. NERVOUS SYSTEM .

3 Main Region
➔ body's decision and communication a. Cerebrum 🤯
center. - the large, upper part of the brain
responsible for controlling and - controls activity and thought.
🧍🏃
➔
coordinating all the organ systems by b. Cerebellum
sending messages from the brain through - the part under the cerebrum
nerve signals. - controls posture, balance, and
➔ It is a complex network of nerves and coordination.
cells that carry messages to and from the - voluntary movements
brain and spinal cord to various parts of c. Brain stem 🧠
the body. - connects the brain to the spinal cord
- controls automatic functions (breathing,
➔ Body’s storage center of information digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure.)
➔ body’s control system.
➔ It makes sure that all the parts of the body 2. SPINAL CORD
are working together efficiently. - about 40-50 cm long
- “connects the brain and the body”
Major Divisions and Parts of the Nervous System: - transmits impulses all over the body to and
from the brain.
• 1st Division: The Central Nervous System - Brain - responsible for involuntary movements such
& Spinal Cord as simple musculoskeletal reflexes even without
• 2nd Division: The Peripheral Nervous System - all the processing of the brain like moving your hand
the nerves away from a hot or sharp object.

Nerves reach out from your brain to your face, ears, - serves as a channel for signal between the
eyes, nose, and to the spinal cord which connects to brain and the majority of the body parts.
the rest of the body
- Composing the nerve tissues of the cord is
a grey and white matter.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (1st Division) THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
➔ - receives and processes all of the - controls all the nerves outside the brain
information from all parts of the body. In and spinal cord.
other words, it controls the entire organ - connects the CNS to the organs and
system of the body. limbs.
- It carries impulses from the sensory
➔ - serves as the main processing center nerves to the CNS and to the motor
of the nervous system. It consists of two nerves.
main components: Brain and Spinal Cord. - It is further divided into two divisions:
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System
The major part of the CNS:
1. Somatic Nervous System
- regulates the activities that are under
1. BRAIN conscious control/voluntary control.
- is the "control center" of the nervous system. - It includes all the nerves controlling the
- an organ located within the skull that functions muscular system and external sensory
as organizer and distributor of information for the receptors which refer to external sense
body. organs. (eyes, ears, nose, skin, and tongue)
Two main parts of SNS: . THE NERVE CELL .
1. Spinal Nerves carry motor and sensory - the basic unit of the nervous system.
signals between the spinal cord and the - There are billions of neurons in the body.
body. - carries impulses to the nervous system
2. Cranial Nerves are nerve fibers that carry - composed of the cell body which contains the
information into and out of the brain nucleus and is covered by the myelin sheath with
stem. Regulates activities under conscious an axon terminal at its end.
control. Includes nerves controlling the
muscular system and external sensory In the cell body there are root-like structures called
receptors. the dendrites and axons.

2. Autonomic Nervous System

- includes the motor neurons that control
the internal organs.
- regulates all activities that are involuntary
or done without conscious will.
- controlling the muscles in the heart and
the smooth muscles in the internal organs
such as the intestines, QA z bladder, and
the uterus.
- it is further subdivided into sympathetic
and parasympathetic nervous system

Two subdivisions of ANS

- The Schwann Cell produces the myelin sheath.
1. Sympathetic Nervous system
- Dendrite is called the "receptor site" of neurons.
- known as the "fight-or-flight response"
- controls the internal functions of the body
As signals originate at its end, the dendrites
in times of stress.
receive the impulses and carry these toward the
- responsible for the acceleration of heart
cell body.
rate, the constriction of blood vessels and the rise
of blood pressure.
While the axon carries the impulses away from the
- activated when the body is in a dynamic
cell body, which passes along the different parts of
role or stress. (e.g., increased heart rate and
the neuron.
breathing, dilation of pupil, sweating)

- The rodes of Ranvier allow the generation of a

2. Parasympathetic Nervous System
fast electrical impulse along the axon. Axons then
- known as the "rest and disguise response"
pass the impulses to the dendrites of the other
- controls the internal functions at rest
neuron cell body in the muscle cells.
- slows down the heart rate and increases the
intestinal and gland activities.
- The gap between neurons is called synapse.
- maintains body functions and restores the
body to normal or relaxed mode.
CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON

1. Sensory or affective neurons: carry impulses from

the sense organs to the brain and spinal cord.

2. Motor or effective neurons: carry impulses from

the brain and the spinal cord to the muscles.
3. Associative neurons: located in the CNS, analyze Homeostasis
and interpret the data or impulses. Is the condition wherein the human body system is
maintained in balance despite the changing
HOW IS A MESSAGE TRANSMITTED? external factors.
- Responsible for the regulation and
The nervous system is connected to the different maintenance of the internal environment
organs of the body, in the senses. These organs are of the body.
composed of different receptors. - Regulate:
● Body temp
● Photoreceptors - Eyes ● Fluids
● Mechanoreceptors - Ears ● Salts, acids, amd gases
● Olfactory Receptors - Nose ● Nutrients
● Chemoreceptors - Tongue
● Nociceptors - Skin (for pain) Different Control systems in the body:
● Thermal receptors - Skin (for temperature) 1. Sensors
- receptors that are responsible for
Once a stimulus, like when you touch a pot of gathering information about the
boiling water, is detected through a receptor or conditions inside and outside of the body.
sensory organ like your skin. - The human body is made up of
sensory neurons that carry impulses to the
The sensory neuron carries the message to the CNS (or)
CNS from one nerve cell to another.
2. Control Center = BRAIN
When the message is received, it processes the - Control center is the brain, which
information. is a part of the nervous system
- The brain receives information
Sends an impulse through the motor neuron from the sensors.
- Examines information and
Ordering the effector organ which is a muscle or compares these to the normal
gland to respond to the message. values in which the body
functions well.
- If the information received is
below or above the normal range:
it responds by sending messages
through communicating systems.

Ex. An average adult’s normal

heart rate is 60 to 100 beats per
minute.

Normal: 60-100 bpm

In this situation the muscle is ordered to move the ● Below 60 bpm: the brain
hand away as distinct as these functions are. It is tells heart to beat faster
still of high importance that these body parts ● Above 100 bpm: the brain
function with balance and coordination with one tells heart to beat slower
another to maintain homeostasis.
3. Communicating system
- The Nervous System & The
Endocrine System
 - They carry information to all
parts of the body. Ex. The body's core temperature is 36°C -> when
overheats -> the sensors send a message to the
- Through nerve impulses and brain to regulate heat -> causes you to sweat
hormones, they dictate the target (sweat decreases body temperature back to its
cell or organs in the body how to regular level)
respond with the internal and
external changes. Positive Feedback Mechanisms
- A control system that uses information
- Targets are any organ tissue or from sensors that increase the rate of
cell, responsible for the changes processes
in the activity of the body in - Exact opposite of a negative feedback
response to the message received. mechanism.
- Deviates from a set point, and it becomes
greater, which makes a bad situation
How Nervous systems coordinate and regulate worse
feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis?
Ex. When you accidentally cut your hand. The
● The nervous system provides quick positive feedback mechanism is used in the
responses in maintaining homeostasis. production of nerve impulses and increases the
Homeostasis is maintained in the body by rate of blood clotting until the wound is sealed.
regulating the body temperature, blood
pressure, pH, and glucose concentration.

The communicating systems ( Nervous System &

Endocrine System) are working together.

Homeostasis is the state reached when each part of

the body functions in equilibrium with other parts.
This is attained through the regulation of the
bodily functions by the endocrine and nervous
systems.

Feedback mechanisms are used by most body

systems to maintain homeostasis. When the brain
receives messages from the body about an internal
change in one of its systems, it works to restore
the system to its normal state. The hypothalamus
affects the pituitary gland, also known as the
master gland, to secrete the right hormones.

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

- A control system to reduce or minimize
any internal or external changes in the
body
- Regulates homeostasis
- Deviation from set point or normal value
- Set point refers to the ideal requirement
of the body to maintain homeostasis.
. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS . by other immune cells or neutralizing their harmful
effects.
PROTEINS
- They are composed of amino acids linked Enzymes
together by peptide bonds. - to act as catalysts in biological systems.
It serves as structural support, biochemical Proteins act as enzymes, which are biological
catalysts, hormones, enzymes, building blocks, and catalysts that facilitate and accelerate chemical
initiators of cellular death. reactions in living organisms. Enzymes lower the
activation energy required for reactions to occur,
Roles and Functions allowing them to proceed at a faster rate. Enzymes
Channels in membranes are involved in various metabolic pathways,
- control the movement of molecules in digestion, synthesis of biomolecules, and many
and out of the cell. other biochemical processes essential for life.
Proteins embedded in cell membranes form
channels or transporters that control the
movement of molecules into and out of the cell. . NUCLEIC ACID .
These channels are selective, allowing only specific A naturally occurring chemical compound
molecules or ions to pass through, which is crucial that serves as the primary information carrying
for maintaining cellular homeostasis and regulating molecule in cells and make up genetic material.
cell function.
nucleic
Structural Molecules A molecule that’s part of the classification “Nucleic
- for example, making up hair or muscle in acids” which are responsible for storing and
animals. transmitting information.
Proteins serve as the building blocks for various
structural components in organisms. For example, acid
in animals, proteins like collagen provide strength Refers to the DNA's phosphate part, which can
and support to tissues such as skin, tendons, and donate protons in water.
bones. Proteins also contribute to the structural
integrity of hair, muscle fibers, and other tissues. Types of Nucleic Acids and their Difference
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic
Hormones acid) work together to produce proteins from
- to regulate the activity of cells genetic codes.
Some proteins function as hormones, which are
chemical messengers that regulate the activity of Genetic codes are found in DNA or RNA which is
cells and tissues in the body. Hormones control made up of nucleotide bases usually in three’s
processes such as growth, metabolism, and (triplet) that code for the amino acids making up
reproduction by binding to specific receptors on the proteins.
target cells and initiating cellular responses. To
regulate the activity of cells. 1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
It is a molecule that carries the genetic
Antibodies instructions used in the growth, development,
- in the immune system; functioning, and reproduction of all known living
also known as immunoglobulins, are specialized organisms and many viruses.
proteins produced by the immune system in
response to foreign substances (antigens) such as 2. Ribonucleic Acid
pathogens or toxins. Antibodies recognize and bind It is a molecule essential for various cellular
to specific antigens, marking them for destruction processes, including protein synthesis and gene
regulation. Unlike DNA, RNA is typically
single-stranded and contains the nucleotide uracil ● The double-stranded structure of DNA
instead of thymine. provides stability and protection for the
genetic information, making it ideal for
long-term storage and inheritance.

● Why can’t certain nucleotides bind with

others?
- It’s all down to how the hydrogens
are arranged in the chemical
structure of each base. For
example, Adenine's functional
➔ Why an RNA is usually a single-helix groups are arranged in a way that
structure is usually attributed to the steric allows it to form two hydrogen
hindrance that the oxygen in the second bonds only with thymine's
hydroxyl group causes. If you draw DNA’s functional groups.
structure with straight lines, it might seem
that hydrogen bonds can form, but Why is an RNA usually a single-helix structure
chemical structures aren’t straight, the usually attributed to the steric hindrance that the
oxygen atom will occupy a space and the oxygen in the second hydroxyl group causes?
bonds won’t physically fit in the presence
of the oxygen thus resulting in a - If you draw DNA’s structure with straight
single-helix structure. lines, it might seem that hydrogen bonds
can form, but chemical structures aren’t
❖ Types of RNA: straight, the oxygen atom will occupy a
1. Messenger RNA or mRNa space and the bonds won’t physically fit in
- transcribes the DNA nucleotide the presence of the oxygen thus resulting
bases to RNA nucleotide bases in a single-helix structure.
- a messenger that carries
important messages from the
DNA instruction book to the
protein-making factory your cells.
2. Transfer RNA or tRNa
- translates the mRNA codons into
the correct amino acids

3. Ribosomal RNA or rRNa

- binds the mRNA and tRNA to
ensure that codons are translated
correctly

MOLECULAR DIFFERENCES
● The key distinction between DNA and RNA
lies in the second carbon, where the ribose
structure in RNA features an oxygen atom,
whereas DNA lacks this oxygen.
● This characteristic grants DNA the
capability to establish hydrogen bonds
between its complementary bases,
resulting in its double-helix structure.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
- is the process in which cells make
proteins. It occurs in two stages: 2. Translation
transcription and translation. During - This occurs in 3 stages (IET)
transcription, DNA is used as a template to - Within the ribosome interacts
make a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). tRNA
The molecule of mRNA then leaves the
nucleus and goes to a ribosome in the
cytoplasm, where translation occurs. 1. Initiation
During translation, the genetic code in The ribosome sandwiches the mRNA between its
mRNA is read and used to make a small and large subunit to be translated. The first
polypeptide. These two processes are codon that will be read is AUG that is called the
summed up by the central dogma of start codon, and consequently codes for the amino
molecular biology: DNA → RNA → Protein acid methionine.

2 STAGES OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS RNA Polymerase ( enzyme that unzips the DNA)
1. Transcription binds to the Promoter Region ( short sequence of
Occurs inside the nucleus (eukaryotes), and it is DNA) of DNA.
the first step in gene expression.
RNA Polymerase causes the DNA to separate
In the Transcription stage of protein synthesis, the
➔ Eukaryotic DNA – TATAAA or TATA Box.
DNA unzips through the help of enzymes called
RNA polymerases. They combine nucleotides to
form an RNA strand (using one of the DNA strands
as a template).
2. Elongation
The amino acid chain gets longer. In this stage,
For a protein-coding gene, the messenger RNA
messenger RNA reads one codon at a time.
carries the information needed to build a
polypeptide. The messenger RNA (mRNA) is the
It begins to add nucleotides (A-T/U, C-G) to the
RNA form of the gene that leaves the nucleus
growing mRNA strand
through the nuclear pore and moves to the
cytoplasm where proteins are made. ➔ Nontemplate Strand (sense) - coding
strand; not used; sequence matching with
Transcription is the process wherein the DNA RNA.
sequence of a gene is "rewritten" using RNA ➔ Template strand (antisense) - RNA
nucleotides. Polymerase is active in this area.

- It is the first part of the central dogma of RNA Polymerase synthesizes mRNA starting from 5
molecular biology: DNA → RNA. - 3 but it reads DNA strand in 3 - 5
- It is the transfer of genetic instructions in
DNA to mRNA. During transcription, a “The tRNA molecule Enters A-site and exit
strand of mRNA is made to complement a E-site”
strand of DNA.
3. Termination
Where the finished polypeptide is released. It
starts when a stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA) is
read by the ribosome, activating a series of events
that stop translation and disassemble the subunits
of the ribosomal RNA.
 synthesize proteins hence “must
The polypeptide produced in this stage will be be remain” in RNA Splicing
processed further before it becomes a functional - DNA Sequence to RNA Sequence
protein. - 3’ - GCTATAGCCCGTAAGT - 5’ : DNA
Sequence
RNA Polymerase molecule, mRNA strand separate - Vice-versa
from DNA template strand. - G - > C T - > A (DNA has Thymine)
- C - > G A - > U (RNA has Uracil)
The 5’ is capped at the beginning of transcription - 5’ - CGAUAUCGGGCAUUCA - 3’ : RNA
to protect mRNA strand from being degraded by Sequence
certain enzymes.

Poly- A Polymerase enzyme caps the 3’ ends of

mRNA strand or which we call “poly - A tail” ● Codons as special secret codes that tell
the protein-making factory (Ribosome)
Where the codes in the messenger RNA is which building blocks (amino acids) to use
translated to a polypeptide that contains a specific when making a protein.
series of amino acids.
● In the mRNA message, there are groups of
Amino acid bonds with each other to form three letters called codons. Each codon is
polypeptides which make up proteins. like a unique code that represents a
specific amino acid, which is a building
block of proteins.

IMPORTANT CODONS
● Start Codons: AUG (starts the translation
stage)
● Stop Codons: UAG, UGA, UAA (stops the
translation stage).

ADDITIONAL TERMS
● Protein Synthesis - process of making
proteins
● Amino acids - the building blocks of
proteins, which are essential for building
structures within your body
❖ Processing mRNA ● Polypeptide - when the ribosome reads
● Introns the mRNA message and puts together the
- is a long sequence of nucleotides amino acids in the right order, it forms a
that do not code hence “must be polypeptide chain
removed” in RNA Splicing. ● Nucleotides - is like a tiny brick with three
parts:
Sequence of Nucleotide = gene 1. sugar molecule
2. phosphate group
● Exons 3. nitrogenous base.
- is a shorter sequence of
nucleotides that will be used to
DNA Synthesis & mRNA codon to Amino Acids DNA REPLICATION AND MUTATION
● DNA has 4 bases: ● DNA
- Adenine (A) - Is the "blueprint" for the cell
- Thymine (T) →contains the instructions that
- Cytosine (C) tells the cell how to do things and
- Guanine (G) what to make
- DNA is like blueprints for making
If a base pair binds to another base pair that is not a city, in this case is the cell
complementary to it, it will cause issues such as:
➢ DNA is made up of two strands (double
● DNA destabilization can cause breaking stranded)
and damage to the DNA. ➢ Each strand has the bases connected to a
● Mutations might cause malfunctioning PHOSPHATE BACKBONE
proteins, altered cellular processes, and ➢ The two strands wrap around each other
genetic diseases. in a winding staircase manner (helix)
● Incorrect synthesis results in incorrect ➢ In order for you to survive, your cells need
amino acid incorporation. to replicate themselves. In order for them
● The body prevents mismatch through DNA to do that, they need to replicate their
Polymerase, just like proofreading an DNA
article, the body proofreads the bases. ➢ Every cell in your body has the same DNA,
because every time one of your cells
mRNA codon to Amino Acids divides, it makes a copy of its DNA to give
to the new daughter cells
● RNA has 4 bases:
➢ The DNA is unzipped and the original
- Adenine (A)
strands are used to help make the new
- Uracil (U)
molecules.
- Cytosine (C)
➢ MUTATIONS are any changes in the
- Guanine (G)
sequence of bases of DNA
➢ Sometimes during replication, the cell
mRNA Codon Chart:
makes a mistake and adds the wrong base
➢ When the cell replicates its DNA again, the
two strands that are produced are no
longer exactly the same
➢ This usually will cause the new cell to die,
but sometimes it can cause the cell to
divide when it is not supposed to →
cancer

What can cause mutation to happen more often?

1. Nuclear
2. Cigarettes
3. UV
4. Peanut
5. Preservatives