Seminar 4

Pharyngeal apparatus, development of the face and elements in the oral cavity, development of
the endocrine glands, ear development

Pharyngeal apparatus and its derivatives

Pharyngeal apparatus consists of pharyngeal arches, pushes, grooves, and membranes - contribute to
formation of the face and neck

4th week
1. Pharyngeal arches (4+2 rudimentary)
1. 1-6 - core of mesenchyme is of dual origin: somitomeres and neural crest cells
2. Formation of the face, nasal cavities, mouth, larynx, pharynx, and neck
2. Pharyngeal grooves (clefts) (4)
1. Surface ectoderm
3. Pharyngeal pouches (5) - opposite side of the groove
1. Endoderm (primary gut)
4. Pharyngeal membranes - between groove and pouches
1. Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

8 weeks
Pharyngeal apparatus participates in the development of: face, ears, and some endocrine glands

Pharyngeal arches
1. Sonic hedgehog signaling
2. First pair of arches, the primordial jaws and by the end of the fourth week we will have 4 pairs of
arches, the fth and sixth are rudimentary and are not visible on the surface of the embryo
3. Pharyngeal arches are separated by pharyngeal grooves
1. 1st arch - separates into the maxillary (forms maxilla, zygomatic bone, portion of vomer bone)
and mandibular (forms the mandible and temporal bone) prominences
2. 2nd arch - formation of the hyoid bone, muscles of facial expression
3. Arches support the lateral walls of primordial pharynx - stomodeum
1. Each arch consists of a core of mesenchyme, covered by ectoderm externally and internally by
endoderm, during 3rd week mesenchyme derived from mesoderm and in the 4th week most of
mesenchyme is derived from neural crest cells that migrate into the arches — > produce maxillary
and mandibular prominences, all connective tissue, dermis, and smooth muscle
2. During 5th week, the second arch enlarges and overgrows the 3rd and 4th forming the cervical sinus
(2,3,4th arch) - branchial cysts on sternocleidomastoid muscle and by the end of 7th week the 2nd
and 4th grooves and cervical sinus have disappeared
3. Myogenic mesoderm will move into each arch forming a muscle primordial
4. Endothelial cells in the arches are derived from the lateral mesoderm and invasive angioblasts
5. Pharyngeal endoderm plays an essential role in regulating the development of arches
6. Each arch is inverted by a proper cranial nerve

Pharyngeal Arch Components (cartilage, artery, nerve)

1. Artery - arises from the trunks arterioles of the primordial heart and
passes around the primordial pharynx to enter the dorsal aorta
2. Cartilage - forms the skeleton of the arch
1. First arch cartilage - ear - malleus and incus only meckel
cartilage will does not form the lower jaw
2. Perichondrium - forms the anterior ligament of malleus and
sphenomandibular ligament
3. Second arch cartilage - stapes of the middle ear and styloid
process of the temporal bone, upper part of body of hyoid
bone - stylohyoid ligament - Reicherts cartilage - stapes
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 4. Third arch of cartilage - greater corny of the hyoid bone, lower part of body of hyoid bone
5. Fourth and sixth cartilage - laryngeal cartilages, except for epiglottis
6. Fifth has no derivates
3. Mesenchyme - dual origin of somitomeres and neural crest cells
1. Somitomeres - the musculature originates from paraxial mesoderm (so mitomeres) mesenchyme
2. Neural crest cells - bones, cartilage, and connective tissue originate from neural crest
mesenchyme
3. Cranial neural crest cells migrate into the forming pharyngeal arches and neural crest cells
(neuroectoderm) transdi erentiate into mesenchymal cells - bones, cartilage, connective
tissue of the face
4. Nerve is not formed by the mesenchyme of the head
4. Muscular component - muscles of the head and neck
1. First arch - muscles of mastication, mylothyoid, anterior belly of digastric, tensor tympani, tensor
deli palatin
2. Second arch - stapediu, stylohyoid, posterior belly of digastric, auricular, muscles of facial
expression, most muscles of our face
3. Third arch - stylopharungues
4. Fourth arch - cricothyroid, levator veli palatini, and constrictors of pharynx
5. Sixth arch - intrinsic muscles of the larynx
5. Sensory and motor nerves - supply the mucosa and muscles derived from each arch
1. Facial skin - trigeminal nerve (CN-V) - principle sensory nerve of head and neck and is the
motor nerve for the muscles of mastication
1. Innervate the face, teeth, mucous membranes of nasal cavities, palate, mouth, and tongue
2. Facial nerve (CN VIII) - glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) and vagus nerve (CN X) - supply the
second, third, and fourth to sixth caudal arches
1. Fourth arch - CN X
2. Second to sixth arches - innervate mucous membranes of the tongue, pharynx, larynx
3. 1 - V, 2- VII, 3- IX, 4- X

Pharyngeal Pouches - form important organs in the head and neck

Pharyngeal membranes - separate the lurches from the grooves
Formation of arches and pushes requires TBX2 gene expression in these tissues
1. First Pharyngeal Pouch - middle ear - tympanic cavity, mastoid antrum, endoderm of tympanic
membrane, pharyngotympanic tube (eustachian tube) - middle ear - auditory tube
2. Second Pharyngeal Pouch - surface of epithelium and tonsillar crypts of the palatine tonsil
3. Third Pharyngeal Pouch - thymus (primary lymphoid organ) and inferior parathyroid glands
(parathromon) only IPG
4. Fourth Pharyngeal Pouch - superior parathyroid glands (parathormon)
5. Fifth Pharyngeal Pouch - ultimobranchial body and parafolicular cells of the thyroid gland
(calcytonin)
Patathormon and calcytonin - regulate calcium level in the serum

The Parathyroids - nal position names

1. Inferior parathyroid gland (parathyroid III) - 5th week (3rd push); migrate with thymus
2. Superior parathyroid gland (parathyroid IV) -6th week (4th pouch)
Parathormon - increases calcium level in serum
Connective tissue and vessels from mesenchyme

Thymus
4th week - endoderm of the pouch 3 proliferates, builds the stroma - epithelial reticulum
6th week - connective tissue which comes from neural crest forms capsule and septa; thymic lobes
9-10th weeks - prothymocytes from fetal liver invade the thymus
12th week - cortex and medulla in the thymic lobes formed
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 14-15th weeks - Hassal’s corpuscles secrete hormones

Pharyngeal grooves
- 4 grooves on each side during the 4th and 5th weeks
- Separate the arches externally
Groove 1 - external auditory meatus, ectoderm of the tympanic membrane
Groove 2,3,4 - covered by the II arch - cervical sinuses, after 7th week disappears

Pharyngeal Membranes
- appear in the oors of the pharyngeal grooves
Membrane 1 - the tympanic membrane, the remaining membranes disappear

Development of the face, elements of the oral cavity, and nasal cavities

Development of the face

- occurs between 4th and 10th week from listed primordia:
Frontonasal prominence (1)
- Forehead, dorsal, and apex of nose
- Form the eyes
- 1st arch:
Nasal prominence
Lateral - sides of nose
Medial - nasal septum
Intermaxillary segment - philtrum of lip, median part of upper lip, premaxillary part of maxilla with
four incisor teeth, primary plate
Maxillary processes (2)
- Upper jaw, cheeks, lateral parts of upper lip, secondary palate
Mandibular processes (2)
- lower jaw, lower lip, chin
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 Development of the Nasal Cavities

Olfactory apparatus
Ectodermal epithelium in the roof of each nasal cavity specialized to form the olfactory epithelium.
1. olfactory receptor cells (neuron I ( rst)) 5 weeks
2. axones of these cells build olfactory nerves
and induce di erentiation of the olfactory bulb in the brain (neuron II) 7 weeks

Paranasal Sinuses
Paranasal sinuses - outgrowths of the walls of nasal cavities in the adjacent bones e.g. maxillary
sinuses in the maxillae and the frontal sinuses in the frontal bones. Born only with paranasal sinuses
Some paranasal sinuses begin to develop during late fetal life, such as: the maxillary sinuses - 3-4 mm
at birth the frontonsal sinuses - visible in radiography, 7-year-old child the sphenoidal sinuses - from
2nd year

Development of the Oral Cavity

Stomodeum (stomatodeum) - primordial mouth; covered by surface ectoderm and separated from the
primordial pharynx by the oropharyngeal membrane
4th week - oropharyngeal membrane ruptures (breaks down); primordial pharynx and foregut
communicate with amnion

Primary mouth covered by:

Ectoderm - enamel organ, parotid gland, epithelium of hard plate, gums, and lips
Endoderm - epithelium of tongue and soft palate, submandibular glands, sublingual glands

Development of the Tongue

A anterior part (oral part) mesoderm I pharyngeal arch 4th week mesoderm
proliferates and forms:
- distal/lateral buds (2) - median bud (1)
B posterior part (pharyngeal part) mesoderm II, III, IV pharyngeal arches
hypobranchial eminence, copula (3)

7th week - papillae

11-13th week - taste buds
26-28th week - taste buds begin to function 8-12th week - tongue
glands
muscles of the tongue - occipital myotomes (somites, paraxial
mesoderm)

Development of the Palate

- develops from primary and secondary plates
- 6th - 12 week palatogenesis
Primary Palate - 5th week - medial nasal prominences
- premaxillary part of the maxilla
Secondary Palate - 7th week - lateral palatine processes forming
from maxillary processes (palatal sheath); I pharyngeal arch
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 - hard and soft plate and uvula

- 9th - 12th week - fusion of the primary palate, secondary palate and nasal septum
- Clefts of the upper lip and paler are common 1:2500 births

Development of the Salivary Glands (6-18 weeks)

PAROTID glands - are the rst; serous type acini
6th week - from oral ectoderm 18th week - secretion

SUBMANDIBULAR glands
serous acini and mucous tubules
6th week - endoderm of primary gut
16th week - secretion
growth continues after birth with the formation of mucous acini

SUBLINGUAL glands
mucous tubules
8th week - endoderm of primary gut develop later

Thyroid
- rst endocrine gland to develop in the embryo
Thyroid diverticulum migrates down.
7th week - two lobes
during migration ultimobranchial bodies (pouch 5) are
incorporated as parafollicular (or C) cells;
developing thyroid gland is connected to the tongue by a
narrow tube thyroglossal duct which after 7th week degenerates
and disappears;
the proximal part of the thyroglossal duct persists as a small pit
– the foramen cecum of the tongue.
10th week - thyroid follicles from endodermal primordium are
forming. Mesenchyme forms connective tissue and vessels.
12th week - coloid is in follicles - synthesis of thyroid hormones begins

Functions of thyroid hormones during the fetal period:

• Protect nervous system
• Acelerate the development of brown fat tissue in the fetus
• Termoregulation - brown fat tissue (upper back); maintains body temperature in the neonate through
a process of nonshivering thermogenesis

Ear Development
external ear:auricle, external acoustic meatus, tympanic membrane
middl ear tympanic membrane tympanic cavity, ear bones, auditory (Eustachian) tube
inner ear: cochlea (hearing organ), vestibular apparatus, (balance organ), for hearing and balance
Ear develops from:
ectoderm - external and internal ear
endoderm - middle ear mesoderm - all parts

Inner Ear development - rst to development

1. Vestibular apparatus (6-7 weeks)
2. Cochlea (6-10 weeks)
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 Otic vesicle di erentiation

Di erentiation of maculae and cristae (7-10 weeks)

Elements of the balance organ
Semicircular ducts - cristae ampullaris (1)
Endolymphatic duct - maculae acusticae (2)
Utricle - maculae acusticae (2)

Sensory structures in the vestibular apparatus

Cristae
Maculae - otoliths
Hair cells and supporting cells

Histogenesis of the Spinal organ of Corti

Cytodi erntiation: 3-5 months, inner and outer hair cells; supporting cells; Bony labyrinth
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 External Ear
• external auditory meatus - rst pharyngeal groove, ectodermal cells proliferate to form meatal plug
which degenarates up to 8th month, nal length 9 years after birth
• auricle - mesenchyme of I and II arch
• tympanic membrane- rst pharyngeal membrane

Problems:
Branchial cyst - parts of the cervical sinus or the second groove may have a cyst, in the neck which
causes painless swelling, enlarges from the accumulation of uid and cellular debris
First arch syndrome - birth defects eyes, ears, mandible, palate, insu cient migration of neural crest
cells into the rst arch during fourth week
1. Treacher collins syndrome - mall hypoplasie, demofred external ears, lower eyelids
2. Pierre Robin sequence - hypoplasia, mandible, cleft palata, eyes, ears = bilateral cleft palate
DiGeorge Syndrome - born without a thymus (low level of T lymphocytes) and parathyroid gland
(hypocalcemia) and have defects in the cardiac out ow tracts - occurs between 3rd and 4th pouches, 22
chromosome
Thyroglossal duct cysts and sinuses - cyst on the tongue or anterior part of the neck - painless, have
some thyroid tissue, or through skin forming a thyroglossal duct
Accessory thyroid tissue - in neck, close to inferior parathyroid gland - tissue breaks free from the
developing thymus it shifts caudally in the neck
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