Soil and Water

Management

Course Code:-NaRM362
 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Natural Resources
 Any portion of our natural environment- soil, water, air, vegetation/forest, shrubs, gasses,
wildlife, minerals, etc.- that man can utilize are regarded as natural resources.

 These resources may vary in their quantity, quality, reusability and permanency which
depends upon the method of use by man.

Natural resources can be classified as:

1. Inexhaustible: These are natural resources where the supply is dynamic and will never be
exhausted or not easily degraded in quantity even with mismanagement.

 But their quality may be lowered due to improper use as with air- pollution.
Example: wind, solar energy, atmospheric air, etc.

2. Exhaustible: either the total quantity is static or the permanency of a given resource
depends up on the method of use by man. Which can further be classified as:
 Renewable: natural resources that tend to replace themselves but improper use may
lead to complete exhaustion, e.g. soil, vegetation, animals, water.

 Non-Renewable: if once gone, will not replenish or the process of replacement is so

slow and is practically irreplaceable, e.g., fossil fuels /petroleum Oil, natural gas, and
coal/
1.2. Land degradation
 The concept of land degradation is inseparable from that of sustainability. A
sustainable land use is one that is able to continue without degrading.

 In this case the sustainability of a particular land use depends both on the
properties of the resource and the way it is managed.

 Poor soil and water management is one of the main responsible causes for severe
land degradation, which again affect the successful development of a nation.

Therefore, Land degradation refers to :-

 A process that lowers the current and /or potential capability of the land
(quantitatively and qualitatively) to produce goods such as food, fibber, fuel, etc.
and other services.
 A temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land which
then leads to the reduction / destruction of the land's biological potential.
 1.3. Types of Land Degradation

1. Soil degradation
 Although, soil is technically renewable resource, its slow rate of
formation makes it practically irreplaceable .

 Soil degradation is a major forms of land degradation and is a complex

process in which several factors contribute to the reduction of its
productive capacity.
 Decline of soil organic matter content,
 Depletion of nutrients,
 Soil compaction, sealing and crusting
 Soil Salinization and soil acidification
 Water logging
2. Water resource degradation

 Drying up of rivers, lakes, streams etc

 Decrease of ground water level
 Low precipitation
 Water pollution
3. Vegetation degradation

 Change of species composition

 Disappearance of some plant species
 Low biomass/ biological/productivity
 Drying up of trees, shrubs and vegetation
4. Change of fauna/animals

 Reduction of population
 Change of species composition
 Extinction of species
 Low biological activity
 1.4. Causes of land degradation

 The major causes of land degradation in Ethiopian includes:-

 Cultivation on steep slopes
 Deforestation
 Erosive rainfall pattern
 Lack of fallowing
 Overgrazing
 Lack of proper conservation measures
 etc.
1.3. The need for Soil and water management
 To obtain the maximum sustained level of production from a given area
of land by preventing degradation of land resources and environmental
pollution.
 To control runoff
 To prevent loss of soil by soil erosion
 To reduce soil compaction
 To maintain or to improve soil fertility
 To conserve or drain water
 To harvest (excess) water
 Soil management is the prevention of loss of soil through erosion or
prevention of soil fertility reduction caused by over usage, acidification,
salinization or other chemical soil contamination .

 Water management is the practice of planning, distributing and managing the

optimum use of water resources to reduce un-necessary uses. It encompasses
the control, use, conservation and harvesting of water in agriculture.

 Therefore, Soil and water management refers to those activities at the local
level which maintain or enhance the productive capacity of the land
including soil, water and vegetation in areas susceptible to degradation.
Through:-
 Prevention or reduction of soil erosion, compaction, salinity, etc.;
 Conservation or drainage of water
 Maintenance or improvement of water quality and soil fertility
 It is an integral part of Watershed Management.
 CHAPTER TWO
PRINCIPLES OF SOIL EROSION

• Soil erosion:-
 Detachment: This is when
is defined as the removal of the
the top layer
topsoil is ofactually
the soil due various actions of
erosive
“detached” fromagents,
the rest ofthat is, water, ice (glaciers),
the ground.
snow, air (wind), plants, animals and humans.
 Transport: This is when
• Soil erosion composes of three parts.
the soil is moved to another
area.

 Deposition: Where the soil

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ends up after this process.
 Agents for detachment  In the detachment phase individual
soil particles are separated from the
- Raindrop
soil mass generally by water (raindrop
- Running/flowing water impact) and wind forces.
- Wind forces
 The separated soil particles are
- Animal hooves thereafter transported by running
- Human activities water down slope or blown away by
wind in the prevailing direction and
- Wetting and drying
then deposited elsewhere.
 Agents for transportation
- Rain splash  Therefore, There are four agents or
causes of erosion- gravity, water, wind,
- Runoff (any flow of water) and glaciers
- Wind
 The main agents are water and wind.
2.1.1. How erosion exists?

i. Erosion results when the power of water or wind applied exceeds the
ability of the soil to dissipate and absorb it.

 When eroding agents have sufficient capacity to transport more

quantity of materials than the materials supplied through detachment;
then erosion is termed as “detachment limited “. However, when
materials supplied are greater than materials transported with eroding
agents then erosion is termed as “transport limited”.

ii. Erosion is related more to the rate of application of energy (i.e

power) than the total energy applied.
 2.1.2. Types of Soil Erosion
 Erosion is a natural process but it is often intensified by
human land use practices.

 In broad sense, there are basically two types of soil erosion:- geologic
and accelerated erosion.

1 Geologic /natural/ Erosion

 It is a normal process, which represents the erosion of soil in its
natural condition without the influence of human being.

 It is sometimes known as normal erosion.

 The geologic erosion is long time eroding process.

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 Caused by temperature change, wind, water, and biological activity
without the influence of man.

 It is stable and slow process of nature

 Geological erosion is not detrimental to man’s well being and wholly

beyond his control.

 Control measures are not necessary and can’t be taken to overcome.

 This type of erosion is said to be in equilibrium with the soil forming

processes; which means soil loss by this erosion is in balance with soil
formation, so there is no net soil loss and distraction of land.

 The various topographical features such as existing of stream channels;

valleys etc. are the results of geologic erosion.
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 2. Accelerated Erosion
 Accelerated erosion is an excess of geologic erosion.

 It occurs due to disturbance in natural equilibrium by the

activity of human and animal through land mismanagement,
destruction of forests, over grazing etc.

 When soil erosion does not keep harmony with the soil
formation and it is much faster than the latter, it is called
accelerated soil erosion.

 The accelerated erosion takes place when the agents of

erosion are influenced by human being.

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2.3. Damages Caused by Erosion
 Loss of top soil
 Loss of plant nutrients
 Soil structure deterioration
 Disease and public health hazard (water and air pollution)
 Frequent Floods leads to Silting of rivers, irrigation channels and
reservoirs
 water resource depletion
 Damage to sea coast and formation of sand dunes.
 Spent of money on water purification
 Problems in crop irrigation
 Damages on engineering structures
 Change in soil texture
 Loss of vegetation

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2.4. Factors of Erosion

1. The most important erosion factors include climatic, hydrological,

topographic, soil, geological and vegetation conditions.

2. The economic, technical and socioeconomic conditions of the human

society are also other erosion factors.

 The influence of man's activity in the world is generally increasing,

including an intensifying influence on the erosion processes.

 Man's activities influence not only the “man-made” group of erosion

factors, such as the economic and technical conditions and
socioeconomic conditions, but also some of the natural factors, example
vegetation and topography (to some extent) of whole regions.

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 The key climatic characteristics influencing erosion processes in a given
territory include atmospheric precipitation, wind, air temperature, air and
humidity.

 The factors having a direct effect on soil erosion are atmospheric

precipitation (water erosion) and wind (wind erosion).

 Though, erosion factors combine and interact, it may happen under actual
conditions that the effect of one factor or a group of factors will prevail
and become a factor (factors) of key importance.

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 2.5. Soil Erosion by Water
 Water erosion is the detachment and removal of soil
material by water. The process may be natural or accelerated
by human activity.

2.5.1. Forms of Erosion by water

1. Raindrop Erosion
2. Sheet Erosion
3. Rill Erosion
4. Gully Erosion
5.Tunnel erosion

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1. Rain drop erosion
 It Is the first stage in the erosion process.

 Results of the bombing of the soil surface by raindrops

 Is the primary cause of soil detachment and soil disintegration

 The effect is to give the surface a dimpled like appearance.

 Studies have shown that splashed particles may rise as high as 0.6
meters above the ground and move up to 1.5 meters horizontally.

 In cohesive soils, smaller particles are difficult to detach

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2. Sheet erosion
 When rainfall exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil, water
starts flowing in thin more or less even or discontinues film over
the ground.

 Sheet erosion occurs when a thin layer of topsoil is removed over a

whole surface—and may not be readily noticed.

 Sheet erosion is a removal of thin layer of soil by surface flow

(runoff), which has a uniform depth covering the whole area.

 It is happening basically by raindrops and surface flow. The

raindrops mainly provide most of the detaching energy and the
surface flow providing the transporting capacity.

 Sheet erosion is seldom observed (identified) because it is21 so

difficult to be seen or measured.
3. Rill erosion
 Rill erosion is the removal of soil by concentrated water
running through little streamlets or head cuts.

 Rills are small channels produced by running water as runoff

water (overland flow) concentrates in streamers while moving
downhill.

 Rill erosion occurs when runoff water forms small channels as it

concentrates down a slope. These rills can be up to 0.3m deep. If
they become any deeper than 0.3m they are referred to as gully
erosion.

 Sheet erosion will become rill erosion as runoff start digging in

to the soil and concentrate its flow in small channels.

 As detachment continues or flow increases, rills will become

wider and deeper and will change in to gully. 22
23
4. Gully erosion
 As the volume of concentrated water increase and attains more velocity
on slope; it enlarges the rills in to gullies.
 Gully erosion is the removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water
runoff.

 Gully erosion happens when runoff concentrates and flows strongly enough to
detach and move soil particles .

 Once started, gullies will continue to move by head cut erosion or by

collapsing of the side walls unless measurements are not taken to stabilize the
disturbance.

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 For example, a waterfall may form, with runoff picking up energy as it
plunges over the gully head. Splash back at the base of the gully head
erodes the subsoil

 Gullies may develop in watercourses or other places where runoff

concentrates.

 This type of erosion is highly visible and affects soil productivity,

restricts land use, and can damage roads, fences and buildings.

 Gully depth is often limited by the depth

of the underlying rock which means
gullies are normally less than 2m deep.
However, gullies may reach depths of 10–
15m on deep

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5.Tunnel erosion
• Tunnel erosion is the removal of subsoil. When water penetrates through a
soil crack or a hole, the soil disperses and is carried away with the flow to
leave a small tunnel.

• Initially, the surface soil remains relatively unbroken but, with every
flow, the tunnel becomes larger and the soil may eventually collapse and
form a gully.

• The whole process speeds up significantly if an outlet is provided (such as

an existing gully or cutting in a roadside) as this allows free flow of
subsurface drainage water.
 2.5.2. Factors Affecting Water Erosion

 The most important factors of water erosion are the characteristics of

rainfall, soil and land forms and management.

1. Rainfall : Rainfall contributes to soil loss in its two forms, raindrop and
running water (runoff).

 Raindrops mainly have detaching power when striking the soil surface
while run-off mainly acts as transporting agent of the detached soil
particles.

 Erosivity is the potential of rainfall to cause erosion.

 Runoff could be generated when certain conditions are fulfilled,

these are:
 When the rainfall amount exceeds the storage capacity of the soil.

 The other condition is, when the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration
rate of the soil. 27
 2. Soil Erodibility
 Soil erodibility is defined as the vulnerability or Susceptibility of soil to
both detachment and transportation (i.e. is the combination of its
detachability and transportability).

3. Slope Effect
 The slope of the land surface over which runoff flowing influences the
velocity and volume of the runoff: which in turn affects erosiveness.

Slope gradient: Increase in slope gradient increases the speed of water

moving downhill and therefore the erosive force of flowing water will
become higher.

Slope length: - is the distance from the top of a hill to the point where either
slope steepness decreases enough so deposition of transported material starts
or the runoff enters a natural or prepared waterway.

 There is more erosion on longer slopes than short ones.

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 4. Vegetation
 Vegetation has a complex and diverse effect on erosion.

 It intercept rainfall and reduce the impact of the raindrop on soil particles, it act as
a barrier and reduce the velocity of the running water and thereby increase the
infiltration rate.

 Therefore, Vegetation influences water erosion in different ways

1. Vegetation pauses frictional resistance to the flow of water:- It acts as a

barrier (act as a barrier reducing the flow speed and amount).
2. Vegetation intercepts raindrops
3. Vegetation improves the soil properties:- Falling leaves that is decomposed
and enrich the soil with organic matter

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 5. Human- induced factor
 Some of man induced factors or an activity which increases/favor erosion could be:
 Removal of trees and shrubs, i.e deforestation
 Poor tillage exercises such as cultivation up and down hill
 Bad farm, management practices such as
 Planting same crop without fallow
 No rotation of crops
 Poor fertilization/ organic matter, which results in poor crop stand
 Overstocking of animals in grassland, which causes:
 Development of gullies along cattle tracks
 Burning of vegetation
 Poorly designed, sited and constructed engineering structures
 Badly designed and constructed soil conservation structures

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 2.5.3. Control measures of water erosion
1. Biological components

BIOLOGICAL
SOIL CONSERVATION

1 2 3
Agronomic or Soil mag’t Maintain/
Crop-Husbandry practices restore Vegetative
OM/fertility
Preventive and provide Recycling of
Adequate cover Preventative
Organic
or curative
residues
Space time Extend time of
Ground cover
 Structural stabilization
Crop residues
 Enrichment plantation
Intercropping farmyard manure
Relay cropping Stabilization of fragile
Under sowing Green manure
Double cropping lands
increase Compost, etc.
Cover cropping Vegetative barriers, etc
Population
fertilization Mulching, etc.

All those are important for SWM, mainly through the provision
of adequate ground cover in space and time. 31
 I-Agronomic Conservation Measures
1. Crop rotations
2. Intercropping
3. Strip cropping
4. Ley cropping
5. Alley cropping
6. Cover/green manure crops
7. Relay/double cropping
8. Mulching/crop residue management
9. Contour cultivation
10. Fertilization/manuring

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a) Crop rotation:
 It is a practice of growing different crops one after another on the
same piece of land in different season.

Various Roles
 Crop rotation Plays controls Pests & disease through breaking the
life cycle of pests/diseases as well as weeds
 Increase infiltration
 Reduce runoff (soil erosion)
 Improves soil conditions
 Increase productivity

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b) Strip Cropping
 Is a cropping practice where strips of two or more crops are alternately grown on the
contour.
 Strip cropping is the cultivation of different crops in alternate strips of uniform width
and on the same field

Example:- The growing of corn in strips alternating with strips of a grass (as hay)
arranged to follow an approximate contour of the land and minimize erosion.

 Certain layers of plants will absorb minerals and water from the soil more
effectively than others.

 When water reaches the weaker soil that lacks the minerals needed to make it stronger,
it normally washes it away.

 When strips of soil are strong enough to slow down water from moving through them,
the weaker soil can't wash away like it normally would. Because of this, farmland stays
fertile much longer.

 Typically, crops are organized in parallel long, narrow strips that are oriented normal
to the direction of coming runoff.
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c) Ley farming
 It is the rotation of legume based pasture with food crops
 also known as improved fallow practice
 The practice seem to be compatible with traditional fallowing
practice.

Purpose of fallowing /ley farming/ practice is restoration of fertility of

the soil which come from:
 Nutrients recycled from deeper soil profile and/or
 Nitrogen fixation by native legumes and
 OM restoration comes from high biomass production.

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d) Alley cropping: is a cropping practice where crops are grown in
alleys b/n Hedgerows of shrubs/trees.

Because it is an interface b/n trees and crops, includes Agro forestry

system But, all agro forestry system cannot be Alley
cropping, but vice versa

The main objective is to meet:

Subsistence requirement of chemical fertilizers.

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•

38
 e) Cover crops
 Cover-crops: are crops grown as ground protection under row/or
plantation crops.
 A cover crop is a crop of a specific plant that is grown primarily for the
benefit of the soil rather than the crop yield.
 Cover crops are commonly used to suppress weeds, manage soil erosion,
help build and improve soil fertility and quality, control diseases and
pests, and promote biodiversity
 Are crops grown as conservation measure on fallow lands during off-
season

Major objective to prevent soil erosion through intercept raindrop

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f) Intercropping: is a cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously
on the same field with a row arrangement in one season.

The practice is not similar with mixed cropping many crops are grown on
same piece of land (all mixed up) without any pattern.

Thus, the difference between the two is the presence and absence of
pattern.

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g) Relay cropping:
 is a practice of growing two or more crops during the same growing
season with certain overlaps between planting of the 2nd crop and
harvesting of the 1st crop.
Purpose of Relay cropping:
 is to take the advantage of residual moisture and space in between
the rows of the first crop.
h) Contour Cultivation; is a practice of cultivating and planting crops along the
contour.
• Evenly spreads moisture along the contour.
• Reduces loss of soil & moisture.
• Found to reduce soil loss by 50% compared with up-and down cultivation

Slope limit : ineffective on slopes steeper than 8%

Soil limit : Recommended on well drained soils and in wet areas should be
graded

II . Soil management practices

a) Mulching/Crop Residue Management
Mulching is the covering of the soil with crop residues such as: Straw, (i.e.
cereal/straw), Maize/sorghum stalks, Standing stubble
The Cover Protects:
 Direct impact of raindrops
 Decrease runoff and increase infiltration
 Encourages earth worms & insects to make hole.
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b) Manuring :- is the application of various manures e.g. Green
manure, farm yard manure, etc.

Organic Fertilizers
 Improve the soil physical properties
 Improve the biological properties
 Build fertility of the soil

Manuring is greatly valued because:

1) The material is locally available (easily accessible)
2) It is labor intensive, but not capital intensive
3) It has lasting effect on soil fertility (builds soil fertility)

43
Green manure crops; are Crops grown for some time before the main
crops and incorporated in-situ.

 Green manuring is the practice of ploughing green plants into the

soil for improving the fertility. Green manure provides organic
matter and nutrients like Nitrogen and Phosphorous to the soil.

E.g. ryegrass, clovers, field beans or other legumes

 The main Objective is soil fertility management

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c) Conservation tillage (Zero tillage)
 Is any method of soil cultivation that leaves the previous year's crop residue
(such as corn stalks or wheat stubble) on fields before and after planting the
next crop to reduce soil erosion and runoff or other benefits like carbon
sequestration.

 Conservation tillage aimed at: Creating favorable soil environment for

germination, establishment and plant growth.
 Therefore, Conservation tillage is designed to avoid tillage operations that:
destroy soil structure entailing problems of: surface sealing & Soil compaction.

 Minimum/Reduce tillage: is a tillage practice in which the least possible

tillage operation is performed.

The aims of minimum tillage are:

 To break up hard pans/compacted layers
 To increase infiltration/water storage capacity of soil
 To minimize resistance to root development.
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III- vegetative conservation measures

 Are those measures applied to potential lands for Preventive,

and for Degraded lands for Curative.

 Major vegetation types used are : Trees/shrubs, Grasses,

Herbaceous legumes

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 2. Physical components

 So, physical measures alone are not effective, because;

– Cannot control direct impact of raindrops
– Cannot keep the soil in place (Not effective for in-situ infiltration)
– Requires additional costs for material like gabion, cement,
etc.
– Lack immediate benefits & economic return; and
– Lack Stability/sustainability

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 Hill side terrace

 Hillside terraces are constructed along the contours, generally

suitable in steep degraded slopes and shallow soils in
controlling runoff and erosion.

 Common in most parts of Ethiopia, generally in dry areas to

support area closure plantation and protect downstream fields.

48
50
 Bench terraces

 They are normally constructed by cutting and filling to produce a

series of level steps or benches.

 Are a soil and water conservation measure used on sloping land

with relatively deep soils to retain water and control erosion.

 This reduces erosion and allows water to infiltrate slowly into the
soil.

 Good opportunity for maximized the mountain resources

51
 the riser acts as a catchment/collector

• They control erosion and retain moisture

• suitable for food/ tree crops
• Common in most parts of Ethiopia, (e.g Konso) generally in
dry areas
53
 MICROBASINS (MBs)
 MBs are small circular & stone faced structures for tree planting in
the medium ,slightly low rainfall areas, stony areas and shallow soils.

 Applicable in steep and degraded hillsides (max slope 50%) and for
community closures .

• Micro basins are a common technique used in agriculture to collect

surface run-off, increase water infiltration and prevent soil erosion.

• Their principle is:- small ponds are surrounded by stone walls

and/or soil ridges on all sides to collect the rainwater and surface
run-off.

• This allows storing rainwater and using it for small-scale tree planting,
enabling increased growth of plants if there is a moisture deficit.
54
Diameter MBs: Min 1 m and • MBs are constructed in staggered
max 1.5 m. position between rows .
55
EYEBROW BASINS (EBs)

 EB are larger semi-circular and stone

faced structures for planting.

 Based upon experience they are

effective in low rainfall areas to grow
trees and harvest moisture.

 Can be constructed in slopes above

50% for spot planting.

 Controls runoff and contribute to

recharge of water tables
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 Trenches
• A trench is a type of excavation or depression in the ground that is
generally deeper than it is width.

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 Micro Trenches
 MTRs are rectangular and deep pits constructed along the
contours - main purpose and effects are same as for trenches
 Can support the growth of trees, shrubs, and cash crops.

 Can be constructed on slopes 3-30% max. gradient and soils at

least 50 cm depth

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 PERCOLATION PIT
 Is a simple hole dug into the ground and facilitates groundwater
recharge through infiltration of surface runoff into the soil or rock.

 It is different from trenches; because of better water storage

capability due to greater depth.

 Recharge the ground water.

 Enhance biomass production through improved water availability in
the soil profile.
 Reduce runoff and subsequently erosion and land degradation.

 It is constructed on any marginal land with pervious soil, i.e. in all

areas where there is no drainage problem or where the ground water
table is deep.

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 Constructed on any topography with excess runoff.
The pit can be circular
or take the shape of the
available land. Excavate a
50 cm deep pond of any
shape with either sides
ranging from 2.5-10
meters.

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 LEVEL SOIL BUNDS
 Bunds are structural measure with an embankment of soil or stones, or soil and
stones.
 Level bunds are formed along the contour with the intention of holding runoff
water so that it gradually infiltrates into the soil, and stabilized with vegetative.

 They are important to reduces and stops the velocity of runoff and
consequently reduces soil erosion.

 Intended to retain all rainfall, and hence, increase the moisture retention
capacity of the soil profile and water availability to plants.

 Through their water retention effect, the bunds may allow some crop yield
even in drought years.

 Soil bunds are entry points for further stabilization and application of organic
residues or compost (especially if applied in the first meters behind the bund
61
where soil is deeper).
62
Graded soil bund
• When a grade is provided along the bund for safe disposal of runoff water
over the area between two consecutive bunds, they are called graded bund.

• Graded bunds are adopted in case of high or medium annual rainfall (>600
mm) and relatively less permeable soil areas.

• The graded soil bund constitutes a graded drainage ditch or channel on

upper side to drain excess runoff, an embankment to retain soil loss.

• It breaks the slope lengths to reduce the impact of concentrated runoff.

• In this type of bund, the entire spacing between two consecutive bunds acts as
a channel to safely dispose excess runoff with out harm.

• The major difference between level bund and graded bund is that, level bund
are constructed for water conservation whereas, in addition to water
conservation, graded bunds are constructed for safe disposal of excess runoff.
 Stone Bunds
• The stone bund is an embankment stone constructed along the contour
to prevent runoff damage, minimize soil erosion and increasing
infiltration.

• Over time sediment, which is captured on the higher side of the

bunds, accumulates to form natural terraces.

• They are semi-permeable structures unless sealed with soil in their

upper side.

• They increase the moisture retention capacity of the soil profile and
water availability to plants, and increase the efficiency of fertilizer
applications if any.

• Through their water retention effect the stone bunds may allow some
crop yield even in drought years. 65
 Stone bunds are entry points for application of organic residues or
compost, especially in the first 2-3 meters behind the bund where soil is
deeper

Build the wall with stones until you reach the desired height
 Fill voids between walls with smaller stones
 Sealing of the upper side with soil as required
 Reinforcement of depression points

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67
 STONE FACED SOIL BUNDS
• In moisture stressed areas where limited biological options are
available to retain and accumulate water in ditches dug behind the
bund.

• The stone faced bunds are reinforced soil bunds in one or both their
sides.

• It has the same objectives of soil and stone bunds. Provided they are
well constructed stone faced soil bunds offer strong resistance
against runoff. Stone faced bunds are suitable in areas with high
stoniness and stable soils.

68
69
 Fanya Juu Bund

 Fanya Juu is a throw up hill soil bund

 The Fanya Juu reduces and stops the velocity of runoff and consequently
reduces soil erosion and the steady decline of crop yields.

 They are impermeable structures intended to retain rainfall, and hence, increase
soil moisture, water availability to plants, and increase the efficiency of fertilizer
application if any.

 Fanya juus make bench quicker than soil bunds but are not as efficient in
moisture conservation and more prone to breakages/ overtopping.
 The fanya juu terrace is a structural method of soil conservation that has been
widely practiced on small, labor-intensive farms in Kenya.

 The term refers to the practice of digging a ditch on the contour and throwing the
soil uphill to form an embankment, which is subsequently stabilized by planting
grass.

 Cultivation becomes easier as the terraces spread out to make the land more70level
71
 2.6. Soil erosion by Wind
 Wind erosion is the process of detachment, transportation, and
deposition of soil material by the action of wind.

 It is more effective in arid and semi-arid regions, Since there is little

vegetation or moisture to bind the loose surface materials.

 There are conditions that favor the occurrence of wind erosion.

These includes:-

 Loose (weak soil cohesive force) and finely divided dry soil

 Steady and strong prevailing wind at all levels, from the upper air
to the ground level
72
73
 Processes in wind erosion
Wind is responsible for three types of soil movement. These are as
(i) saltation (ii) suspension and (iii) surface creep

74
1. Suspension:- tiny particles less than 0.1 mm in diameter can be
moved into the air by suspension, forming dust storms when taken
further upwards by turbulence.

2. Saltation:- occurs among middle-sized soil particles that range from

0.1 mm to 0.5 mm in diameter.
 Such particles are light enough to be lifted off the surface, but are too
large to become suspended.

• These particles move through a series of low bounces over the

surface, causing abrasion on the soil surface and attrition (the
breaking of particles into smaller particles).

3. Surface creep:- in a wind erosion event, large particles ranging from

0.5 mm to 2 mm in diameter, are rolled across the soil surface.

75
 This causes them to collide with, and dislodge other particles.
• The major portion of soil carried out by the wind erosion is moved in
a series of short bounces called “saltation”.

• About 50-75% of soil erosion by wind carried out by saltation.

Factors related to wind erosion

Climatic factors
 The climatic factors that affect wind erosion include precipitation
(humidity), wind erosivity (wind speed), evaporation, transpiration
and temperature.

Soil factor
 Texture, structure, density of particles, soil moisture and organic
matter are the important soil related factors affecting wind erosion.

Mismanagement of land resources

 Refers to non-sustainable land use practices include improper
ploughing, inadequate or inexistent management of plant residues,
overgrazing of natural vegetation
77
Length of exposed area
 If the length of the unsheltered (not covered by vegetation or other
materials) area is larger, the amount of soil loss by wind erosion
will be high.

Surface roughness

 Surface roughness can be regarded as the quality of a surface of

not being smooth and it is hence linked to human perception of
the surface texture.

Vegetation covers

 Refers to the percentage of soil which is covered by green vegetation

78
 Generally, wind Erosion (E) = f(IKCLV).

E:- is the estimation of the average annual soil loss in tons per hectare.
F:- indicates the equation includes functional relationships that are not
straight-line mathematical calculations.
I :-is the soil erodibility index.
K :-is the ridge roughness factor. It is a measure of the effect of ridges
formed by tillage and planting implements on wind erosion.
C:- is the climatic factor.
L :-is the unsheltered distance
V :- is the vegetative cover
80
1. Vegetative measures

 Vegetative measures can be used to cover the whole surface and

prevent any soil movement.

 For example; a cover crop with sufficient growth will provide

soil erosion protection during the cropping season.

 It is one of the most effective and economical means to reduce the

effect of wind on the soil.

81
2. Tillage measures
A. Increase soil resistance: Increasing the soil roughness by
preparing seedbed, mulching, leaving clods while plouhging,
adjusting tillage activities.

 The objective of tillage for wind erosion control is to produce a

rough, cloddy surface with some plant residue exposed on the
surface.

B. Soil conditioning: Soil conditioning, also referred to as soil

amendments.
 It refers to a process of improving the soils performance through
increasing its cohesion with the addition of organic matter,
mulching to retain its moisture.

• All these reduce the erodibility of the soil.

82
3. Mechanical /structural/ measures

83
84
85
 CHAPTER FIVE
SOIL EROSION ASSESSMENT
Assessment of soil erosion is useful in planning and conservation works in a
small farm, watershed or basin .
5.1. Generalized Soil erosion Hazard Assessment
 Hazard is a situation or potential condition to harm or threat to life, health
or damage to property or the environment.

 Water erosion greatly contributes to the soil erosion hazards.

 The mass movement of soil is an indicator of a soil erosion hazard.

 This results gully formation, rock-falls, debris-falls and landslides that

can create damage to the environment and livelihoods.

 The soil erosion hazard influences the landscape processes such as land
productivity, hydrological processes and eventual human wellbeing.
86
 Therefore, understanding the potential risk or susceptibility to soil erosion
is very important for mitigation and risk minimization and in order to
select an effective method for soil conservation.

 Soil erosion assessment is highly complex due to its multifactorial

influences.
 Hence, climatic, biophysical, topographic and human interference (such as
socio-economic and political factors) are needed to be considered for soil
erosion assessment.

 Water erosion assessment methods can be categorized into three main

approaches:-
(i) The field plot experiment methods using average soil loss
measurements

A. Erosion Pin method

B. Pedestals We will see detail in the next chapter!!!
C. Runoff plot method
87
 (ii) The field survey method by visible soil erosion indicators

 As top soil has eroded:-

 The topsoil becomes thinner
 The soil surface may appear hard and pavement-like or coarse and gravelly
 Underlying rock may also be exposed
 Land begins to slip down a slope and small cracks will appear above the
slip.
 etc.
(iii) Soil erosion modeling
 The above conventional methods of soil erosion assessments are expensive
and time-consuming.
 However, soil erosion modeling approaches provide quantitative and
reliable estimation for the erosion process and sediment yield under diverse
environment. 88
 Modeling can provide a quantitative and consistent approach to estimate soil
erosion and sediment yield under a wide range of conditions.

 Numerous soil erosion models have been developed by utilizing different

scientific methods and modeling approaches.
 In general, three categories of soil erosion models have been identified:-

89
1. Physical-Based Models
 Physical-based models are built on field-based research and simulate
climate, runoff, infiltration, water balance, plant growth and tillage.

 These models are on the basis of the physics of flow and sediment
transport processes and their interaction on the transfer of mass,
momentum and energy.

 It can be applied for a range of experiments such as from a field plot scale
to small watersheds.

 It was developed as a system modeling approach for predicting and

assessing soil loss and identifying watershed management practices for soil
conservation.
 The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model is an example of a
commonly used physical process based water model.

90
2. Empirical Models
 Empirical models are simplified natural processes based on experimental
observations.

 Empirical models are frequently employed for soil erosion modeling and useful
for identifying the sources sediments and quantifying the source of sediments.

 This models have been widely used in soil erosion assessments.

 The universal soil loss equation (USLE), revised universal soil loss
equation(RUSLE) and modified universal soil loss equation (MUSLE) are
commonly employed empirical based models.
A = RKLSCP
Where, We will see
 A = Estimated gross soil loss in ton/ha/yr detail in the
 R= rainfall erosivity factor, computed on the basis of next chapter
rainfall energy and the maximum 30-min intensity of a rainfall,
 K= soil erodibility factor
 S= slop percent
 L= slop length factor
 C=Crop cover/ crop management factor 91
 P=Supporting conservation practices
 Empirical models have wide application because of the fewer computations
involved and the fewer amount of data required.

3. Conceptual Models

 Conceptual models are a combination of empirical and physical-based

models.

 General descriptions of catchment processes can incorporate to conceptual

models without stipulating process interactions, since detail catchment
information would require for process interactions.

 Therefore, conceptual models provide measurements on quantitative and

qualitative processes within an area such as a watershed.

 Some good examples of conceptual models include Chemical Runo ff and

Erosion from the Agricultural Management Systems (CREAMS) model
and Large Scale Catchment Model (LASCAM)

92
 Geo-informatics technology provides a platform with advanced
capabilities and potentials of real-time hazard detection with a
spatiotemporal distribution and soil erosion hazard predictions.

 The geo-informatics technologies, that is, remote sensing,

geographic information system (GIS) and global positioning
system (GPS) have been integrated with various soil erosion
models for soil erosion assessment and risk evaluation.

 Therefore, the data used for soil erosion modeling are gathered
from remote sensing and GIS
93
 5.2. Semi Detailed Soil erosion Hazard Assessment

5.3.1 Land capability classification system

 Land capability is the ability of the land to sustain a type of land use
permanently.

 It is a systematic arrangement or grouping of different kinds of land

according to land properties that determine the ability of production on
permanent basis.

 The concept is matching the type and intensity of land use with its natural
capability.

 Land capability is primarily based on an assessment of soil conditions to

support common cultivated crops and pasture plants or other land uses.

 The grouping of lands into capability units, subclasses, and classes is done
primarily on the basis of their capability to produce common cultivated 94crops
 Capability classes
 Capability class is the broadest category in the land capability
classification system and it indicates degree of limitations for cultivation.
 Class codes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 that have relatively different degree of
hazards or limitations.

Class 1: Soils in this class have no significant limitations for cultivation.

The soils are deep, well to imperfectly drained, hold moisture well, and in
the virgin state were well supplied with plant nutrients. They can be
managed and cropped without difficulty.
Class 2: Soils in this class have moderate limitations that restrict the range
of cultivation or require moderate conservation practices.

Class 3: Soils in this class severe limitations that restrict the range of
cultivation or require special conservation practices. The limitations are
more severe than class 2 soils.
Class 4: Soils in this class have very severe limitations that restrict the
range of cultivation or require special conservation practices.
Class 5: Soils have little or no hazard of erosion but have other limitations
(wetness, stoniness, continuous overland flow ) not capable for cultivation.

 Their use mainly suitable (with few limitations) to pasture, range,

forestland and covering.

Class 6: Soils have severe limitations that make them generally not capable
for cultivation.

 Moderate limitation pasture, range, forestland and covering.

Class 7: Soils have very severe limitations for grazing, forestland, or

wildlife.
 This class of soil also includes rock land, other non-soil areas.

Class 8: Soils have limitations that preclude their use of cultivation, grazing
and forestry.
 May be suitable for wildlife and recreation
 The risk of erosion and requirement of conservation practices
increases from classes i to iv and vi to viii.

 Soils classes as I, II, III and IV are considered capable of sustained

use for cultivated field crops.
 The land classes V to VII have severe hazards in respect of the
problems given above and are, therefore, unsuitable for agriculture
cultivation.
 However, VI and VII, applied to grazing land and forestry that
should be managed with an high degree of care; while Class VIII was
land unsuited to any other purposes.
 Generally, Land capability classes are usually divided into two major
groups:
(i) Land capable for cultivation; and
(ii) Land not capable for cultivation but capable for permanent
vegetation like pas­tures, orchards and forests.
 Capability Sub-class
 Capability subclass is the second category in the land capability
classification system.
 Lands of sub-class have similar major problem, such as erosion and
runoff (e), excess water or wetness (w), problems in the rooting zone (s) and
climatic limitations (c).

 The subclass represents the dominant limitation that determines the

capability class.

Subclass e: is made up of soils for which the susceptibility to erosion is the

dominant problem or hazard affecting their use.
 Erosion susceptibility and past erosion damage are the major soil factors that
affect soils in this subclass.

Subclass w: is made up of soils for which excess water is the dominant

hazard or limitation affecting their use.
 Poor soil drainage, wetness, a high water table, and overflow are the factors
that affect soils in this subclass.
Subclass m: (Moisture Limitations) - This subclass consists of soils
where crops are affected by drought owing to inherent soil
characteristics.
 These soils usually have low water-holding capacity.

Subclass c: is made up of soils for which the climate (the temperature

or lack of moisture) is the major hazard or limitation affecting their
use.

Subclass f: (Low Fertility) - This subclass includes soils having low

fertility that is either correctable with the use of fertilizers and soil
amendments.

Note:- Within a capability class, where the kinds of limitations are

essentially in equal degree, the subclasses may have priority like e, w,
s, and c.
 Land capability unit (LCU)

 It is a grouping of one or more individual soil mapping units (a

portion of the landscape that has similar characteristics and qualities
and whose limits are fixed by precise definitions)

 Having similar potentials and continuing limita­tions or hazards.

 The capability units are groupings of soils that have common

responses to a given land uses and they differ by their distinctive
permanent physical factors.

 The land capability unit is expressed by putting an Arabic number (1,

2, 3, etc.) at the end of land capability class or subclass.
For example: IIIe1, IIIc2.
5.3. Systems of land capability classification

 The classification is mainly trough the help of the following

limiting factors :
1. Slope (L) 5. Infiltration (I)
2. Soil depth (D) 6. Texture (T)
3. Past erosion (E) 7. Stoniness (S)
4. Water logging (W)

SCRCs Suitable land use

I, II, III, IV Land capable for cultivation of annual crops
V, VI, VII Capable for temporary grazing
VIII May be suitable for woodland

06/14/2024 101
Slope (L); The range of slopes given below, are those currently
used for Soil Conservation purposes.

SLOPE CLASSES % RANGE CODE

Flat or almost flat 0-3 L1

Gently sloping 3-8 L2

Sloping 8-15 L3

Moderately steep 15-30 L4

Steep 30-50 L5

Very steep > 50 L6

06/14/2024 102
Soil Depth (D); The soil depth includes the total depth of the soil to a
contrasting layer significant for soil conservation requirements.

SOIL DEPTH Cm CODE

CLASSES
Very deep > 150 D1
Deep 100-150 D2
Moderately deep 50-100 D3
Shallow 25-50 D4
Very shallow <25 D5

06/14/2024 103
Past erosion (E); The past erosion assessment must be objective by observing
the features described above and not by a subjective assumption of the facts .
EROSION DEFINITION CODE
CLASSES
Nil - No erosion noticeable E0
Slight - Some surface wash and small rills. Slight topsoil loss, no subsoil E1
exposed. Tree/plants roots slightly exposed. Micropedestals observed
in upper parts of the field.
Moderate -Rills cover most of the surface at regular intervals (after rain showers E2
of medium/high intensity). Bleached spots in several parts of the field
surface, much topsoil removed in upper portions of the field (coarser
materials left). Pedestals 1-5 cm frequent. Occasionally, small patches
of subsoil exposed. Double slopes observed as a result of continuous
ploughing of rills. Tree/plant roots well exposed.
Severe - Shallow gullies frequent (occasionally deep ones). Most or all top E3
soil removed, the surface layer almost entirely subsoil. Small areas of
top soil remaining exposed. Occasionally, large stones on top of 10-50
cm pedestals. Tree roots almost completely exposed.
Very severe - Most of the land is dissected by gullies. Only small areas of top soil E4
and upper subsoil are still present between the gullies. The land
consists of exposed parent material or rock resulting from the
06/14/2024
complete removal of topsoil and subsoil. 104
Texture (T); Soil texture refers to the physical composition of the soil
defined in terms of the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay.

 The textural classes listed in the table below are defined from field
experience:

TEXTURAL GROUP TEXTURAL CLASS CODE

Sand T1
COARSE Sandy loam T2
Loam T3
Silt loam T4
MEDIUM Clay loam T5
Clay, Silt clay T6
FINE Heavy clay T7

06/14/2024 105
Waterlogging(W).

WATERLOGGING DEFINITION CODE

No waterlogging - Well drained soil W0

Intermittently - Imperfectly drained areas. Occupy level and sometimes W1
waterlogged depressed sites. Area is wet and waterlogged during the
heavy rains for a few days/weeks. Brown or yellow
mottles may occur in the profile (common on Vertisols).
Regularly - Poorly drained areas. Occupy bottom lands, commonly W2
waterlogged flooded during the wet season and waterlogged for some
time during the dry season. Color of the soil is
predominantly grey with brown mottling.
Swampy areas Very poorly drained areas. Water table at or near the W3
surface during the wet season. Soils are generally grey in
color.

06/14/2024 106
Infiltration (I)
 The infiltration rate is function of the permeability, condition of soil surface
(liability to capping, crusting, sealing) and the soil moisture content.

 The infiltration is influenced by the soil structure, salinity, sodicity and bulk
density. The following descriptions will help the technicians to assess the
infiltration in the field.

INFILTRAT DEFINITION CODE

ION
CLASSES
Good - The soil in the surface layer is porous or very permeable or has I0
a good structure to absorb rapidly. When the dry soil is
ploughed it breaks into fine clods and grains. Good plant cover
or grasses are observed.
Moderate - The soil in the surface layer has a massive structure or has a I1
moderate to slow permeability. The surface has tendency to
compact and seal. Crusts form rapidly after first showers.

Poor - In addition to a massive structure the soil has a strong tendency I2

to seal on welting or settling to an almost impermeable crust on
drying. When dry, the soil does not show cracks at the surface.
06/14/2024 107
Stoniness or rockiness (S)

 Stony soils are less liable to erosion.

 The soil is not only protected by the stones but infiltration is

increased as water flows into the soil around the edges of the stones;
but the stones may interfere with tillage, especially with mechanized
agriculture.

STONINESS ROCKINESS AREA CODE

CLASSES CLASSES
COVER %
No stones or few No rocks or few < 15 S0
Moderately stony Moderately rocky 15-30 S1
Stony Rocky 30-50 S2
Very stony very rocky 50-85 S3
Rubble land rock outcrops > 85 S4

06/14/2024 108
THE LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION TABLE
LIMITING RANGE OF CODES PERMITTED IN THE COLUMN
FACTOR
Slope (L) 1 2 3 4 1- 4 5 6 1- 6 1-6

Soil Depth (D) 1 1 -2 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-3 1-4 1–5 1-5

Past Erosion (E) 0 0 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-3 0–4 0-4

Waterlogging (W) 0 0 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-3

Infiltration (I) 0 0 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2

Topsoil Texture (T) 3-5 3-6 3-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 1-7 1-7

Surface stoniness or 0 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-3 0-3 0-4 0-4

rockiness (S)
Soil Conservation
Requirement class I II III IV VI VII VIII V
(SCRC)
Land use Land suitable for annual Land suitable for Land Land not Swampy
crops grazing, forest, suitable suitable areas,
suitability
wildlife…. for for river
forestr agricultur beds…
y e
06/14/2024 109
 Example
An area has the following conditions

1. Slope (L) 10 % L3
2. Past erosion (E) Moderate E2
3. Soil depth (D) 90cm D3
4. Water logging (W) No W0
5. Infiltration (I) Good I0
6. Texture (T) Clay loam T5
7. Stoniness (S) Moderate S1

Determine the capability of the land for soil conservation

purpose?

First, we must arrange as L, D, E, W, I, T, and S as presented in the

table.
06/14/2024 110
 Using the correct order and values L3, D3, E2, W0, I0, T5, and S 1

LIMITING FACTOR RANGE OF CODES PERMITTED IN THE COLUMN

Slope (L) 1 2 3 4 1- 4 5 6 1- 6 1-6

Soil Depth (D) 1 1 -2 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-3 1-4 1–5 1-5

Past Erosion (E) 0 0 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-3 0–4 0-4

Waterlogging (W) 0 0 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-3

Infiltration (I) 0 0 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2

Topsoil Texture (T) 3-5 3-6 3-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 1-7 1-7

Surface stoniness or 0 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-3 0-3 0-4 0-4

rockiness (S)
Soil Conservation
Requirement class I II III IV VI VII VIII V
(SCRC)

Land use Land capable for annual Land capable for Land Land Swampy
crops grazing perennial capable capable for areas,
capability
crops for grazing….. river
grazing bed.
….
06/14/2024 111
Example
An area has the following conditions
1. Slope (L) 17 %
2. Soil depth (D) 90cm
3. Water logging (W) No
4. Infiltration (I) Good
5. Texture (T) Clay loam
6. Stoniness (S) Moderate
7. Past erosion (E) Moderate

1. Determine the capability of the land for soil conservation

purpose

2. Identify the limiting factors of the land.

3. What would be your role if the farmer is using the land currently
for other purpose?
06/14/2024 112
 CHAPTER SIX
SOIL LOSS AND SEDIMENT YIELD ESTIMATION

 Estimation of soil loss:- Refers to approximation of soils removed

from a given site by the forces of erosion and the redeposit of the
soil (sediment) at another location on land or in a body of water

113
 Soil Loss Tolerance

 Although, we cannot stop soil erosion, our effort is to minimize it up to

the quantity that cannot affect our land productivity. Here comes an
idea of “permissible soil loss”, (i.e. the tolerable limit of soil loss).
 The rationale behind measuring soil erosion is to see soil loss rate of the given
land whether it is below or above the permissible value.

 “Soil loss tolerance for a specific soil is the maximum annual soil loss
expressed in ton/ha/year that will permit current production levels to be
maintained economically and indefinitely.”

 Or it is defined as the maximum acceptable level of soil loss from an area

which will allow optimum level of productivity to be maintained.

 Soil loss tolerance of different soil types based on their depth is different.
But in general, 11.2 ton/ha/year is considered as permissible erosion limit.

 The assumption of this limit is that rate of soil erosion equals the rate of
soil formation.
 Recommended tolerance values of specific soils are used as a guide for soil
conservation planning.

 Soil losses beyond these average values are taken as productivity reducing
level. Areas having severe erosion (soil losses greater than the permissible
value) needs special treatment = soil and water conservation measures.

 Soil loss tolerance

Soil type Soil loss levels are set as
ton/ha/yr
6 - 11 permissible because:
 Deep fertile loam soil ( 1 – 1.5 m)
 Thin highly erodible soil 2-5
 Productivity and
 Very deep loam soils (> 1.5 m) 13-15
production will not be
Soil depth adversely affected at this
 0 – 25 cm 2
level of soil loss rate;
 25 – 50 cm 2-5 and
 50 – 100 cm 5-7
 100 – 150 cm 7-9 Natural soil formation
 > 150 cm 11 rate have the chance to
make the balance
115
6.1. Plot level Estimation of soil loss

A) Erosion Pin method

 Consists of driving a pin into the soil so that the top of the pin gives a
datum from which changes in the soil surface level can be measured.

 A pin made of wood, iron, bamboo, steel, etc with commonly 300mm
length and 5mm diameter will be driven in to the soil.

 The pin must not be rot or decay while staying in the soil. Length
300mm is an average; it could be less for shallow soils, and more for
loose soils. 116
 Five mm diameter is preferred because thicker pins will interfere the
flow of runoff/surface flow/ and cause scour.

 The pins will be driven randomly in rectangular or square grid of

commonly 1m X 1m size, as shown below. The pin is driven on the
corner points of the squares. [example 6 x 5 = 30 m 2 field plot]

 Surface level change will be monitored after the end of

every rain and the length in the pin above the soil surface
is measured and recorded continuously.

 Finally, the average of each pin will be found and the final
soil loss will be calculated by the following formula;

Final soil loss=

117
Example:
In a one year experiment of soil loss estimation 28 erosion pins were driven in to the soil on
1mx1m square grid corners and the following records were taken.

3pins show 4mm soil loss 6 pins show 5 mm soil loss

3pins show 1.5 mm soil loss 6 pins show no change
2 pins show 2mm deposit 4 pins show 3mm deposit

4 pins show 0.5 mm deposit.

Bulk density of the soil, take 1.3 gm/cm3

Then; Calculate the net soil loss from this information.
Solution
Summation of eroded depths will be: 3x4 + 6x5 + 3x1.5 = 46.5mm
Summation of deposit depths will be: 2x2 + 4x3 + 4x0.5 = 18mm
Total number of pins = 28
Therefore, using the formula
Final soil loss=

118
 Since 1m = 1000mm; 1mm = 0.001m
• This 0.001m soil loss is lost from 28 m2 area.
• Therefore, the volume of soil loss = Area (28m2) x depth (0.001m) = 0.028m3

From the general relationship, Density = Mass/Volume

Bulk density of a given soil = Dry mass of the soil/Volume of the
soil
Dry mass of soil = Bulk density x Volume of the soil mass
Bulk density of a soil mass ca be found from laboratory analysis, or for general
use in soil conservation purpose we can use 1.3g/cm3 or 1300kg/m3.

Therefore, the mass of the soil= Bulk density x Volume = 1300kg/m3 x

0.028m3 =36.4 kg, this mass of soil is loss from 28m2.
Since 1ton = 1000kg; 36.4 kg = .0364ton from 28 m2 area.
Since 1ha = 10000 m2; 28 m2 = 0.0028ha.

Therefore, the soil loss will be 0.0364ton/0.0028ha = 13 ton/ha/yr (this is the

119
net soil loss)
B)Pedestals
Used to measure soil loss in reference to a condition. Plant root or other pedestal
exposure describes a situation where the base are partially exposed above the present
soil surface.

 Easily eroded soil if protected by stone, tree or grass root, an isolated

pedestal capped by the resistant material are left standing up from the
surrounding ground.
Stone
The original ground surface before erosion

Grass

D D

Root
The ground surface lowered
after erosion

D= Depth of soil not eroded (due to the effect of the stone and the root)
120 are
• Therefore, using the lost soil depth ‘ D ’ we can estimate the amount of
soil lost. For example,
Example
• If D=7 cm and the area where the soil eroded was10 m2, the soil loss by
volume will be expressed as multiplying 7 cm by its area, or 0.07m x
10m2 = 0.7m3.

• Then calculate the mass of soil lost from the area?

• Following the same procedure as in the case of erosion pin method, we
can covert this volume in to ton and the area in to ha; And express the
soil loss in terms of ton/ha/year (assume bulk density of the soil is
1.3g/cm3).

 How do they occur? Pedestals are caused by differential rain splash

erosion, which displaces soil particles surrounding the pedestal.

 Pedestals occur on easily eroded soils, where random protection 121

from
• Example

NB: To get average; divide the sum

of all the measurements by the
number of measurements made.

Calculate t/ha equivalent of the

net soil loss (represented by the
average pedestal height). Using
an average bulk density of
1.3g/cm3, a 1 mm loss of soil is
equivalent to 13 t/ha.

AV PED HEIGHT (mm) 12.05 x 13 t/ha = 157 t/ha/y

 C) Runoff plot method

 Runoff plot is an experimental plot of land used to estimate soil

erosion from specified condition of the plot.

 A plot with known length, width, slope, cover, and supporting

conservation practices will be selected and bounded by steel sheet to
avoid interference of run-on in to the plot from outside area and to
guide the runoff from the plot not to leave elsewhere but only to the
prepared sediment and runoff collecting tanker/ storage.

 After rainfall, the stored mass of the sediment is measured and

converted in to ton, and divided with the plot area to get soil loss
amount in ton/ha/year.

123
 Sheet guiding
the runoff

Runoff and sediment

storage

Schematic diagram showing experimental runoff plot 124

Example
 In an experiment made on the standard size runoff plot, after continuous rainfall the
following information is collected. The dry mass of soil collected was 75 kg. The
bulk density of the soil was 1.3g/cm 3. How much will be the amount of soil eroded
from a hectare of land.

From the plot area only

Mass of soil lost = 75 kg =0.075 ton.
Volume of soil lost = Mass/density= 0.075ton/1.3ton/m 3=0.06m3.
To estimate Depth of soil eroded from the plot; we can divide the volume by the area of
the plot.

Assume the area of the plot = 22.13m x 2 m = 44.26 m2.

Therefore depth = .06/44.26 ~ 0.0014m

From 1 hectare of land

Mass of soil lost = 75 kg =0.075 ton/0.004426ha= 16.9ton/ha/y.
Volume of soil lost =
Mass/density= 16.9ton/1.3ton/m3
125
 6.2. Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)

 USLE is an erosion model developed by Wischmeier and Smith

(1965, 1978) to predict the longtime average soil losses from a
specified land in a specified cropping and management system.

A = RKLSCP

Where,
A = Estimated gross soil loss in ton/ha/yr e d a s the
gth i s d efi n
R= rainfall erosivity factor  Slope len f ro m t h e point
u la ti ve d istance
c um ta rts up
K= soil erodibility factor r u n o ff s
eaches
at which e ru n o ff r
L= slope length factor h e re t h e surfac
to w c h a n ne l
e fi n e d
S= slope factor a well-d
C= Crop cover/ crop management factor
P= Supporting conservation practices
126
 Rainfall erosivity factor:- is calculated as a product of the kinetic
energy of a rainfall times its maximum 30-minute intensity of fall.

 The abbreviation EI refers to the product of energy and maximum

intensity of rainfall in 30 minutes.

Soil erodibility factor

where K1 is the first approximation of K, KS is the soil structure sub-factor,

and KP is the permeability sub-factor

 Therefore K factor is determined by monograph (a diagram representing

the relations between three or more variable quantities(i.e, K1,K2 and K3)
127
Slope length factor

where λ is length of overland flow; m is determined based on slope amount

128
For simplicity, the following summarized table can be used for utilizing in USLE
Rain Length Slope
R Soil texture K L S Cover C Practice P
fall (m) %
500 300 5 - 5 0.4 Cereals, Pulses 0.15 Plowing up 1.00
Sand 0.02 & down
550 330 10 0.67 10 1.0 Teff 0.25 Strip 0.8
Loamy Sand 0.04
cropping
600 360 15 0.81 15 1.6 Sorghum, 0.1 Applying 0.6
Coarse Sandy Loam 0.07
Maize mulch
650 390 20 0.95 20 2.2 Fallow land 0.05 Contour 0.8
Fine Sand 0.08
plowing
700 420 25 1.05 25 2.6 Degraded grass 0.05 Inter 0.8
Loamy Fine Sand 0.11
cropping
750 450 30 1.15 30 3.0 Hard badland 0.05 Dense inter 0.7
Sandy Loam 0.13 cropping
800 480 Heavy Clay 0.17 35 1.25 35 3.4 Soft badland 0.4

850 510 Fine Sandy Loam 0.18 40 1.35 40 4.8 Dense forest 0.01

900 540 Sandy Clay Loam 0.20 45 1.42 45 4.05 Other forest 0.05

950 570 Clay 0.22 50 1.49 50 4.3

1000 600 Silty Clay 0.26 55 1.56 55 4.55

1050 630 Clay Loam 0.30 60 1.63 60 4.8

1100 660 Loam 0.30 65 1.70
1150 690 Silty Clay Loam 0.32 70 1.73

1200 720 Very Fine Sandy Loam 0.35 75 1.76

1250 750 Silt Loam 0.38 80 1.90

1300 780 Loamy Very Fine Sand 0.39 85 1.95

Very Fine Sand 0.43 2.00

129
For Ethiopian, Soil Conservation Research Project of Hurni (1985) has
developed the following table:
Rainfall Erosivity (R) factor Slope gradient (S) factor
Soil Erodibility (k) factor
Annual RF in mm Annual R factor Slope in % S- factor
Soil Color K -factor 5 0.4
100 48
10 1
200 104 Black 0.15 15 1.6
400 217 20 2.2
800 441 Brown 0.2 30 3
1200 666 40 3.8
Red 0.25 50 4.3
1600 890 60 4.8
2000 1115 Yellow 0.30
2400 1340

Slope length (L) factor

Conservation P- factor
Length in m L- factor Land Cover C- factor
Ploughing up and down slope 1.0
5 0.5
Dense forest 0.001 Strip cropping 0.8
10 0.7 Applying mulch 0.6
Other forests 0.01
20 1.0 Dense grass 0.01 Stone cover (40 %) 0.8
40 1.4 Bad land hard 0.15 Terracing and bunding 0.5
80 1.9 Bad land soft 0.4 Ploughing on contour 0.9
Sorghum 0.1 Inter cropping 0.8
160 2.7
Cereals, pulses 0.15 Dense inter cropping 0.7
240 3.2
Continuous fallow 1.0 Contour cultivation 0.6
320 3.8 Fallow ploughed 0.05
130
 USLE is used to determine the relative effectiveness of soil and crop management systems

in terms of preventing soil loss.

Example 1

A farmer having a sorghum field wants your advice about the declining of the productivity of his

land. The land has 15 % slope gradient, black soil, and the length of the land (flow length) was

80 m. The area has an annual rainfall of 1200 mm. The soil loss tolerance/ or permissible

limit/ was estimated 15 ton/ha/year. Then calculate the total soil loss? take the present

conservation practice to be mulching.

First understand the question and identify the given information.

Given Required
• Cover condition = Sorghum Your recommendation=?
• Slope of the land = 15 %
• Soil Color = Black
• The field length = 80 m
• Annual RF = 1200 mm
• Soil loss tolerance = 15 ton/ha/year 131
  Calculate the soil loss amount at the present condition to compare
with the tolerance level
Give the corresponding factors for the erosion parameters (RKLSCP) from the
table, i.e.
• Cover condition = Sorghum ; C= 0.1
• Slope of the land = 15 % ;S = 1.6
• Soil Color = Black ; K= 0.15
• The field length = 80 m ; L= 1.9
• Annual RF = 1200 mm ; R= 666
• Conservation practice = mulching; P = 0.6
A = RKLSCP
= 666 x 0.15 X 1.9 x 1.6 X 0.1 X 0.6
A = 18.22 ton/ha/year

• However, the calculated soil loss rate (18.22) is > the permissible (15).

• Therefore, as an advice, there must be some adjustment on the erosion

132
parameters. It is considered that we cannot modify R and K factors.
 After the comparison, it was found that the present soil erosion rate is
found to be greater than the permissible value.

 Therefore, we need to modify some of the soil erosion parameters

from USLE.

 Climate (R) and soil (K) factors are set for a given parameter since we
can do nothing on R and K

 Slope grade (S) and length (L) can be adjusted with difficulty

 Most flexibility with cover management (C) and supporting practices

(P)

133
 Therefore, Modifying L and S is also difficult than C and P.

 First you must look at alternative smallest values for C and P from the
table so that the calculated value can be lower or equal to 15 ton/ha/year.

 For P factor the value 0.6 is the minimum, we cannot adjust P. But
we have small values for C, C= 0.001, and 0.01 which can make the
average soil loss value less than the permissible.

Note:- The difficulty here is, if you use 0.001, or 0.01 for C factor, the
farmer should change his sorghum land to dense forest, or at least to
forest land.

134
 If this is the case, it is seen well that looking at L factor. If you advice the
farmer to construct bund at the middle of his field and reduce the length to
40 m, i.e. the L value will be 1.4.

 Therefore, substitute the value of P by 1.4 than 1.9 and predict the possible
soil loss rate in the future.
A = RKLSCP
= 666 x 0.15 X 1.4 x 1.6 X 0.1 X 0.6
A = 13.4 ton/ha/year < the permissible value.

 The farmer is better to construct a suitable bund at the middle of his land
and the soil loss rate will be reduced from 18.22 to 13.4 ton/ha/year.
Consequently, soil loss will be minimized .
135
Example 2
In an area subjected to soil erosion, the following information is available:
 Rainfall erosivity index (R): 1200 MJ-mm/ha-h-y
 Soil erodability index (k): 0.20 t-ha-h/MJ.mm
 Crop management factor ( C): 0.60
 Conservation practice factor (P): 1.0
 Slope length factor (LS): 0.1

 What will be estimated annual soil loss? Explain how this soil loss will
decrease by adopting conservation practices.
Solution
Using the USLE, the soil loss is obtained as
A = 1200×0.20×0.60×1.0×0.1=14.4 tonnes/hectare per year
To reduce the soil loss, if conservation are introduced by contouring and factor P is
now 0.6.
The soil loss is given by:
A = 14.4×0.6 = 10.44 tonnes / hectare per year.

 Percentage reduction in soil loss after adoption of conservation practice factor

is given by:
% reduction in soil loss = {(14.4-10.44)/14.4}×100 = 27.5% 136
The USLE can be used for the following purposes:
 Predict average annual soil loss from a field with a specified land use
conditions
 Guide the selection of cropping and management system, and conservation
practices for specific soils and slopes
 Predict the change in soil loss that would result from a change in cropping
or conservation practices on a specified field
 Provide soil loss estimates for conservationists to use for determining
conservation needs

Limitations of USLE
a) It predicts average annual soil loss
b) It does not compute sediment deposition
c) It does not compute rill and gully erosion (USLE assumed that runoff
was uniform over the catchment) 137
6.3. Modified universal soil loss equation (MUSLE)
 The USLE was developed to estimate soil erosion at the plot and annual
time scales. Therefore, its application to storm-wise sediment yields at the
watershed scale may lead to substantial errors.

 The MUSLE was developed as a watershed-based model to estimate the

sediment yield produced by each individual storm event.

 Replacing the rainfall factor from the former USLE with a runoff factor
as a function of runoff volume (Q) and peak discharge (Qp).

 Williams in 1975 made USLE to fit for computation of sediment yield

either monthly or seasonally.

 He replace the rainfall energy factor R by another ‘runoff factor’. To make

this modification 18 small watersheds, 778 storms are used.

138
 The general form of the sediment yield equation in the MUSLE
model is expressed as follows:-

Y= 95 (Qqp)0.56 KLSCP/100A
Where,
Y is the sediment yield (t ha−1),
Q is the volume of runoff (m3),
Qp is the peak discharge (m3 s−1),
A is the drainage area (km2),
K is the soil erodibility factor (t h MJ−1 mm−1),
LS is the topographic factor (dimensionless),
C is the cover management factor (dimensionless),
P is the support practice factor (dimensionless), 139
140
141
142
 6.4. Revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE)
 RUSLE maintains the basic structure of USLE but the algorithms used to
calculate the individual factors have been changed significantly.

 The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) is an upgrade of USLE

that is land use independent.

 It can be used on cropland, disturbed forestland, rangeland, construction

sites, mined land, reclaimed land, landfills, waste disposal sites, and other
lands where rainfall and its associated overland flow cause soil erosion.

 RUSLE gives more credit to the ability of surface residues to reduce

erosion, as well as residues incorporated in the soil near the soil surface.

143
 RUSLE maintains the same empirically based equation as USLE to
compute sheet and rill erosion.

 Where USLE assumed that runoff was uniform over the catchment, RUSLE
takes better into account that some runoff is channeled into rills and gullies.

 In RUSLE, soil loss is predicted by converting the input data (rainfall data,
soil data, digital elevation model, and land use) into geographical
information system format, following which it is implemented in the
geospatial framework.

144
1. Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)
 Rainfall is a precondition for the existence of any form of water erosion.

 The amount and even intensity of rainfall are the two important attributes
for rainfall.

 Water induced erosion is more pronounced when the two rainfall attributes
are on the higher side.

 Rainfall erosivity factor quantifies the erosive power possessed by rainfall,

and it much depends on the rainfall’s intensity and amount

R= 8. 1 2 + (0. 562 x P)
Where, R is rainfall erosivity value in MJ mm ha/hr/yr , P is spatial
distributed 17 years (1998–2015) mean annual rainfall depth in mm.
145
2. Soil Erodibility Factor (K)
 The K factor is defined as the inherent susceptibility of soil to soil erosion.

 Soils that have low silt levels have less erodibility regardless of high
fractions of both sand and clay.

Where:
 K is the soil erdibility factor (tons ha−1 R unit−1),
 OM is the percentage soil organic matter content,
 M is particle size parameter and is given by M = (%Silt + %Very Fine
Sand) * (100 - %Clay),
 S is soil structural code, and
 P is the soil profile permeability rating were obtained using a combination
of field observation.

 Default values were considered for S and P

146
3. Slope Length and Slope Steepness (LS)
 The slope length is defined as the cumulative distance from the point at
which runoff starts up to where the surface runoff reaches a well-defined
channel.

 From the definition of slope length, the amount of soil that is lost from a
given area of land increases as the slope length increases.

 The slope gradient factor expresses the effect of the steepness of the slope
on soil erosion.

 The slope length (L) and slope steepness (S) define the landscape’s
topography, which mostly influence the extent of soil erosion .

 L and S are the two most important parameters with regard to soil erosion
modeling and most importantly when calculating the transporting power of
surface runoff.

147
 The LS factor therefore combines the effects of slope length and slope
steepness, both of which account for the landscape’s topographical e ffects
on erosion.

 Hence, terrain effects on erosion processes are accounted for by the LS

factor within the RUSLE model.

 Soil erosion is noted to increase when both the slope angle and length
increase .

 The slope gradient’s effect on soil erosion is much more compared to that
brought about by slope length.

148
Where, λ=slope length or distance of an overland flow measured in (m) and m is
slope length exponent that depends on site slope gradient (θ)

 Since slope gradient of the watershed exceeds 25% and varies over a wide range,
a general equation proposed for such area is:-

Therefore, LS =L * S
149
4. Cover Management Factor (C)
 It is used to determine the relative effectiveness of soil and crop mnagement
systems in terms of preventing soil loss
 The common parameters that define vegetation cover are mainly ground
cover and plant canopy cover.

 Vegetation cover prevents the soil from the impact of raindrops by

dissipating the amount of energy they possess before reaching the soil
surface.

 Moreover, vegetation cover intercepts rainfall, there by encouraging more

infiltration.

 The C factor is defined as the ratio of soil lost from cropped land under
specified conditions to that lost from bare soil

C= soil loss from Area treated or covered/ soil loss from Area fallow

 The value ranges from 0.001 for dense forests to 1.0 for bare land
150
5. Support practice factor (P)
 The P factor accounts for management practices that affect soil erosion
through modifying the flow pattern, such as contouring, strip cropping, or
terracing.

 The P factor is expressed as the ratio between the rate and the amount of
soil lost when a specific support practice is used and similar soil loss
when row farming is executed in an up- and downslope manner.

P= soil loss from Area of SWC practice/soil loss from Area of up-
down plough

 The P value is 1 for soils without any support practices and close to zero
when proper erosion control measures are implemented

 Lower P factor values are indicative of effectiveness in conservation

practices

151
 6.5. Soil loss estimation due to Wind erosion
• Soil erosion by wind is initiated when wind speed exceeds the
saltation threshold velocity for a given land surface condition, which
is highly dependent on the erodible material and surface roughness.

• The duration and severity of an erosion event depends on the wind

speed distribution and changes in the surface condition

152
CHAPTER SEVEN

SEDIMENTATION

153
7.1. Sedimentation of water resources
 Sedimentation is the deposition of rock fragments, soil, organic
matter, or dissolved material that has been eroded, that is, has been
transported by water, wind, ice, or gravity.

 It is a general term for the processes of erosion, i.e. detachment,

transport and deposition.

 Deposition of sediments occurs when the erosive force is no

longer able to move the sediments.

 It is a complex process that varies with watershed, sediment yield,

rate of transportation and mode of deposition.

154
 Sedimentation could occur in different places such as on land,
sea or river ecosystems.

 Sedimentation of water resources is the process of deposition of

particles that have been generated during the process of erosion
into rivers, lakes or ponds.

 It is responsible for the transport of essential nutrients as well

as pollutants.

 Most sediments in water originate from surface erosion and

contain mineral bedrock and organic components during the
process of soil formation.

155
6.1.2. Sources of sedimentation
 Sediment sources in any given watershed vary with location and
time.
 There are two broad categories of sediment sources:- upland
sediment sources, and channel sediment sources.

 Upland sediment sources include various land-use and land-cover

types: forest, cropland, pasture, construction sites, roads, etc.

 Channel sediment sources include the stream banks, beds, flood

plain, and gullies.

 Therefore, sediment reduction strategies differ by source and require

different management approaches.

 For example, reducing sediment loads from agricultural sources

might require soil conservation and tilling practices, whereas channel
sources might require side bank stabilization. 156
6.1.3. Losses due to Sedimentation of Water Resources
 Sediment is necessary to the development of aquatic ecosystems
through nutrient replenishment and the creation of benthic habitat.

 While sediment is needed to build aquatic habitats and reintroduce

nutrients for submerged vegetation, too much or too little sediment
can easily cause ecosystem and safety issues.

 Too much sediment can cause poor water quality, algal blooms, and
deposition build-up.

 Though, too much sediment is the more common concern, a lack of

sediment transport will also cause the following environmental
issues.

157
 Too little sediment can alter an ecosystem to the point that native
species cannot survive.

 Without sediment transport and deposition, new habitats cannot be

formed.

 Without some nutrient enrichment (carried with sediment into the

water), submerged vegetation could not grow.

 The loss of sediment transport and deposition can also cause

physical changes to the terrain.

158
Impacts caused due to sedimentation
1. Loss of Reservoir Storage Capacity
 Sediment deposition is a key factor reducing the life of dams and
reservoirs.
2. Effects on hydropower operations and reservoir operations
 Higher sediment accumulation results in blockage of the reservoir
outlet.
 Abrasion of hydraulic machinery may also occur, decreasing its
efficiency and increasing maintenance costs.
3. Impacts on Infrastructure
 Excessive erosion leads to incidents such as bridge collapses and cracks.

 Too much sediment in canal systems can disrupt the normal functioning
of irrigation pump house and irrigation practices.

 Sediment also has negative impacts on domestic water supplies,

causing problems in both water treatment plants and distribution
159
networks; resulting in environmental problems.
4. Flooding
 Flooding occurs when a watercourse is unable to convey the
quantity of runoff flowing downstream.

 Increased sediment accumulation in river systems can raise the

level of the riverbed, subsequently increasing water levels.

 This deposition can have significant implications for flooding, and

may cause floods to pose a risk to human settlements.

160
5. Navigational Issues
 The sedimentation of water courses can also make them unsuitable
for navigation.
6. Impacts on Wetlands and In-stream Ecosystems
 Where dams do not exist to trap sediment, excessive sediment
inputs may have negative impacts on wetland areas.

 The impact of excessive sediment deposition in wetlands creates

ecological disruption.
 This results in alteration of aquatic food webs, nutrient cycling and
biogenic processes that transform and sequester pollutants.

 Eventually sediment deposition may entirely dominate wetlands

resulting in limited biological diversity.

161
7. Impacts on Water Quality
 Sediment is a pollutant in its own right; often contain chemical pollutants
which may pose a risk to human health and the surrounding ecosystems.

 Even where sediment is uncontaminated by agricultural fertilizers and

pesticides and industrial or human waste, they cause turbidity in the
water which limits light penetration and prohibits healthy plant growth
on the river bed.

 The accumulation of sediments on the river bed can disrupt aquatic

ecosystems by reducing food sources, and the habitats of desirable fish
species.

 Eutrophication: the addition of ‘excess’ nutrients to a water body.

 Eutrophication creates a situation where the dissolved oxygen present in

the water system is reduced and the aquatic species may be unable to
survive in the water column.
162
 Potable water supplies can be compromised by the presence of
excess sediment (whether contaminated by toxins or not) leading
to failures and subsequent risks to the safety of the drinking
water.

 Contaminated surface waters also cause a risk by altering the

metabolic processes of the aquatic species that they host.

 These alterations can lead to killing of aquatic species or alter the

balance of populations present.

163
6.2. Sediment Transport
 Sediment transport is the movement of organic and inorganic
particles by water.
 The greater the flow, the more sediment that will be carried.

 Another name for sediment transport is sediment load; which refers

to the the total amount of sediment being transported.

The total load includes all particles moving as bed load,

suspended load, and wash load.
 Bed load is the portion of sediment transport that rolls, slides or
bounces along the bottom of a waterway.
 This sediment is not truly suspended, it sustains in an intermittent
contact with the streambed.
 It occurs during low flows (for smaller particles) or at high flows
164
(for larger particles).
 Suspended Load refers consists of fine sand, silt and clay size
particles although larger particles (coarser sands) may be carried in
the lower water column.
 The suspended load is the middle layer that consists of the smaller
sediment that's suspended

 It is not similar with suspended sediment:- Suspended sediment are

any particles found in the water column, whether the water is
flowing or not.

 In addition, suspended sediment will not necessarily remain

suspended (up in the air) if the flow rate slows.
Note:- Sediment is transported as suspended load (silt and clay held in the
water column above the bottom (streambed), bed load (sand, gravel and
coarser material, like cobbles and boulders moved by rolling, sliding, and
bouncing along the streambed.
165
 Wash (dissolved) Load is comprised of the finest suspended sediment.
Sediment that is carried easily by the water and does not interact with
the bed.

 It differs from the suspended load because it will not settle to the
bottom of a waterway during a low or no flow period.
 Instead, these particles remain in permanent suspension as they are small
enough to bounce off water molecules and stay afloat.

 However, during flow periods, the wash load and suspended load are
indistinguishable.

 Turbidity in lakes and slow moving rivers is typically due to wash load.

Note:- Bed load is transported by rolling, sliding, and bouncing along the bed
of the channel, While dissolved and suspended load are transported by
suspension.
166
Mechanics of sediment transportation
The four modes of particle transport in water are sliding, rolling,
saltation and suspension.
 Sliding particles remain in continuous contact with the bed.
 Rolling grains also remains in continuous contact with the bed,
 Saltation grains ‘jump’ along the bed in a series of low trajectories.

 Sediment particles in these three categories collectively form the

bed load.

 The suspended load consists of particles in suspension i.e. particles that

follow long and irregular paths within the water and rarely come in contact
with the bed until they are deposited.
 Sliding and rolling are dominant in slower flows, while saltation and
suspension in faster flows. 167
6.3. Reservoir Sedimentation
Reservoirs are those water bodies formed or modified by human
activity for specific purposes, in order to provide a reliable and
controllable resource.
 The main uses include:
- drinking and municipal water supply,
- industrial and cooling water supply,
- power generation,
- agricultural irrigation,
- river regulation and flood control,
- commercial and recreational fisheries,
- body contact recreation, boating, and other aesthetic,
- navigation,
- canalization, and
- waste disposal (in some situations)
168
 Any reservoir on a sediment carrying river will gradually become
silted up, even though this process may take a long time.

 Reservoirs are designed and operated on the concept of a finite

life which will ultimately be terminated by sediment accumulation
rather than structural uselessness.

 It is important to take care that the silting up of a reservoir does

not occur before the benefits achieved.

 Measures should be taken in order to reduce its effects to an

acceptable level.

169
 Sediment accumulates in the reservoir, is called reservoir
sedimentation.
 It is the gradual accumulation of the incoming sediment load
from a river.

 The rate of deposition and the period of time before the

sediment will interfere with the useful function of the
reservoir must be estimated.

 It is a serious problem in many parts of the world and has

severe consequences for water management, flood control,
and production of energy.

 Generally, soil erosion is the major cause of reservoir

sedimentation. 170
Factors affecting the sedimentation of reservoirs
 Slope of Stream
– In streams having steep slopes and long reach, sediment is
deposited at the lower portion of the reservoir and vice versa.
 Reservoir Length
– affects whether large and small sized sediments are deposited
in the lower or upper portion of the reservoir.
 Reservoir Constriction
– If there is constriction in the reservoir, then deposition of
sediment takes place in the upper portion, comparatively in
large proportions.
 Size of Sediment
– affects the pattern of sediment deposition in the reservoir.
 Inflow Capacity

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 Reservoir Operation
 Whether the reservoir is built for single or multi- purpose affects the
accumulation of sediment.
 Inflow Pattern of the Stream
 Vegetal Growth
• The presence of vegetation in upstream area of the reservoir, helps in
trapping the sediments and thus reducing the entry of silts amount
into the reservoir
 Sediment load in river flow
 Shape of Reservoir
 Shape affects the depth of sediment deposition at the bottom

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Reservoir Sedimentation Control
 A combination of strategies will usually be used, and the
techniques most suitable for implementation will change over
time as sediment conditions change.

 Management activities to address reservoir sedimentation may

be classified into four broad types of methodologies:
1. Reducing sediment yield
2. Managing flows (route sediments)
3. Removing sediment
4. Adaptive structural and functional measures

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1. Reducing sediment yield
 This can be done by minimising sediment production in the
catchment through erosion control methods and trapping
sediment before it reaches the reservoir.

 Structures like check dams and detention basins trap sediment

by intercepting the flow of water and thereby settling and
accumulating the sediment in the trapping structure.

2. Managing flows (route sediments)

 Refers to set of techniques that take advantage of the time-
wise variation in sediment discharge

 Managing flows during periods of highest sediment yield to

minimise sediment deposition in the reservoir. 174
 The objective is to release sediment-laden water and impound clear
water.

 It mitigates downstream environmental impacts while maintaining

the hydropower plant’s production efficiency.

3. Redistribute or remove sediments

 fluctuating the water levels is the major means to achieve this.
 Raising the reservoir’s minimum operating water level.
 Opening the dam’s bottom outlets when the water level is high to
release water flows at high pressure.

175
 Scouring of the sediment by completely emptying the reservoir
and mechanical excavation of sediment from the bottom are
among the major means of redistributing or removing sediments.

4. Adaptive strategies
 are actions to mitigate the impacts of sedimentation that do not
involve handling the sediment.

 It includes structural modification strategies to increase the

reservoir volume by raising the dam or increasing the resistance of
equipment from sediment impacts by applying protective coating.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT

WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION

177
8.1. Water Quality
 Water quality describes the condition of chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics of water.

 Water quality is usually determined with respect to its suitability for

a particular purpose such as drinking, irrigation and swimming.

 It is measured by several factors, such as the concentration of

dissolved oxygen, pH, bacteria levels, the amount of salt (or
salinity), the amount of suspended materials in the water (turbidity),
color, taste, odor, temperature and electrical conductivity.

 The concentration of microscopic algae and quantities of pesticides,

herbicides, heavy metals, and other contaminants may also be
measured to determine water quality.
178
 Numerous human activities which include agriculture, industry,
mining, disposal of human waste, population growth, urbanization,
climate change etc. affects water quality.

 Water contamination destroys natural ecosystems that support

human health, food production, and biodiversity.

 Poor water quality threatens the health of people and ecosystems.

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8.1.2. Standards of Water Quality for Different Uses
 For any water body to function adequately in satisfying the desired
use, it must have the corresponding degree of purity.

 Each water use has specific quality need.

 Therefore, to set the standard for the desired quality of a water body,
it is essential to identify the uses of water in that water body.

180
 Although pure water is rarely found in nature (because of the strong
tendency of water to dissolve other substances), the characterization of
water quality (i.e., clean or polluted) is a function of the intended use of
the water.

Water quality standards:- are requirements that describe the desired

condition of a water body and the means by which that condition will be
protected or achieved.

 Limits on the amount of impurities allowed in water intended for a

particular use.

 It provides a legal framework for the prevention of water pollution of all

types. 181
Stream water Standards
 Water quality objectives for freshwaters take into account several
major uses of water like irrigation, drinking, industry, power
generation, recreation etc.

 All water bodies are not necessarily required to meet all

potential uses.

 This has led to the concept of classification and zoning of water

bodies which indicate that their quality has to meet the requirement
of one or more potential uses.

 For each typical use, water quality criterion should take into
account the special constraints on water quality imposed by that use.

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 Based on this, any water body or its stretch can be designated for
some particular best use which can be termed as the designated best
use.
 The water resources can be classified or zoned depending upon the
designated best use of the water.
 Some of the parameters include;
- Total Dissolved Oxygen
- Temperature
- pH
- Turbidity
- Suspended solids

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Drinking Water Standards
 Drinking water is the water intended for human consumption for
drinking and cooking purposes from any source.

 It includes water supplied by pipes or any other means for human

consumption by any supplier.

 Drinking water should be of the highest purity.

 Drinking water quality standards describes the quality parameters set

for drinking water.

 Most drinking water quality standards are expressed as guidelines or

targets rather than requirements.

Drinking water standards include lists of parametric values. These

include color, turbidity, pH, and the aesthetic parameters (taste and odor).
184
Irrigation Water Standards
 For the quality of water for irrigation, the major parameters of
concern are salinity denoted by dissolved salts, conductivity (soluble
salts), potentially toxic trace elements, and herbicides.

 In addition, the presence of sodium is also an important parameter

excess quantities of which can deteriorate the soils.

 High value of sodium may also damage the sensitive crops because
of sodium phyto-toxicity.

 The sodium in waters can be denoted by percent sodium and

"sodium absorption ratio" (SAR).

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 Soil scientists use the following categories to describe irrigation
water effects on crop production and soil quality:-
- Salinity hazard – total soluble salt content
- Sodium hazard – relative proportion of sodium to calcium
and magnesium ions
- pH – acid or basic
- Alkalinity – carbonate and bicarbonate
- Specific ions: chloride, sulfate, boron, and nitrate
- microbial pathogens.

186
8.2. Water Pollution
 Water pollution: the release of substances into water bodies to the point
that the substances interfere with beneficial use of the water or with the
natural functioning of ecosystems.

 Water pollution occurs when harmful substances often chemicals or

microorganisms contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other
water bodies.

187
8.2.1. Types of Water Pollution
1. Surface Water Pollution

 Surface water refers to all bodies of water above the Earth’s surface,
such as oceans, lakes, and rivers.

Surface Water Pollution is the most visible form of pollution and

can be seen floating on the water surface in lakes, streams, and oceans.

 Surface water pollution caused by Flooding that pick up fertilizers,

pesticides, debris, Oil spills, agricultural runoff, Industrial wastes
dumping directly into waterways.
2. Groundwater Pollution
 Groundwater pollution is becoming more and more relevant because
it affects our drinking water obtained from the aquifers.

 Groundwater can also become contaminated when waste from

agriculture, landfills, septic systems etc. leaches into the ground.

3. Microbial Pollution
 It is the natural form of water pollution that is caused by
microorganisms in uncured water.

 Most of these organisms are harmless, but some bacteria, viruses,

and protozoa can cause serious diseases such as cholera, typhoid, etc.
 This is a significant problem in third world or developing countries
where many people have no clean drinking water and/or facilities to
purify the water. 190
4. Oxygen Depletion Pollution
 Microorganisms that increase in water feed on biodegradable
substances.

 When there is an influx of biodegradable material from sources such

as waste or erosion from farming, the numbers of these microorganisms
increase and utilize the usable oxygen.

 When the oxygen level is depleted, beneficial aerobic microorganisms

die and anaerobic microorganisms thrive.

 Some of these organisms produce damaging toxins like sulfide and

ammonia.

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193
5. Nutrient Pollution
 Nutrients are usually found in wastewater and fertilizers.

 Excess concentration of nutrients in water bodies can cause

increased vegetation in the water bodies such as algae and weeds.

 This situation limits oxygen in the water and affecting the

surrounding marine life and other organisms in the water.

6. Suspended Matter Pollution

 It occurs when pollutants enter the water and do not mix with the
water molecules, rather floating in the water.

 These suspended particles form fine silt and make water cloudy,
harming the marine life by restricting oxygen diffusion into the water
body.
194
Nutrient pollution

195
7. Chemical Pollution
 From industrial plants and farms, runoff with chemicals flows into
the nearby rivers and water sources.

 Metals and solvents flow out of factories into the water, polluting
the water and affecting wildlife.

 Pesticides from farms also endanger the aquatic life.

 Petroleum is also a type of chemical pollutant that dramatically

affects the aquatic life

 These dangerous pesticides and toxins can get transferred through

infected fish and affects human health.

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197
8.2.2. Sources of water pollution
 Based on the sources, water pollution is broadly divided into two
groups;

1. Point Sources
 Contamination that enters a waterway from a single, identifiable
source, traced to a specific source is considered as point source
pollution of water.

 Point source pollution comes directly from a known source like an

industrial or sewage outfall pipe.

 Point sources are typically associated with manufacturing

processes.

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Point source water contamination includes:-
 Leaking chemical tanks,
 Effluents coming from a waste treatment of industrial plant,
 Manure spill from a hog confinement lagoon,
 Discharge from a sewage treatment plant, factory, city storm
drain,
 Industrial storm water,
 Discharge from construction sites,
 Leakage of oil tankers
 Municipal landfills,
 Underground storage tanks containing pollutants such as gasoline,
 Public and industrial wastewater treatment plants

199
2. Non-point Sources
 Contamination that does not originate from a single discrete
source is called non-point source pollution.

 It is the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants

gathered from wide spread area.

They come from many mixed or diffuse sources rather than from
an single identifiable and specific point.

 It includes soil erosion, chemical runoff, animal waste, leaching out

of fertilizers from agricultural lands and nutrient runoff from
agricultural field and forest lands.

200
Non-Point source water contamination includes:-
Water washed off from roads and highways (urban runoff).

 Pollution from roadways,

Road salting activities,

Parking lots,

Leaking sewer lines,

 Storm-water runoff from city and suburban streets (oil gasoline, dog feces,
litter),
Pesticides and fertilizers from croplands.

Notice:- Point sources of water pollution are easier to control than non-point
sources, because the contaminated water has been collected and conveyed
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to
 Generally the sources of water pollution include;
– Central sewer systems
– Septic tanks
– Storm water runoff
– Fertilizer and pesticides
– Discharges from farmlands
– Sediment from construction sites
– Industry
– Domestic sewage
– Solid waste
– Thermal pollution
– Petroleum (oil) pollution

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8.2.3. Effects of water pollution
 The effects of water pollution are very noticeable in our
environment.

The implications can be physio- chemical, biological, pathogenic,

toxic effects and economic.

 Physio-chemical effects: when pollutants disrupt colour, tastes

and odors to the receiving waters, making them unaesthetic and
unfit for domestic consumption.

 Biological effects: occurs when pollutants leads to the shift in

flora and fauna, and prey-predatory relationships in the water.

203
 Toxic Effects: are caused by pollutants such as heavy metals,
biocides, cyanide and other organic and inorganic compounds
having detrimental effects on organisms.

 Pathogenic Effects: many waterborne diseases like cholera,

typhoid, paratyphoid, colitis and infective hepatitis (jaundice) are
spread by consumption of sewage contaminated waters.

 Economic implications: water pollution are significant in affecting

industries, tourism, and the cost of water treatment and
restoration efforts.

204
 Other consequences of water pollution include:
 Disruption of the ecosystem
 Threats to marine life
 Increased risk of water-borne diseases
 Increases toxic chemicals (such as mercury) in water bodies
 Eutrophication
 Impact on drinking water

 Impact on human health: disease & illness

 Disruptions in the food web

 Destruction of ecosystems

 Impact on the fishing industry

 Impact on tourism & recreational activities

 Impact on agricultural industries

 Cost of water treatment & restoration

 Lack of potable water

 Groundwater contamination 205