms of these data, confirm that the average atomic
weight of Cr is 51.9963 amu.
2.1 Cite the difference between atomic mass and
atomic weight. 2.3 Hafnium has six naturally occurring isotopes:
0.16% of 174Hf, with an atomic weight of 173.940
2.2 Chromium has four naturally-occurring isotopes: amu; 5.26% of 176Hf, with an atomic weight of
4.34% of 50Cr, with an atomic weight of 49.9460 175.941 amu; 18.60% of 177Hf, with an atomic
amu; 83.79% of 52Cr, with an atomic weight weight of 176.943 amu; 27.28% of 178Hf, with an
of 51.9405 amu; 9.50% of 53Cr, with an atomic atomic weight of 177.944 amu; 13.62% of 179Hf,
weight of 52.9407 amu; and 2.37% of 54Cr, with with an atomic weight of 178.946 amu; and 35.08%

• P-1
P-2 • Questions and Problems

of 180Hf, with an atomic weight of 179.947 amu. 2.14 (a) What electron subshell is being filled for the
Calculate the average atomic weight of Hf. rare earth series of elements on the periodic table?
2.4 Bromium has two naturally occurring isotopes: (b) What electron subshell is being filled for the
79
Br, with an atomic weight of 78.918 amu, and 81Br, actinide series?
with an atomic weight of 80.916 amu. If the average
atomic weight for Br is 79.903 amu, calculate the Bonding Forces and Energies
fraction-of-occurrences of these two isotopes. 2.15 Calculate the force of attraction between a K+
and an O2− ion the centers of which are separated
2.5 (a) How many grams are there in one amu of a
by a distance of 1.5 nm.
material?
(b) Mole, in the context of this book, is taken 2.16 The atomic radii of Li+ and O2− ions are 0.068
in units of gram-mole. On this basis, how many and 0.140 nm, respectively.
atoms are there in a pound-mole of a substance? (a) Calculate the force of attraction between
2.6 (a) Cite two important quantum-mechanical con- these two ions at their equilibrium interionic sepa-
cepts associated with the Bohr model of the atom. ration (i.e., when the ions just touch one another).

(b) Cite two important additional refinements (b) What is the force of repulsion at this same
that resulted from the wave-mechanical atomic separation distance?
model. 2.17 The force of attraction between a divalent cation
2.7 Relative to electrons and electron states, what and a monovalent anion is 8.02 × 10−9 N. If the
does each of the four quantum numbers specify? ionic radius of the cation is 0.060 nm, what is the
anion radius?
2.8 For the K shell, the four quantum numbers for
each of the two electrons in the 1s state, in the 2.18 The net potential energy between two adjacent
1 1
order of nlmlms, are 100 2 and 100(−2). Write the ions, EN, may be represented by the sum of
four quantum numbers for all of the electrons in Equations 2.9 and 2.11; that is,
the L and M shells, and note which correspond to A B
the s, p, and d subshells. EN = − + n (2.17)
r r
2.9 Give the electron configurations for the following
ions: Fe2+, Al3+, Cu+, Ba2+, Br−, and O2−. Calculate the bonding energy E0 in terms of the
SS parameters A, B, and n using the following
2.10 Sodium chloride (NaCl) exhibits predominantly procedure:
ionic bonding. The Na+ and Cl− ions have electron 1. Differentiate EN with respect to r, and then set
structures that are identical to which two inert the resulting expression equal to zero, because the
gases? curve of EN versus r is a minimum at E0.
The Periodic Table 2. Solve for r in terms of A, B, and n, which yields
2.11 With regard to electron configuration, what do r0, the equilibrium interionic spacing.
all the elements in Group VIIA of the periodic 3. Determine the expression for E0 by substitut-
table have in common? ing r0 into Equation 2.17.
2.12 To what group in the periodic table would an
2.19 For a K + −Cl − ion pair, attractive and repulsive
element with atomic number 119 belong?
energies EA and ER, respectively, depend on the
2.13 Without consulting Figure 2.8 or Table 2.2, de- distance between the ions r, according to
termine whether each of the following electron
configurations is an inert gas, a halogen, an alkali 1.436
EA = −
metal, an alkaline earth metal, or a transition r
metal. Justify your choices. 5.86 × 10 − 6
2 2 6 2 6 7 2 ER =
(a) 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s r9
(b) 1s22s22p63s23p6 For these expressions, energies are expressed
(c) 1s22s22p5 in electron volts per K + −Cl − pair, and r is the
distance in nanometers. The net energy EN is just
(d) 1s22s22p63s2 the sum of the preceding two expressions.
(e) 1s22s22p63s23p63d24s2 (a) Superimpose on a single plot EN, ER, and EA
(f) 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 versus r up to 1.0 nm.
 Questions and Problems • P-3

(b) On the basis of this plot, determine (i) the (b) Derive another expression for E0 in terms of
equilibrium spacing r0 between the K+ and Cl− ions, r0, C, and 𝜌 using a procedure analogous to the
and (ii) the magnitude of the bonding energy E0 one outlined in part (a).
between the two ions.
Primary Interatomic Bonds
(c) Mathematically determine the r0 and E0
values using the solutions to Problem 2.18 and 2.22 (a) Briefly cite the main differences among
compare these with the graphical results from ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding.
part (b). (b) State the Pauli exclusion principle.
2.20 Consider a hypothetical X+−Y− ion pair for 2.23 Make a plot of bonding energy versus melting
SS which the equilibrium interionic spacing and temperature for the metals listed in Table 2.3.
bonding energy values are 0.35 nm and −6.13 eV, Using this plot, approximate the bonding energy for
respectively. If it is known that n in Equation 2.11 copper, which has a melting temperature of 1085°C.
has a value of 10, using the results of Problem
2.18, determine explicit expressions for attractive Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding
and repulsive energies EA and ER of Equations 2.24 Explain why hydrogen fluoride (HF) has a
2.9 and 2.11. higher boiling temperature than hydrogen chlo-
2.21 The net potential energy EN between two adjacent ride (HCl) (19.4°C vs. −85°C), even though HF
ions is sometimes represented by the expression has a lower molecular weight.
C r Mixed Bonding
EN = − + D exp −
( 𝜌)
(2.18)
r 2.25 Compute the %IC of the interatomic bond for
in which r is the interionic separation and C, D, each of the following compounds: TiO2, ZnTe,
and 𝜌 are constants whose values depend on the SS CsCl, InSb, and MgCl2.
specific material. 2.26 (a) Calculate the %IC of the interatomic bond
(a) Derive an expression for the bonding energy for the intermetallic compound TiAl3.
E0 in terms of the equilibrium interionic separa- (b) On the basis of this result, what type of in-
tion r0 and the constants D and 𝜌 using the follow- teratomic bonding would you expect to be found
ing procedure: in TiAl3?
(i) Differentiate EN with respect to r, and set the Bonding Type-Material Classification Correlations
resulting expression equal to zero.
2.27 What type(s) of bonding would be expected for
(ii) Solve for C in terms of D, 𝜌, and r0. each of the following materials: brass (a copper-zinc
(iii) Determine the expression for E0 by substitu- alloy), epoxy, barium sulfide (BaS), solid xenon,
tion for C in Equation 2.18. bronze, nylon, and aluminum phosphide (AlP)?

CHAPTER 3 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion Diffusion VMSE resource available
SS Student solution available in WileyPLUS Tensile Tests VMSE resource available
Metallic Crystal VMSE resource available

Fundamental Concepts 3.4 For the HCP crystal structure, show that the ideal
3.1 What is the difference between atomic structure c/a ratio is 1.633.
and crystal structure? 3.5 Show that the atomic packing factor for BCC
is 0.68.
Unit Cells
3.6 Show that the atomic packing factor for HCP
Metallic Crystal Structures SS is 0.74.
3.2 If the atomic radius of aluminum is 0.143 nm, cal-
culate the volume of its unit cell in cubic meters. Density Computations
3.3 Show for the body-centered cubic crystal struc- 3.7 Iron has a BCC crystal structure, an atomic
ture that the unit cell edge length a and the atomic radius of 0.124 nm, and an atomic weight of
radius R are related through a = 4R∕√3. 55.85 g/mol. Compute and compare its theoretical
P-4 • Questions and Problems

density with the experimental value found in 3.17 Iodine has an orthorhombic unit cell for which
Table: Characteristics of Selected Elements after the a, b, and c lattice parameters are 0.479, 0.725,
Appendix E. and 0.978 nm, respectively.
3.8 Niobium has a BCC crystal structure, an atomic ra- (a) If the atomic packing factor and atomic radius
dius of 0.143 nm and an atomic weight of 92.91 g/mol. are 0.547 and 0.177 nm, respectively, determine
Calculate the theoretical density for Nb. the number of atoms in each unit cell.
3.9 Calculate the radius of an iridium atom, given (b) The atomic weight of iodine is 126.91 g/mol;
that Ir has an FCC crystal structure, a density of compute its theoretical density.
22.4 g/cm3, and an atomic weight of 192.2 g/mol. 3.18 Titanium has an HCP unit cell for which the ratio
3.10 Calculate the radius of a vanadium atom, given of the lattice parameters c/a is 1.58. If the radius of
that V has a BCC crystal structure, a density of the Ti atom is 0.1445 nm, (a) determine the unit
5.96 g/cm3, and an atomic weight of 50.9 g/mol. cell volume, and (b) calculate the density of Ti
3.11 A hypothetical metal has the simple cubic crystal and compare it with the literature value.
structure shown in Figure 3.3. If its atomic weight 3.19 Zinc has an HCP crystal structure, a c/a ratio of
is 70.4 g/mol and the atomic radius is 0.126 nm, 1.856, and a density of 7.13 g/cm3. Compute the
compute its density. atomic radius for Zn.
3.12 Zirconium has an HCP crystal structure and a 3.20 Rhenium has an HCP crystal structure, an
density of 6.51 g/cm3. atomic radius of 0.137 nm, and a c/a ratio of 1.615.
SS (a) What is the volume of its unit cell in cubic Compute the volume of the unit cell for Re.
meters? Polymorphism and Allotropy
(b) If the c/a ratio is 1.593, compute the values of 3.21 Iron undergoes an allotropic transformation at
c and a. 912°C: upon heating from a BCC (𝛼 phase) to an
3.13 Using atomic weight, crystal structure, and atomic FCC (𝛾 phase). Accompanying this transformation
radius data tabulated in Table: Characteristics of is a change in the atomic radius of Fe—from rBCC =
Selected Elements after Appendix E, compute the 0.12584 nm to rFCC = 0.12894 nm—and, in addition,
theoretical densities of lead, (Pb), chromium (Cr), a change in density (and volume). Compute the
copper (Cu), and cobalt (Co), and then compare percent volume change associated with this reaction.
these values with the measured densities listed in Does the volume increase or decrease?
this same table. The c/a ratio for cobalt is 1.623. Crystal Systems
3.14 Rhodium has an atomic radius of 0.1345 nm and 3.22 The accompanying figure shows a unit cell for a
a density of 12.41 g/cm3. Determine whether it has hypothetical metal.
an FCC or BCC crystal structure.
(a) To which crystal system does this unit cell
3.15 The atomic weight, density, and atomic radius for belong?
three hypothetical alloys are listed in the follow-
ing table. For each, determine whether its crystal (b) What would this crystal structure be called?
structure is FCC, BCC, or simple cubic and then (c) Calculate the density of the material, given
justify your determination. that its atomic weight is 141 g/mol.

Atomic Atomic +z
Weight Density Radius
Alloy (g/mol) (g/cm3) (nm)
A 77.4 8.22 0.125
90°
B 107.6 13.42 0.133
C 127.3 9.23 0.142

0.40 nm
3.16 The unit cell for tin (Sn) has tetragonal sym-
metry, with a and b lattice parameters of 0.583 O
+y
90° 90°
and 0.318 nm, respectively. If its density, atomic
weight, and atomic radius are 7.30 g/cm3, 118.69 0.30 nm
g/mol, and 0.151 nm, respectively, compute the 0.30 nm
atomic packing factor. +x
 Questions and Problems • P-5

3.23 Sketch a unit cell for the face-centered orthorhom- Note: Both of these directions are displayed in
bic crystal structure. Virtual Materials Science and Engineering (VMSE)
(accessed through all digital versions of the text) un-
Point Coordinates der Metallic Crystal Structures and Crystallography/
Crystallographic Directions/Unit Cell Directions:
3.24 List the point indices for all atoms that are asso-
Problem 1:
ciated with the BCC unit cell (Figure 3.2).
Direction 1
3.25 List the point indices of the titanium, barium, Direction 2
and oxygen ions for a unit cell of the perovskite Each image may be rotated (by click-and-drag), which
SS crystal structure (Figure 12.6). allows you to obtain a better 3D perspective of the
3.26 List the point indices of all atoms that are direction’s orientation.
associated with the diamond cubic unit cell 3.33 Within a cubic unit cell, sketch the following
(Figure 12.16). directions:
3.27 Sketch a tetragonal unit cell, and within that
1 1 113 (a) [1 1 0] (e) [1 1 1]
cell indicate locations of the 2 1 2 and 4 2 4 point
indices. (b) [1 2 1] (f) [1 2 2]
3.28 Sketch an orthorhombic unit cell, and within that (c) [0 1 2] (g) [1 2 3]
1 1 1 1
cell indicate locations of the 1 2 0 and 4 3 4 point (d) [1 3 3] (h) [1 0 3]
indices.
3.34 Determine the indices for the directions shown
3.29 Using the Molecule Definition Utility found in the in the following cubic unit cell:
“Metallic Crystal Structures and Crystallography”
and “Ceramic Crystal Structures” modules of +z
VMSE, which may be accessed through all digital
versions of this text, generate (and print out) a
three-dimensional unit cell for the intermetallic 1
2 B
1
compound AuCu3 given the following: (1) the unit 2
cell is cubic with an edge length of 0.374 nm, (2) A
gold atoms are situated at all cube corners, and
(3) copper atoms are positioned at the centers of
all unit cell faces. D
C
+y
Crystallographic Directions
1, 1
3.30 Draw an orthorhombic unit cell, and within that 2 2
cell a [121] direction.
+x
3.31 Sketch a monoclinic unit cell, and within that cell
a [011] direction. Note: All four of these directions are displayed
3.32 What are the indices for the directions indicated in Virtual Materials Science and Engineering (VMSE)
by the two vectors in the following sketch? (accessed through all digital versions of the text) un-
der Metallic Crystal Structures and Crystallography/
+z Crystallographic Directions/Unit Cell Directions:
Problem 2:
Direction 1
Direction A
Direction B
0.4 nm Direction C
Direction D
Each image may be rotated (by click-and-drag), which
+y allows you to obtain a better 3D perspective of the
0.3 nm
direction’s orientation.
3.35 Determine the indices for the directions shown
0.5 nm
in the following cubic unit cell:
+x

Direction 2 SS
P-6 • Questions and Problems
z z
+z

1
1 2
2 3
3 A 1
3 a2 a2
C
a3 a3
2
B D a1 a1
3
(a) (b)

+y z z
2
3 1, 1 1
2 2 3

+x

Note: All four of these directions are displayed a2 a2

in Virtual Materials Science and Engineering (VMSE) a3 a3
(accessed through all digital versions of the text) un-
der Metallic Crystal Structures and Crystallography/ a1 a1
(c) (d)
Crystallographic Directions/Unit Cell Directions:
Problem 3: the text) under Metallic Crystal Structures and
Direction A Crystallography/Crystallographic Directions/
Direction B Hexagonal Unit Cell Directions: Problem 4:
Direction C Direction A (for a)
Direction D Direction B (for b)
Each image may be rotated (by click-and-drag), which Direction C (for c)
allows you to obtain a better 3D perspective of the Direction D (for d)
direction’s orientation. Each image may be rotated (by click-and-drag),
3.36 (a) What are the direction indices for a vector which allows you to obtain a better 3D perspective of
2 1 the direction’s orientation.
that passes from point 3 11 to point 0 1 2 in a cubic
unit cell? 3.41 Using Equations 3.11a, 3.11b, 3.11c, and 3.11d,
(b) Repeat part (a) for a monoclinic unit cell. derive expressions for each of the three U, V, and
W indices in terms of the four u, v, t, and w indices.
3.37 (a) What are the direction indices for a vector that
1 1 1
passes from point 1 0 3 to point 2 1 2 in a tetragonal Crystallographic Planes
unit cell? 3.42 (a) Draw an orthorhombic unit cell, and within
(b) Repeat part (a) for a rhombohedral unit that cell a (210) plane.
cell. (b) Draw a monoclinic unit cell, and within that
3.38 For tetragonal crystals, cite the indices of direc- cell a (002) plane.
tions that are equivalent to each of the following 3.43 What are the indices for the two planes drawn in
directions: the following sketch?
(a) [001]
+z
(b) [110]
Plane 1
(c) [010] Plane 2

3.39 Convert the [100] and [111] directions into the

four-index Miller–Bravais scheme for hexagonal
unit cells.
3.40 Determine indices for the directions shown in the +y
0.2 nm

following hexagonal unit cells:

Note: All four of these directions are displayed 0.4 nm
in Virtual Materials Science and Engineering
0.4 nm
(VMSE) (accessed through all digital versions of +x
 Questions and Problems • P-7

Note: Both of these planes are displayed in +z

Virtual Materials Science and Engineering (VMSE)
1
(accessed through all digital versions of the text) 1 2
3
under Metallic Crystal Structures and Crystallography/
Crystallographic Planes/Unit Cell Planes: A
Problem 1:
Plane A 1
Plane B 2

Each image may be rotated (by click-and-drag), which 1

allows you to obtain a better 3D perspective of the B
2

plane’s orientation. +y

3.44 Sketch within a cubic unit cell the following planes: 1

2
(a) (0 1 1) (e) (1 1 1)
+x
(b) (1 1 2) (f ) (1 2 2)
(c) (1 0 2) (g) (1 2 3) Note: Both of these planes are displayed in
(d) (1 3 1) (h) (0 1 3) Virtual Materials Science and Engineering (VMSE)
3.45 Determine the Miller indices for the planes (accessed through all digital versions of the text) un-
shown in the following unit cell: der Metallic Crystal Structures and Crystallography/
Crystallographic Planes/Unit Cell Planes: Problem 3:
Plane A
Plane B
+z
Each image may be rotated (by click-and-drag), which
allows you to obtain a better 3D perspective of the
plane’s orientation.
3.47 Determine the Miller indices for the planes
2 shown in the following unit cell:
3

+z
A

+y

1
B 2

1
+x 2
B

A
Note: Both of these planes are displayed in +y
Virtual Materials Science and Engineering (VMSE)
(accessed through all digital versions of the text) 2
3
under Metallic Crystal Structures and Crystallography/ +x
Crystallographic Planes/Unit Cell Planes:
Problem 2:
Plane A Note: Both of these planes are displayed in
Plane B Virtual Materials Science and Engineering (VMSE)
Each image may be rotated (by click-and-drag), which (accessed through all digital versions of the text) un-
allows you to obtain a better 3D perspective of the der Metallic Crystal Structures and Crystallography/
plane’s orientation. Crystallographic Planes/Unit Cell Planes: Problem 4:
Plane A
3.46 Determine the Miller indices for the planes Plane B
shown in the following unit cell: Each image may be rotated (by click-and-drag),
which allows you to obtain a better 3D perspective of
the plane’s orientation.
P-8 • Questions and Problems

3.48 Cite the indices of the direction that results from

the intersection of each of the following pairs of

0.40 nm
planes within a cubic crystal:

0.46 nm
SS

0.50 nm
(a) the (100) and (010) planes
(b) the (111) and (111) planes
(c) the (101) and (001) planes. 0.30 nm
0.40 nm
3.49 Sketch the atomic packing of (a) the (100) plane 0.35 nm
for the BCC crystal structure, and (b) the (201) (001) (110) (101)
plane for the FCC crystal structure (similar to
Figures 3.11b and 3.12b). (a) To what crystal system does the unit cell
belong?
3.50 Consider the reduced-sphere unit cell shown in (b) What would this crystal structure be called?
Problem 3.22, having an origin of the coordinate
system positioned at the atom labeled O. For the (c) If the density of this metal is 8.95 g/cm3,
following sets of planes, determine which are determine its atomic weight.
equivalent:
3.53 Convert the (010) and (101) planes into the four-
(a) (001),(010), and (100) index Miller–Bravais scheme for hexagonal unit
(b) (110), (101), (011), and (1 10) cells.

(c) (1 1 1), (111), (1 11), and (111) 3.54 Determine the indices for the planes shown in
the following hexagonal unit cells:
3.51 The accompanying figure shows the atomic pack-
z z
ing schemes for several different crystallographic
directions for some hypothetical metal. For each
direction the circles represent only those atoms
contained within a unit cell; the circles are reduced
from their actual size.
a2 a2

a3 a3
0.40 nm
a1 a1
[100], [010] (a) (b)

0.50 nm z z

[001]

0.64 nm

a2 a2
[011], [101]
a3 a3

0.566 nm a1 a1
(c) (d)
[110]
Note: All four of these planes are displayed
in Virtual Materials Science and Engineering
(a) To what crystal system does the unit cell (VMSE) (accessed through all digital versions of the
belong? text) under Metallic Crystal Structures and
(b) What would this crystal structure be Crystallography/Crystallographic Planes/ Unit Cell
called? Planes: Problem 5:
Plane A (for a)
3.52 The accompanying figure shows three different Plane B (for b)
crystallographic planes for a unit cell of a hypo- Plane C (for c)
thetical metal. The circles represent atoms: Plane D (for d)
 Questions and Problems • P-9

Each image may be rotated (by click-and-drag), 3.64 Using the data for aluminum in Table 3.1, com-
which allows you to obtain a better 3D perspective of pute the interplanar spacings for the (110) and
the plane’s orientation. (221) sets of planes.
3.55 Sketch the (1101) and (1120) planes in a 3.65 Determine the expected diffraction angle for the
hexagonal unit cell. first-order reflection from the (113) set of planes
for FCC platinum when monochromatic radiation
Linear and Planar Densities of wavelength 0.1542 nm is used.
3.56 (a) Derive linear density expressions for FCC 3.66 The metal iridium has an FCC crystal structure.
[100] and [111] directions in terms of the atomic If the angle of diffraction for the (220) set of
radius R. planes occurs at 69.22° (first-order reflection) when
(b) Compute and compare linear density values monochromatic x-radiation having a wavelength
for these same two directions for silver. of 0.1542 nm is used, compute (a) the interplanar
spacing for this set of planes, and (b) the atomic
3.57 (a) Derive linear density expressions for BCC radius for an iridium atom.
[110] and [111] directions in terms of the atomic
radius R. 3.67 The metal rubidium has a BCC crystal struc-
ture. If the angle of diffraction for the (321) set
(b) Compute and compare linear density values of planes occurs at 27.00° (first-order reflection)
for these same two directions for tungsten. when monochromatic x-radiation having a wave-
3.58 (a) Derive planar density expressions for FCC length of 0.0711 nm is used, compute (a) the in-
(100) and (111) planes in terms of the atomic terplanar spacing for this set of planes, and (b) the
radius R. atomic radius for the rubidium atom.
(b) Compute and compare planar density values 3.68 For which set of crystallographic planes will a
for these same two planes for nickel. first-order diffraction peak occur at a diffraction
angle of 46.21° for BCC iron when monochro-
3.59 (a) Derive planar density expressions for BCC
matic radiation having a wavelength of 0.0711 nm
(100) and (110) planes in terms of the atomic
is used?
SS radius R.
3.69 Figure 3.25 shows the first four peaks of the
(b) Compute and compare planar density values
x-ray diffraction pattern for copper, which has an
for these same two planes for vanadium.
SS FCC crystal structure; monochromatic x-radiation
3.60 (a) Derive the planar density expression for the having a wavelength of 0.1542 nm was used.
HCP (0001) plane in terms of the atomic radius R.
(a) Index (i.e., give h, k, and l indices) for each of
(b) Compute the planar density value for this these peaks.
same plane for magnesium.
(b) Determine the interplanar spacing for each of
Polycrystalline Materials the peaks.
3.61 Explain why the properties of polycrystalline (c) For each peak, determine the atomic radius
materials are most often isotropic. for Cu and compare these with the value pre-
sented in Table 3.1.
X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures
3.62 The interplanar spacing dhkl for planes in a unit 3.70 Below are listed diffraction angles for the first
cell having orthorhombic geometry is given by four peaks (first-order) of the x-ray diffraction
pattern for chromium, which has a BCC crystal
structure; monochromatic x-radiation having a
1 h2 k2 l 2 wavelength of 0.0711 nm was used.
2
= 2+ 2+ 2
dhkl a b c
Plane Indices Diffraction Angle (2𝜽)
where a, b, and c are the lattice parameters. (110) 20.1°
(a) To what equation does this expression reduce (200) 28.5°
for crystals having cubic symmetry?
(211) 35.1°
(b) For crystals having tetragonal symmetry? (220) 40.8°
3.63 Using the data for molybdenum in Table 3.1,
compute the interplanar spacing for the (111) set (a) Determine the interplanar spacing for each of
of planes. the peaks.
P-10 • Questions and Problems

Figure 3.25
Diffraction pattern
for polycrystalline

Intensity (relative)
copper.

40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0

Diffraction angle 2𝜃

(b) For each peak, determine the atomic radius FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING QUESTIONS
for Cr, and compare these with the value pre- AND PROBLEMS
sented in Table 3.1. 3.1FE A hypothetical metal has the BCC crystal struc-
3.71 Below are listed diffraction angles for the first ture, a density of 7.24 g/cm3, and an atomic weight
three peaks (first-order) of the x-ray diffrac- of 48.9 g/mol. The atomic radius of this metal is
tion pattern for some metal. Monochromatic (A) 0.122 nm (B) 1.22 nm
x-radiation having a wavelength of 0.1254 nm (C) 0.0997 nm (D) 0.154 nm
was used.
3.2FE In the following unit cell, which vector repre-
(a) Determine whether this metal’s crystal struc-
sents the [121] direction?
ture is FCC, BCC, or neither FCC or BCC and
explain the reason for your choice. +z

(b) If the crystal structure is either BCC or FCC,

identify which of the metals in Table 3.1 gives this
2
diffraction pattern. Justify your decision. 3 A

1, 1
C 2 2
Peak Number Diffraction Angle (2𝜽)
1 31.2° 1
B
2
2 44.6° D
+y
3 55.4° 1
4

Noncrystalline Solids +x

3.72 Would you expect a material in which the atomic 3.3FE What are the Miller indices for the plane
bonding is predominantly ionic in nature to be shown in the following cubic unit cell?
more or less likely to form a noncrystalline solid (A) (201) (C) (10 2)
1
upon solidification than a covalent material? 1
Why? (See Section 2.6.) (B) (1∞ 2) (D) (102)
z

SPREADSHEET PROBLEM
3.1SS For an x-ray diffraction pattern (having all
peaks plane-indexed) of a metal that has a
1
unit cell of cubic symmetry, generate a spread- 2
sheet that allows the user to input the x-ray
wavelength, and then determine, for each plane, y
the following:
(a) dhkl a

(b) The lattice parameter, a a

x
 Questions and Problems • P-11

CHAPTER 4 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion Diffusion VMSE resource available
SS Student solution available in WileyPLUS Tensile Tests VMSE resource available
Metallic Crystal VMSE resource available

Vacancies and Self-Interstitials Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2

4.1 The equilibrium fraction of lattice sites that are Pd 0.1376 FCC 2.2 +2
vacant in gold at 800°C is 2.5 × 10−5. Calculate the Pt 0.1387 FCC 2.2 +2
number of vacancies (per meter cubed) at 800°C. +2
Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6
Assume a density of 18.45 g/cm3 for Au (at 800°C).
4.2 For some hypothetical metal the equilibrium Choose which of these elements you would expect
number of vacancies at 750°C is 2.8 × 1024 m−3. to form the following with copper:
If the density and atomic weight of this metal are (a) A substitutional solid solution having complete
5.60 g/cm3 and 65.6 g/mol, respectively, calculate solubility
the fraction of vacancies for this metal at 750°C.
(b) A substitutional solid solution of incomplete
4.3 (a) Calculate the fraction of atom sites that are solubility
vacant for lead at its melting temperature of 327°C
(c) An interstitial solid solution
SS (600 K). Assume an energy for vacancy formation
of 0.55 eV/atom. 4.7 Which of the following systems (i.e., pair of metals)
(b) Repeat this calculation at room temperature would you expect to exhibit complete solid solubil-
(298 K). ity? Explain your answers.
(c) What is ratio of N𝜐/N(600 K) and N𝜐 /N(298 K)? (a) Cr-V
4.4 Calculate the number of vacancies per cubic meter (b) Mg-Zn
in iron at 850°C. The energy for vacancy formation (c) Al-Zr
is 1.08 eV/atom. The density and atomic weight for
Fe are 7.65 g/cm3 and 55.85 g/mol, respectively. 4.8 (a) Compute the radius r of an impurity atom
that will just fit into an FCC octahedral site in
4.5 Calculate the activation energy for vacancy forma- terms of the atomic radius R of the host atom
tion in aluminum, given that the equilibrium number (without introducing lattice strains).
of vacancies at 500°C (773 K) is 7.57 × 1023 m−3. The
atomic weight and density (at 500°C) for aluminum (b) Repeat part (a) for the FCC tetrahedral site.
are, respectively, 26.98 g/mol and 2.62 g/cm3. (Note: You may want to consult Figure 4.3a.)
4.9 Compute the radius r of an impurity atom that
Impurities in Solids will just fit into a BCC tetrahedral site in terms
4.6 Atomic radius, crystal structure, electronegativity, of the atomic radius R of the host atom (without
and the most common valence are given in the introducing lattice strains). (Note: You may want
following table for several elements; for those that to consult Figure 4.3b.)
are nonmetals, only atomic radii are indicated.
4.10 (a) Using the result of Problem 4.8(a), compute the
Atomic radius of an octahedral interstitial site in FCC iron.
Radius Crystal Electro- (b) On the basis of this result and the answer to
Element (nm) Structure negativity Valence
Problem 4.9, explain why a higher concentration
Cu 0.1278 FCC 1.9 +2 of carbon will dissolve in FCC iron than in iron
C 0.071 that has a BCC crystal structure.
H 0.046 4.11 (a) For BCC iron, compute the radius of a tetrahe-
O 0.060 dral interstitial site. (See the result of Problem 4.9.)
Ag 0.1445 FCC 1.9 +1 SS
(b) Lattice strains are imposed on iron atoms
Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3 surrounding this site when carbon atoms occupy
Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2 it. Compute the approximate magnitude of this
strain by taking the difference between the carbon
Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
atom radius and the site radius and then dividing
Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2 this difference by the site radius.
P-12 • Questions and Problems

Specification of Composition in weight percent, C1. This computation is possi-

4.12 Derive the following equations: ble using the following expression:
(a) Equation 4.7a NAC1
N1 = (4.21)
(b) Equation 4.9a C1A1 A1
+ (100 − C1)
(c) Equation 4.10a 𝜌1 𝜌2

(d) Equation 4.11b where NA is Avogadro’s number, 𝜌1 and 𝜌2 are the

densities of the two elements, and A1 is the atomic
4.13 What is the composition, in atom percent, of an weight of element 1.
alloy that consists of 30 wt% Zn and 70 wt% Cu? Derive Equation 4.21 using Equation 4.2 and
4.14 What is the composition, in weight percent, of expressions contained in Section 4.4.
an alloy that consists of 6 at% Pb and 94 at% Sn? 4.26 Gold forms a substitutional solid solution with sil-
4.15 Calculate the composition, in weight percent, of ver. Compute the number of gold atoms per cubic
an alloy that contains 218.0 kg titanium, 14.6 kg of SS centimeter for a silver-gold alloy that contains 10
aluminum, and 9.7 kg of vanadium. wt% Au and 90 wt% Ag. The densities of pure gold
and silver are 19.32 and 10.49 g/cm3, respectively.
4.16 What is the composition, in atom percent, of an
alloy that contains 98 g tin and 65 g of lead? 4.27 Germanium forms a substitutional solid solution
with silicon. Compute the number of germanium
4.17 What is the composition, in atom percent, of an atoms per cubic centimeter for a germanium-silicon
alloy that contains 99.7 lbm copper, 102 lbm zinc, alloy that contains 15 wt% Ge and 85 wt% Si. The
and 2.1 lbm lead? densities of pure germanium and silicon are 5.32
4.18 Convert the atom percent composition in and 2.33 g/cm3, respectively.
Problem 4.17 to weight percent. 4.28 Consider an iron-carbon alloy that contains
4.19 Calculate the number of atoms per cubic meter 0.35 wt% C, in which all the carbon atoms reside in
in aluminum. tetrahedral interstitial sites. Compute the fraction
of these sites that are occupied by carbon atoms.
4.20 The concentration of carbon in an iron-carbon
alloy is 0.15 wt%. What is the concentration in 4.29 For a BCC iron-carbon alloy that contains
kilograms of carbon per cubic meter of alloy? 0.15 wt% C, calculate the fraction of unit cells
that contain carbon atoms.
4.21 The concentration of gallium in silicon is 5.0 ×
10−7 at%. What is the concentration in kilograms 4.30 For Si to which has had added 1.5 × 10−6 at%
of gallium per cubic meter? of arsenic, calculate the number of As atoms per
4.22 Determine the approximate density of a high- cubic meter.
leaded brass that has a composition of 64.5 wt% Cu, 4.31 Sometimes it is desirable to determine the weight
33.5 wt% Zn, and 2 wt% Pb. percent of one element, C1, that will produce a
4.23 Calculate the unit cell edge length for a 85 wt% specified concentration in terms of the number of
Fe–15 wt% V alloy. All of the vanadium is in solid atoms per cubic centimeter, N1, for an alloy com-
solution, and, at room temperature the crystal struc- posed of two types of atoms. This computation is
ture for this alloy is BCC. possible using the following expression:

4.24 Some hypothetical alloy is composed of 12.5 wt% 100

C1 = (4.22)
of metal A and 87.5 wt% of metal B. If the densi- NA𝜌2 𝜌2
ties of metals A and B are 4.27 and 6.35 g/cm3, re- 1+ −
N1A1 𝜌1
spectively, whereas their respective atomic weights
are 61.4 and 125.7 g/mol, determine whether the where NA is Avogadro’s number, 𝜌1 and 𝜌2 are the
crystal structure for this alloy is simple cubic, face- densities of the two elements, and A1 is the atomic
centered cubic, or body-centered cubic. Assume a weight of element 1.
unit cell edge length of 0.395 nm. Derive Equation 4.22 using Equation 4.2 and
4.25 For a solid solution consisting of two elements expressions contained in Section 4.4.
(designated as 1 and 2), sometimes it is desirable 4.32 Molybdenum forms a substitutional solid solu-
to determine the number of atoms per cubic cen- tion with tungsten. Compute the weight percent
timeter of one element in a solid solution, N1, of molybdenum that must be added to tungsten
given the concentration of that element specified to yield an alloy that contains 1.0 × 1022 Mo atoms
 Questions and Problems • P-13

per cubic centimeter. The densities of pure Mo 4.42 For each of the following stacking sequences
and W are 10.22 and 19.30 g/cm3, respectively. found in FCC metals, cite the type of planar defect
4.33 Niobium forms a substitutional solid solution with that exists:
vanadium. Compute the weight percent of niobium (a) . . . A B C A B C B A C B A . . .
that must be added to vanadium to yield an alloy (b) . . . A B C A B C B C A B C . . .
that contains 1.55 × 1022 Nb atoms per cubic cen-
Copy the stacking sequences, and indicate the
timeter. The densities of pure Nb and V are 8.57
position(s) of planar defect(s) with a vertical
and 6.10 g/cm3, respectively.
dashed line.
4.34 Electronic devices found in integrated circuits
are composed of very high purity silicon to which Grain Size Determination
has been added small and very controlled con- 4.43 (a) Using the intercept method determine the
centrations of elements found in Groups IIIA mean intercept length, in millimeters, of the speci-
and VA of the periodic table. For Si that has had men whose microstructure is shown in Figure 4.15b;
added 8.3 × 1021 atoms per cubic meter of anti- use at least seven straight-line segments.
mony compute (a) the weight percent and (b) the
(b) Estimate the ASTM grain size number for
atom percent of Sb present.
this material.
4.35 Silver and palladium both have the FCC crystal
4.44 (a) Employing the intercept technique, determine
structure, and Pd forms a substitutional solid solu-
the mean intercept length for the steel specimen
tion for all concentrations at room temperature.
whose microstructure is shown in Figure 9.25a; use
Compute the unit cell edge length for a 75 wt%
at least seven straight-line segments.
Ag–25 wt% Pd alloy. The room-temperature density
of Pd is 12.02 g/cm3, and its atomic weight and atomic (b) Estimate the ASTM grain size number for
radius are 106.4 g/mol and 0.138 nm, respectively. this material.
4.45 For an ASTM grain size of 8, approximately how
Dislocations—Linear Defects many grains would there be per square inch under
4.36 Cite the relative Burgers vector–dislocation line each of the following conditions?
orientations for edge, screw, and mixed dislocations. (a) A magnification of 100×
Interfacial Defects (b) Without any magnification
4.37 For an FCC single crystal, would you expect the 4.46 Determine the ASTM grain size number if
surface energy for a (100) plane to be greater or 25 grains per square inch are measured at a mag-
less than that for a (111) plane? Why? (Note: You nification of 600×.
may want to consult the solution to Problem 3.58 4.47 Determine the ASTM grain size number if
at the end of Chapter 3.) 20 grains per square inch are measured at a mag-
4.38 For a BCC single crystal, would you expect the nification of 50×.
surface energy for a (100) plane to be greater or 4.48 The following is a schematic micrograph that repre-
SS less than that for a (110) plane? Why? (Note: You SS sents the microstructure of some hypothetical metal.
may want to consult the solution to Problem 3.59
at the end of Chapter 3.)
4.39 For a single crystal of some hypothetical metal that
has the simple cubic crystal structure (Figure 3.3),
would you expect the surface energy for a (100)
plane to be greater, equal to, or less than a (110)
plane? Why?
4.40 (a) For a given material, would you expect the
surface energy to be greater than, the same as, or
less than the grain boundary energy? Why?
(b) The grain boundary energy of a small-angle
grain boundary is less than for a high-angle one.
Why is this so?
4.41 (a) Briefly describe a twin and a twin boundary.
(b) Cite the difference between mechanical and
annealing twins. 100 μm
P-14 • Questions and Problems

Determine the following: two-element metal alloy from weight percent to

(a) Mean intercept length atom percent.
(b) ASTM grain size number, G 4.2SS Generate a spreadsheet that allows the user
to convert the concentration of one element of
4.49 The following is a schematic micrograph that repre- a two-element metal alloy from atom percent to
sents the microstructure of some hypothetical metal. weight percent.
4.3SS Generate a spreadsheet that allows the user
to convert the concentration of one element of a
two-element metal alloy from weight percent to
number of atoms per cubic centimeter.
4.4SS Generate a spreadsheet that allows the user
to convert the concentration of one element of a
two-element metal alloy from number of atoms
per cubic centimeter to weight percent.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
4.1FE Calculate the number of vacancies per cubic
meter at 1000°C for a metal that has an en-
ergy for vacancy formation of 1.22 eV/atom, a
density of 6.25 g/cm3, and an atomic weight of
50 μm
37.4 g/mol.
(A) 1.49 × 1018 m−3
Determine the following:
(B) 7.18 × 1022 m−3
(a) Mean intercept length
(C) 1.49 × 1024 m−3
(b) ASTM grain size number, G
(D) 2.57 × 1024 m−3
DESIGN PROBLEMS 4.2FE What is the composition, in atom percent, of an
Specification of Composition alloy that consists of 4.5 wt% Pb and 95.5 wt% Sn?
4.D1 Aluminum–lithium alloys have been developed The atomic weights for Pb and Sn are 207.19 g/mol
by the aircraft industry to reduce the weight and and 118.71 g/mol, respectively.
SS improve the performance of its aircraft. A com- (A) 2.6 at% Pb and 97.4 at% Sn
mercial aircraft skin material having a density of (B) 7.6 at% Pb and 92.4 at% Sn
2.55 g/cm3 is desired. Compute the concentration
of Li (in wt%) that is required. (C) 97.4 at% Pb and 2.6 at% Sn
4.D2 Iron and vanadium both have the BCC crystal (D) 92.4 at% Pb and 7.6 at% Sn
structure and V forms a substitutional solid solution 4.3FE What is the composition, in weight percent, of an
in Fe for concentrations up to approximately alloy that consists of 94.1 at% Ag and 5.9 at% Cu?
20 wt% V at room temperature. Determine the con- The atomic weights for Ag and Cu are 107.87 g/mol
centration in weight percent of V that must be added and 63.55 g/mol, respectively.
to iron to yield a unit cell edge length of 0.289 nm. (A) 9.6 wt% Ag and 90.4 wt% Cu

SPREADSHEET PROBLEMS (B) 3.6 wt% Ag and 96.4 wt% Cu

4.1SS Generate a spreadsheet that allows the user (C) 90.4 wt% Ag and 9.6 wt% Cu
to convert the concentration of one element of a (D) 96.4 wt% Ag and 3.6 wt% Cu
 Questions and Problems • P-15

CHAPTER 5 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion Diffusion VMSE resource available
SS Student solution available in WileyPLUS Tensile Tests VMSE resource available
Metallic Crystal VMSE resource available
Introduction permitted to achieve a steady-state diffusion con-
5.1 Briefly explain the difference between self- dition. The diffusion coefficient for nitrogen in
diffusion and interdiffusion. steel at this temperature is 6 × 10−11 m2/s, and the
diffusion flux is found to be 1.2 × 10−7 kg/m2· s.
5.2 Self-diffusion involves the motion of atoms that Also, it is known that the concentration of nitrogen
are all of the same type; therefore it is not subject in the steel at the high-pressure surface is 4 kg/m3.
to observation by compositional changes, as with How far into the sheet from this high-pressure side
interdiffusion. Suggest one way in which self- will the concentration be 2.0 kg/m3? Assume a lin-
diffusion may be monitored. ear concentration profile.
Diffusion Mechanisms 5.10 A sheet of BCC iron 1 mm thick was exposed
5.3 (a) Compare interstitial and vacancy atomic to a carburizing gas atmosphere on one side and
mechanisms for diffusion. a decarburizing atmosphere on the other side at
(b) Cite two reasons why interstitial diffusion is 725°C. After having reached steady state, the iron
normally more rapid than vacancy diffusion. was quickly cooled to room temperature. The carbon
concentrations at the two surfaces of the sheet
5.4 Carbon diffuses in iron via an interstitial were determined to be 0.012 and 0.0075 wt%.
mechanism—for FCC iron from one octahedral Compute the diffusion coefficient if the diffusion
site to an adjacent one. In Section 4.3 (Figure 4.3a), flux is 1.4 × 10−8 kg/m2 · s. Hint: Use Equation 4.9 to
we note that two general sets of point coordinates convert the concentrations from weight percent to
1 111
for this site are 0 2 1 and 2 2 2. Specify the family kilograms of carbon per cubic meter of iron.
of crystallographic directions in which this diffu-
sion of carbon in FCC iron takes place. 5.11 When 𝛼-iron is subjected to an atmosphere of
hydrogen gas, the concentration of hydrogen in
5.5 Carbon diffuses in iron via an interstitial the iron, CH (in weight percent), is a function of
mechanism—for BCC iron from one tetrahedral hydrogen pressure, PH2 (in MPa), and absolute
site to an adjacent one. In Section 4.3 (Figure 4.3b) temperature (T) according to
we note that a general set of point coordinates
11 27.2 kJ∕mol
for this site are 1 2 4. Specify the family of crys-
CH = 1.34 × 10 − 2 √pH2 exp −
tallographic directions in which this diffusion of ( RT ) (5.14)
carbon in BCC iron takes place.
Furthermore, the values of D0 and Qd for this dif-
Fick’s First Law fusion system are 1.4 × 10−7 m2/s and 13,400 J/mol,
5.6 Briefly explain the concept of steady state as it respectively. Consider a thin iron membrane
applies to diffusion. 1 mm thick that is at 250°C. Compute the diffu-
sion flux through this membrane if the hydrogen
5.7 (a) Briefly explain the concept of a driving force. pressure on one side of the membrane is 0.15
(b) What is the driving force for steady-state MPa (1.48 atm), and on the other side 7.5 MPa
diffusion? (74 atm).

5.8 The purification of hydrogen gas by diffusion Fick’s Second Law—Nonsteady-State Diffusion
through a palladium sheet was discussed in
5.12 Show that
Section 5.3. Compute the number of kilograms
of hydrogen that pass per hour through a 5-mm- B x2
Cx = exp(−
thick sheet of palladium having an area of 0.20 m2 √Dt 4Dt )
at 500°C. Assume a diffusion coefficient of 1.0 ×
is also a solution to Equation 5.4b. The parameter
10−8 m2/s, that the concentrations at the high- and
B is a constant, being independent of both x and t.
low-pressure sides of the plate are 2.4 and 0.6 kg
Hint: From Equation 5.4b demonstrate that
of hydrogen per cubic meter of palladium, and
that steady-state conditions have been attained. B x2
∂[ exp(−
5.9 A sheet of steel 1.5 mm thick has nitrogen √Dt 4Dt )]
atmospheres on both sides at 1200°C and is ∂t
SS
P-16 • Questions and Problems

is equal to C1

B x2 t>0
∂2[ exp(−

Concentration
√Dt 4Dt )] C1 – C2
D{ } 2
∂x2
t=0
5.13 Determine the carburizing time necessary to
C2
achieve a carbon concentration of 0.45 wt% at
SS a position 2 mm into an iron–carbon alloy that
initially contains 0.20 wt% C. The surface concen- x<0 x>0
tration is to be maintained at 1.30 wt% C, and the x=0
treatment is to be conducted at 1000°C. Use the
diffusion data for 𝛾-Fe in Table 5.2. Position

5.14 An FCC iron–carbon alloy initially containing Figure 5.12 Schematic concentration profiles in the
0.35 wt% C is exposed to an oxygen-rich and virtu- vicinity of the interface (located at x = 0) between two
ally carbon-free atmosphere at 1400 K (1127°C). semi-infinite metal alloys before (i.e., t = 0) and after a
Under these circumstances the carbon diffuses from heat treatment (i.e., t > 0). The base metal for each alloy
the alloy and reacts at the surface with the oxygen is the same; concentrations of some elemental impurity
in the atmosphere; that is, the carbon concentration are different—C1 and C2 denote these concentration
at the surface position is maintained essentially at values at t = 0.
0 wt% C. (This process of carbon depletion is
termed decarburization.) At what position will the position into the 2 wt% Au side of the diffu-
carbon concentration be 0.15 wt% after a 10-h treat- sion couple. Preexponential and activation energy
ment? The value of D at 1400 K is 6.9 × 10−11 m2/s. values for Au diffusion in Ag are 8.5 × 10−5 m2/s
and 202,100 J/mol, respectively.
5.15 Nitrogen from a gaseous phase is to be diffused
into pure iron at 700°C. If the surface concentra- 5.17 For a steel alloy it has been determined that a
tion is maintained at 0.1 wt% N, what will be the carburizing heat treatment of 10-h duration will
concentration 1 mm from the surface after 10 h? raise the carbon concentration to 0.45 wt% at a
The diffusion coefficient for nitrogen in iron at point 2.5 mm from the surface. Estimate the time
700°C is 2.5 × 10−11 m2/s. necessary to achieve the same concentration at a
5.16 Consider a diffusion couple composed of two 5.0-mm position for an identical steel and at the
semi-infinite solids of the same metal, and that same carburizing temperature.
SS each side of the diffusion couple has a different
concentration of the same elemental impurity; Factors That Influence Diffusion
assume each impurity level is constant throughout 5.18 Cite the values of the diffusion coefficients for the
its side of the diffusion couple. For this situation, interdiffusion of carbon in both 𝛼-iron (BCC) and
the solution to Fick’s second law (assuming that 𝛾-iron (FCC) at 900°C. Which is larger? Explain
the diffusion coefficient for the impurity is inde- why this is the case.
pendent of concentration), is as follows:
5.19 Using the data in Table 5.2, compute the
C1 − C2 x value of D for the diffusion of zinc in copper
Cx = C2 + ( −
2 )[1 erf( 2 √Dt )] (5.15) at 650°C.
5.20 At what temperature will the diffusion coeffi-
The schematic diffusion profile in Figure 5.12 cient for the diffusion of copper in nickel have a
shows these concentration parameters as well as value of 6.5 × 10−17 m2/s? Use the diffusion data
concentration profiles at times t = 0 and t > 0. in Table 5.2.
Please note that at t = 0, the x = 0 position is taken
as the initial diffusion couple interface, whereas C1 5.21 The preexponential and activation energy for the
is the impurity concentration for x < 0, and C2 is diffusion of iron in cobalt are 1.1 × 10−5 m2/s and
the impurity content for x > 0. 253,300 J/mol, respectively. At what temperature
A diffusion couple composed of two silver– will the diffusion coefficient have a value of 2.1 ×
gold alloys is formed; these alloys have composi- 10−14 m2/s?
tions of 98 wt% Ag–2 wt% Au and 95 wt% Ag– 5.22 The activation energy for the diffusion of car-
5 wt% Au. Determine the time this diffusion couple bon in chromium is 111,000 J/mol. Calculate the
must be heated at 750°C (1023 K) in order for diffusion coefficient at 1100 K (827°C), given that
the composition to be 2.5 wt% Au at the 50 μm D at 1400 K (1127°C) is 6.25 × 10−11 m2/s.
 Questions and Problems • P-17

5.23 The diffusion coefficients for iron in nickel are 5.28 At approximately what temperature would a
given at two temperatures: specimen of 𝛾-iron have to be carburized for 2 h
to produce the same diffusion result as at 900°C
T (K) D (m2/s) for 15 h?
1273 9.4 × 10−16 5.29 (a) Calculate the diffusion coefficient for copper
1473 2.4 × 10−14 in aluminum at 500°C.
(b) What time will be required at 600°C to pro-
(a) Determine the values of D0 and the activation duce the same diffusion result (in terms of con-
energy Qd. centration at a specific point) as for 10 h at 500°C?
(b) What is the magnitude of D at 1100°C (1373 K)? 5.30 A copper–nickel diffusion couple similar to that
5.24 The diffusion coefficients for silver in copper are shown in Figure 5.1a is fashioned. After a 700-h
given at two temperatures: heat treatment at 1100°C (1373 K) the concentra-
tion of Cu is 2.5 wt% at the 3.0-mm position within
T (°C) D (m2/s) the nickel. At what temperature must the diffusion
couple be heated to produce this same concentra-
650 5.5 × 10−16
tion (i.e., 2.5 wt% Cu) at a 2.0-mm position after
900 1.3 × 10−13 700 h? The preexponential and activation energy
for the diffusion of Cu in Ni are given in Table 5.2.
(a) Determine the values of D0 and Qd.
5.31 A diffusion couple similar to that shown in Figure
(b) What is the magnitude of D at 875°C? 5.1a is prepared using two hypothetical metals A
5.25 Below is shown a plot of the logarithm (to the and B. After a 30-h heat treatment at 1000 K (and
base 10) of the diffusion coefficient versus recipro- subsequently cooling to room temperature) the
cal of the absolute temperature, for the diffusion of concentration of A in B is 3.2 wt% at the 15.5-mm
iron in chromium. Determine values for the activa- position within metal B. If another heat treatment is
SS
tion energy and preexponential. conducted on an identical diffusion couple, only at
800 K for 30 h, at what position will the composition
be 3.2 wt% A? Assume that the preexponential and
activation energy for the diffusion coefficient are
1.8 × 10−5 m2/s and 152,000 J/mol, respectively.
Diffusion coefficient (m2/s)

10–15 5.32 The outer surface of a steel gear is to be hard-

ened by increasing its carbon content; the carbon
is to be supplied from an external carbon-rich
atmosphere, which is maintained at an elevated
temperature. A diffusion heat treatment at 850°C
(1123 K) for 10 min increases the carbon concen-
tration to 0.90 wt% at a position 1.0 mm below the
10–16 surface. Estimate the diffusion time required at
0.55
× 10–3
0.60
× 10–3
0.65
× 10–3
0.70
× 10–3
650°C (923 K) to achieve this same concentration
Reciprocal temperature (1/K) also at a 1.0-mm position. Assume that the surface
carbon content is the same for both heat treat-
5.26 Carbon is allowed to diffuse through a steel plate ments, which is maintained constant. Use the
15 mm thick. The concentration of carbon at the diffusion data in Table 5.2 for C diffusion in 𝛼-Fe.
two faces are 0.65 and 0.30 kg C/m3 Fe, which are 5.33 An FCC iron–carbon alloy initially containing
maintained constant. If the preexponential and 0.20 wt% C is carburized at an elevated temperature
activation energy are 6.2 × 10−7 m2/s and 80,000 and in an atmosphere in which the surface carbon
J/mol, respectively, compute the temperature at concentration is maintained at 1.0 wt%. If, after
which the diffusion flux is 1.43 × 10−9 kg/m2∙ s. 49.5 h, the concentration of carbon is 0.35 wt% at
5.27 The steady-state diffusion flux through a metal a position 4.0 mm below the surface, determine the
plate is 5.4 × 10−10 kg/m2∙ s at a temperature of temperature at which the treatment was carried out.
727°C (1000 K) and when the concentration gra-
dient is −350 kg/m4. Calculate the diffusion flux Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials
at 1027°C (1300 K) for the same concentration 5.34 Phosphorus atoms are to be diffused into a silicon
gradient and assuming an activation energy for wafer using both predeposition and drive-in heat
diffusion of 125,000 J/mol. treatments; the background concentration of P in
P-18 • Questions and Problems

this silicon material is known to be 5 × 1019 atoms/ 13,400 J∕mol

DH(m2∕s) = 1.4 × 10 − 7 exp(−
m3. The predeposition treatment is to be conducted RT ) (5.17a)
at 950°C for 45 minutes; the surface concentration
76,150 J∕mol
of P is to be maintained at a constant level of DN(m2∕s) = 3.0 × 10 − 7 exp(− ) (5.17b)
1.5 × 1026 atoms/m3. Drive-in diffusion will be RT
carried out at 1200°C for a period of 2.5 h. For the
Is it possible to purify hydrogen gas in this manner?
diffusion of P in Si, values of Qd and D0 are 3.40 eV
If so, specify a temperature at which the process
and 1.1 × 10−4 m2/s, respectively.
may be carried out, and also the thickness of metal
(a) Calculate the value of Q0. sheet that would be required. If this procedure is
(b) Determine the value of xj for the drive-in dif- not possible, then state the reason(s) why.
fusion treatment.
5.D2 A gas mixture is found to contain two diatomic
(c) Also for the drive-in treatment, compute the A and B species for which the partial pressures
position x at which the concentration of P atoms SS of both are 0.05065 MPa (0.5 atm). This mixture
is 1024 m−3. is to be enriched in the partial pressure of the A
5.35 Aluminum atoms are to be diffused into a silicon species by passing both gases through a thin sheet
wafer using both predeposition and drive-in heat of some metal at an elevated temperature. The
treatments; the background concentration of Al resulting enriched mixture is to have a partial
in this silicon material is known to be 3 × 1019 at- pressure of 0.02026 MPa (0.2 atm) for gas A, and
oms/m3. The drive-in diffusion treatment is to be 0.01013 MPa (0.1 atm) for gas B. The concen-
carried out at 1050°C for a period of 4.0 h, which trations of A and B (CA and CB, in mol/m3) are
gives a junction depth xj of 3.0 μm. Compute functions of gas partial pressures (pA2 and pB2, in
the predeposition diffusion time at 950°C if the MPa) and absolute temperature according to the
surface concentration is maintained at a constant following expressions:
level of 2 × 1025 atoms/m3. For the diffusion of Al
in Si, values of Qd and D0 are 3.41 eV and 1.38 × 25,000 J∕mol
10−4 m2/s, respectively. CA = 200 √pA2 exp(− ) (5.18a)
RT
DESIGN PROBLEMS 30,000 J∕mol
CB = 1.0 × 103 √pB2 exp(− ) (5.18b)
Fick’s First Law RT
5.D1 It is desired to enrich the partial pressure of The diffusion coefficients for the diffusion of these
hydrogen in a hydrogen–nitrogen gas mixture for gases in the metal are functions of the absolute
which the partial pressures of both gases are 0.1013 temperature as follows:
MPa (1 atm). It has been proposed to accomplish
this by passing both gases through a thin sheet of 15,000 J∕mol
DA(m2∕s) = 4.0 × 10 − 7 exp(− ) (5.19a)
some metal at an elevated temperature; inasmuch RT
as hydrogen diffuses through the plate at a higher 24,000 J∕mol
DB(m2∕s) = 2.5 × 10 − 6 exp −
rate than does nitrogen, the partial pressure of ( RT ) (5.19b)
hydrogen will be higher on the exit side of the sheet.
The design calls for partial pressures of 0.0709 MPa Is it possible to purify the A gas in this manner?
(0.7 atm) and 0.02026 MPa (0.2 atm), respectively, If so, specify a temperature at which the process
for hydrogen and nitrogen. The concentrations of may be carried out, and also the thickness of metal
hydrogen and nitrogen (CH and CN, in mol/m3) in sheet that would be required. If this procedure
this metal are functions of gas partial pressures (pH2 is not possible, then state the reason(s) why.
and pN2, in MPa) and absolute temperature and are
given by the following expressions:
Fick’s Second Law—Nonsteady-State Diffusion
27,800 J∕mol 5.D3 The wear resistance of a steel shaft is to be
CH = 2.5 × 103 √pH2 exp(− ) (5.16a)
RT improved by hardening its surface by increasing
the nitrogen content within an outer surface layer
37,600 J∕mol
CN = 2.75 × 10−3 √pN2 exp(− ) (5.16b)
as a result of nitrogen diffusion into the steel; the
RT nitrogen is to be supplied from an external nitrogen-
The diffusion coefficients for the diffusion of these rich gas at an elevated and constant tempera-
gases in this metal are functions of the absolute ture. The initial nitrogen content of the steel is
temperature as follows: 0.002 wt%, whereas the surface concentration is
 Questions and Problems • P-19

to be maintained at 0.50 wt%. For this treatment and initial compositions are provided, as well as the
to be effective, a nitrogen content of 0.10 wt% value of the diffusion coefficient, develop a spread-
must be established at a position 0.40 mm below sheet that allows the user to determine the distance
the surface. Specify appropriate heat treatments from the surface at which some specified composi-
in terms of temperature and time for tempera- tion is achieved for some specified diffusion time.
tures between 475°C and 625°C. The preexpo- 5.3SS For a nonsteady-state diffusion situation (con-
nential and activation energy for the diffusion of stant surface composition) in which the surface
nitrogen in iron are 3 × 10−7 m2/s and 76,150 J/mol, and initial compositions are provided, as well as
respectively, over this temperature range. the value of the diffusion coefficient, develop a
spreadsheet that allows the user to determine the
Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials composition at some specified distance from the
surface for some specified diffusion time.
5.D4 One integrated circuit design calls for the diffusion
of arsenic into silicon wafers; the background 5.4SS Given a set of at least two diffusion coefficient
concentration of As in Si is 2.5 × 1020 atoms/m3. values and their corresponding temperatures,
The predeposition heat treatment is to be con- develop a spreadsheet that will allow the user to
ducted at 1000°C for 45 minutes, with a constant calculate the following:
surface concentration of 8 × 1026 As atoms/m3. At (a) the activation energy and
a drive-in temperature of 1100°C, determine the
diffusion time required for a junction depth of (b) the preexponential.
1.2 μm. For this system, values of Qd and D0 are
4.10 eV and 2.29 × 10−3 m2/s, respectively. FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
SPREADSHEET PROBLEMS 5.1FE Atoms of which of the following elements will
5.1SS For a nonsteady-state diffusion situation (con- diffuse most rapidly in iron?
stant surface composition) in which the surface and (A) Mo (B) C (C) Cr (D) W
initial compositions are provided, as well as the
5.2FE Calculate the diffusion coefficient for copper in
value of the diffusion coefficient, develop a spread-
aluminum at 600°C. Preexponential and activation
sheet that allows the user to determine the diffusion
energy values for this system are 6.5 × 10−5 m2/s
time required to achieve a given composition at
and 136,000 J/mol, respectively.
some specified distance from the surface of the solid.
(A) 5.7 × 10−2 m2/s (C) 4.7 × 10−13 m2/s
5.2SS For a nonsteady-state diffusion situation (con-
stant surface composition) in which the surface (B) 9.4 × 10−17 m2/s (D) 3.9 × 10−2 m2/s

CHAPTER 6 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion Diffusion VMSE resource available
SS Student solution available in WileyPLUS Tensile Tests VMSE resource available
Metallic Crystal VMSE resource available
Concepts of Stress and Strain (c) Also, at what inclination angle is the shear
6.1 Using mechanics-of-materials principles (i.e., equa- stress a maximum?
tions of mechanical equilibrium applied to a free-
body diagram), derive Equations 6.4a and 6.4b. Stress–Strain Behavior
6.2 (a) Equations 6.4a and 6.4b are expressions for 6.3 A specimen of aluminum having a rectangular
SS normal (𝜎ʹ) and shear (𝜏ʹ) stresses, respectively, as a cross section 10 mm × 12.7 mm (0.4 in. × 0.5 in.)
function of the applied tensile stress (𝜎) and the in- is pulled in tension with 35,500 N (8000 lbf) force,
clination angle of the plane on which these stresses producing only elastic deformation. Calculate the
are taken (𝜃 of Figure 6.4). Make a plot on which resulting strain.
is presented the orientation parameters of these 6.4 A cylindrical specimen of a titanium alloy having
expressions (i.e., cos2 𝜃 and sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃) versus 𝜃. an elastic modulus of 107 GPa (15.5 × 106 psi) and
(b) From this plot, at what angle of inclination is an original diameter of 3.8 mm (0.15 in.) experi-
the normal stress a maximum? ences only elastic deformation when a tensile