History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist 110

UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
INETHIOPIA AND
THE HORN TO THE END OF THETHIRTEENTH
CENTURY

Group one presentation

3.1. Emergence of States
•One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of
sedentary agriculture
.•States were formed mainly through the expansion of agriculture that
gave rise to class differentiation. Furthermore, the growth of trade
facilitated the development of states
.•State refers to an autonomous political unit having population,
defined territory, sovereignty and government with thepower to
decree and enforce laws.
•Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state
formation took place. From small beginnings, such states gradually
developed into powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-
demarcated social structure.
 3.2. Ancient States
3.2.1. North and Northeast
A. Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings,
accompanied by vivid paintings that describes series of naval expeditions, whic
h the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt.
The best described and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by the
order of the famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut(1490-1468 B.C.)
Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of
Punt. Writings have suggested northern or northeastern Somalia to some
scholars while others are inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia.
B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopiaand Eritrea
had a center a little to the south of Aksum.
Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the 5thC BC showsthat
he
used politico religious title known as Mukarib
Various gods and goddesses like Almouqa (principal god), Astarr (Venus
god), Na’uran (light god) and etc, were worshipped in the domainof the
Da’amat state.
There were similar practices inSouth Arabiaat the time.
• There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia.
• The major ones are:
• Yeha:
• is located 30 kms to thenortheast of Aksum.
• was the oldest of these centers, probably emerged around 1, 000
• Hawulti Melazo :is situated to southeast of Aksum.
• Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum.
• There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi
Grameten, Addi Kewih, Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda,etc.
C. The Aksumite State
The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
Initially, its power was limited the town of Aksum and its environs.
Gradually, it expanded to Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge of
Ethiopian plateau, Nile Valley in the west and from the northern most
corner of Eritrea and possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.
According to Pe.riplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis was the major port of Aksum.
The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of the
natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frank incense and some
spices, etc.
In turn, a number of manufactured products were imported, like garments
and textiles from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, etc.
• Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to speak the Greek language, the
Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world.
• The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an unknown king, which eventually
was published in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book , the
• Christian Topography , describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas.
• It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant
region called Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond
theBlue Nile.
• they did not speak each other’s language, this was a good example of silent trade
•  Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the South Arabian region, leading to
exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture.
• Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the two regions. One of such
known recorded conflict between areas on both sides of the sea took place
around200 A.D.
•
From the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like Aphilas,
Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued different kinds of coins
in gold,silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions.
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i.e. Roman Empire,
Persia,China and Aksum) at the time. It was a major naval and trading power from
the firstto the seventh centuries.
Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond
Himyar andSaba, but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism
, marched toZafar andNagran, and killed many Christians.
Byzantine Justinian(r. 527-65) with Patriarch Timit III(518-538) providedKaleb
with a number of ships to transport armies led by Julianos And Nonossus against
Dhu Nuwas.
Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor
of Arabia thatcontinued until 570 A. D.
Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48).
The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late seventh century becauseof
internal and external challenges
Environmental degradation,decline in agricultural productivityandpossibly plague
infestationstarted to weaken it.
With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702, the
international life line of the state was cut. The whole network of
Aksumiteinternational trade came under the control of the rising and expanding
ArabMuslims.
This naturally led to the decline of its political and military power in itsinterior
provinces.
The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani
alHamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.
D. Zagwe Dynasty
After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards toKubar rural
highland in the territory of the Agaw and to the west up to theBlueNile valleys.
This apparently gave Agaw elites the opportunity to take part in Aksumitestate
structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for at least fourcenturies.
After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they successfullytookover the
state administration.
Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq , the
daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od Later heoverthrew his father-in-law
and took control of power.
Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos ,Harbe,
Lalibela(1160-1211), etc.
This dynasty is believed to have ruled from c. 1150 to 1270.
 Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 Zagwe kingdom extended the ancient Aksumite kingdom in thenorth to northern
Shewa in the south, the Lake Tana in the west.
The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact
The most important export items included slaves, ivory and rarespices while
cotton, linen, silver, copper vessels and various types ofdrags and newly minted
coins were imported.
was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of somereligious works
from Arabic into Ge'ez.
Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of cave, semi-hewn and
monolithic churches
• Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all
and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross.
• Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, by constructingchurches
based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel.
• came to end due to internal problems of royal succession and oppositions from
groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum.
• The latter considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of
the Queen of Sheba.
• Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last Aksumite
king Dilna’od, organized his forces and engaged the last king ofZagwe,
Yetbarek in battle.
• Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state
powerproclaiming the “restoration” of “Solomonic”Dynasty .
3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States
3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat
A.Bizamo:
located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the
present districts of Gojjam and
around the current Wambara area.
founded in the 8thC and had early connections with Damot.
B.Damot:
 was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of
thelands the south of Abay
and north of Lake Turkana as well as westof Awash and east of Didessa.
Motalami was a prominent king ofDamot in the 19thC
. C.Enarya:
was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.
The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).
Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign intoEnarya,
accompanied
by Orthodox Christian priests carrying arksof covenant (tabots).
D.Gafat:
historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile).
was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Harari and the
Gurage
It is not clear from available records whether the Gafat formed a“state” or not,
The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo
3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates
since the beginning of the 8thC, viable Muslim communities and states
had been established at many locations especially along the main trade routes from
Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior.These states include:
A.Shewa:
Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca,set up the
Makhzumite Sultanatein 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.
B.Fatagar: was founded around Minjar,Shenkora and Ada’a in the 11thC.
C.Dawaro:
located south of Fatagar,
information on Dawaro obtained from an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari.
had a currency called hakuna for transaction.
D.Bali:
was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of
Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.
 was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.
 had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
E. Ifat:
 was a state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate.
 ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash.
 established by Umar Walasma,
 weakened and annexed the sultanate of Shewa.
 Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.
F. Others: autonomous states like Arababani, Dara, Sharkah, etc. were
established and flourished.
3.3. External Contacts
•Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C.
•These relations may be the region’s earliest contacts with the
Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
•had very close relations with South Arabian Kingdoms starting
sometimes before 1,000 B.C.
•However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other holy places in the
Middle East had begun at the end of the first millennium AD.
•The communities living in different parts of the world served as an
important link or bridge between Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and
Europe. When pilgrims met their fellow Christians of Europe in the holy
places, they transmitted information about the EOC
•From the information, the Europeans wanted to use this imaginary strong Christian
power in their struggle against the Muslim powers in the Holy land.
• Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich and powerful
Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe.
•The legend was developed when the crusade war fought.
•The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known to Europe.
•However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian ChristianKingdom as the land of
Prester John.
•Then, they began to search for the location of the Kingdom and tomake an alliance
with it.
t.
3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

ght to the land they lived in

O The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough
agriculture.
O The rules according to which members of the society hold, share and use
land constitute what is known as the land tenure system.
O The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.
O Communal right to land is a group right.
O Each of these groups had communal right to the land they lived in and freely
exploited the resources of the land.

AND THEHORN TO THE END OF TH

O Peasants in the north had rist rights(a kind of communal birthright to land by
members of the families and clans whose ancestors had settled and livedin the area over
long periods) in their respective areas.
O The rist owners were known as bale-rist Yet, they paid tributes to the stateand all
land belonged to the state theoretically.
O Tribute was collected through officials who were given gult right( a rightto levy tribute
on rist owners’ produce) over the areas and populations they administered.
O The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest
were sent to the imperial center.
O Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as prominent well placed
officials used to transfer their position to their offspring.
B. Handicraft
O Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period.
O The social, economic and political conditions of ancient states had allowed the
emergence of artisans including metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry,
weaving, jewelry, basketry and others.
O except the carpenters and masons in some cases, the artisans were mostly despised
and marginalized.
C. Trade
o was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained
considerable income from both internal and international trade.
O A network of roads connected the centers with the coast and various dependencies
in the interior.
3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements
A. Architecture
O As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one of the unique
architectural technologies was the engraving of stele around the third century AD.
O There were totally 58 steles in and around Aksum.
O As local tradition says, the steles were engraved specifically at Gobodara from which
they were transported and planted in Aksum.
O The longest one of these stele measures 33 meters heights (the first in the world).
O It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent (half moon)at the
top.
O Some scholars suggest that this giant stele was broken while the people were trying to
erect it.
O The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters and The third longest stele measures
21 meters.
O The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture ofartistic
achievements of the Christian world and that is why they wereregistered by UNESCO as
part of world cultural heritage in 1978.
B. Writing System
O The earliest Sabean inscriptionsin Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the 9thC BC.
O One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence of vowels as mostof the words
are written in consonants. Egs. Da’amat to D’mt
O After the 7th & 6th BC, however, variants of script arose, evolving in the direction of
the Geez script (an alpha syllabary).

O By the first century AD, "Geez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant ʽletters only)
written left-to-right.
O Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense contributionto the
development of literature, art and the writing of history.