DEEPER LIFE HIGH SCHOOL

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FIRST TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS2
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC
THEME: EARTH’S EXTERNAL PROCESSES AND LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
1. Action of Running Water: (a) Water as an Energy System/Factors Affecting the Velocity of a River:
(i) Slope or gradient (ii) Shape of valley (iii) Volume of river and river regimes (iv) Size of materials
carried (river load). (b) Processes of River Erosion: (i) Corrosion (ii) Attrition (iii) Hydraulic action
(iv) Solution (c) Processes of River Transportation: (i) Suspension (ii) Saltation (iii) Traction
(iv) Solution
2. Action of Running Water: (d) Erosional Features of Rivers: (i) Gorges, (ii) Pot-holes
(iii) V-shaped valleys (iv) River capture (v) Water fall (vi) Cliff (vii) Meanders (viii) Inter-locking spurs
(ix) Rapids and Cataracts. (e) Depositional Features of Rivers: (i) Ox-bow Lake (ii) Flood plains
(iii) Delta etc.
3. Action of Winds: (a) Processes of Wind Erosion: (i) Abrasion (ii) Attrition (iii) Deflation
(b) Features of Wind Erosion and Mode of Formation: (i) Inselbergs (ii) Rock pedestal
(iii) Zeugen (iv) Yardang (v) Mesa and Butte, (vi) Deflation hollow (vii) Ventifacts.
4. Action of Winds: (c) Features of Wind deposition and Their Mode of Formation: (i) Barchans
(ii) Loess (iii) Seif dunes.
5. Glacial Action: (a) Glacial Features in Highland Areas: (i) Cirque (ii) Arêtes (iii) Tarn, etc.
(b) Glacial Features of Lowland Areas: (i) Roche mountains (Crag and tail) (ii) Drumlins and Eskers, etc.
(c) Economic Importance of Glacial features.
6. Action of Waves: (a) Definition of Waves, Tides and Ocean Currents and their Characteristics.
(b) Erosional Processes of Waves: (i) Corrosion (ii) Attrition (iii) Solution/Solvent Action
(iv) Hydraulic Action. (c) Erosional Features of Wave Action: (i) Cape (ii) Bay (iii) Cliff and Promontory
(iv) Caves (v) Stack, (vi) Stump, etc. (d) Features of Coastal Deposition: (i) Beaches (ii) Spit and Bar
(iii) Marine dunes, etc.
7. MID – TERM BREAK
THEME: CLIMATE AND ITS CLASSIFICATION
8. Climate II: (a) Factors Affecting Climate: (i) Latitude (ii) Altitude and Relief (iii) Planetary Winds and
Pressure (iv) Distance from the sea (v) Ocean Currents etc. (b) Climatic Types: Hot, Temperate, Cold,
Desert, etc. (c) Characteristics of climatic types – Temperature, Rainfall, etc. (d) Geographic distribution of
climatic types.
9&10.Greek and Koppen’s Climatic Classification: (a) Greek Climatic Classification:
(i) Tropical (Torrid) (ii) Temperate (Mid-Latitudes) (iii) Polar (Frigid) (b) Koppen’s Climatic
Classification: (i) A – Tropical Rainy Climate, B – Dry Climate, C – Humid Mesothermal Climate,
D – Humid Micro thermal, E – Polar Climates (ii) Sub-Categories of: A – AF, AM and AW; B – BS and
BW; C – CW, CS, and CF; D – DF and DW; E – ET and EF. (c) Geographical distribution of climates
(d) Advantages and disadvantages of the classification types.
11. Revision
12. Examination.
WEEK 1: DATE: …………………
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS2
TOPIC: EARTH’S EXTERNAL PROCESSES AND LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
CONTENT:
(a) Action of Running Water
(b) Processes of River Erosion
(c) Processes of River Transportation
SUB-TOPIC 1: WATER AS AN ENERGY SYSTEM
When rain falls on the earth, it is distributed in various ways. Much of the waters from the rain flow
directly off slopes to join streets and rivers, eventually reaching the streams and rivers, oceans and seas.
This is a run-off. A great proportion of waters received percolates downward into the soil filling up spaces
and joint and pore spaces, and forming what is known as ground water. The source of a river may be
spring, lake or marsh, generally rivers flow from uplands to lowlands. The run-off carve out channels as
they flow and they transport and deposit materials for very great distances along the course. It becomes
great agent of denudation.
The amount of erosion, transportation and deposition a river carries depends on the flow of water through
the channel and this flow is determined by several reasons.
The water action in a river flows in two ways; 1. Lamina Flow 2. Turbulent Flow
LAMINA FLOW: This form of flow is found in layers parallel to the bed of the river. This occurs as a
result of the slope of river on which the river flows.
TURBULENT FLOW: This flow occurs in a circular form. This is due to interruptions along the course
like stacks, rapids and cataracts. Sometimes the loads it carries. The energy of the river decreases when its
flow is turbulent because energy has to be used to overcome the friction.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE VELOCITY OF A RIVER
1. SLOPE OF THE RIVER VALLEY: The slope of the river is been determined by the nature of rock
bed course of the river. The steeper the slope or gradient, the higher the speed or velocity of flow of the
river.
2. THE SHAPE OF THE RIVER CHANNEL OR VALLEY: There are different types of shape in the
channel of a river, V-shape, U-shape, and plain shape. The shape determines the amount of energy a
river has for erosion and transportation. A river uses more energy to flow through plain shape valley
than V-shape and U-shape valley. This is because plain shape has a large surface area.
3. THE VOLUME OF RIVER AND RIVER REGIMES: The volume of waters in a river determines
the velocity of that river. The greater the volume of water released by a river, the higher the velocity.
During dry season, most river decreases in the volume of water in them, and this affects the velocity of
flow. The seasonality in most countries also affects the volume of water in the rivers. This variation is
known as the regimes. The knowledge of river regimes helps to control possible floods, store water for
irrigations and domestic use etc.
4. SIZES OF MATERIALS CARRIED (RIVER LOAD): At the source of any river, it erodes the
floor and the sides of the river along its course. The river uses its energy to transport its load and
overcome frictions along its channels. The greater the velocity of a river, the greater the materials or
loads it can carry or move.
THE COURSE OF A RIVER
The entire length of a river from the source to the mouth of the river is divided into three; namely; Upper
course, Middle course and Lower course.
These three have different characteristics features;
 Stages of a River Development

Characteristics of Upper Course of a River

1. It marks the beginning or source of a river.
2. It is found around the source or highland.
3. It has a steep side, V-shaped valley.
4. There is more of down cutting of the river bed than lateral cutting.
5. The river flow swiftly down the steep slope.
6. The dominant work of the river is vertical corrosion or erosion.
7. The river is characterised by river capture, waterfall, cataracts, gorges and plunge pools.
Characteristics of Middle Course of a River
1. Lateral erosion is more than vertical erosion resulting to widening of the river valley.
2. Deposition begins to take place at the side and floor.
3. There is increase in the load of the river.
4. The volume of the river increases due to addition of water from tributaries.
5. The work of the river is mainly transportation.
6. It has a gently gradient leading to low velocity of the river.
7. It is characterised by bluffs, river cliff, meander, U-shaped valley, and interlocking spur.
Characteristics of Lower Course of a River
1. The flow of the river is very sluggish.
2. The speed of the river is drastically reduce.
3. It is the last stage of the river.
4. The work of the river is mainly depositional.
5. There is equally active lateral erosion.
6. It is characterised by flood plains, ox-bow lakes, levees, delta, braided stream.
EVALUATION:
1. Write a short note on the following: i. Slope of the river valley, ii. Ground water, iii. Lamina flow
iv. Turbulent
2. (a) What is a River Regime?
(b) List four characteristics of middle course of a river.
(c) Explain the word run-off.
SUB-TOPIC 2: PROCESSES OF RIVER EROSION
The load or materials carried by a river are the main agents of erosion, but the erosive work of a river
consist of four interacting processes. This includes;
1. HYDRAULIC ACTION: This is a process by which fast flowing water forces itself into cracks and
crevices within the valley under pressure and enlarges the cracks. This enables the water to remove
loose materials such as gravel, sand and silts and also able to weaken solid rock by surging into cracks
in the rock.
2. CORRASION OR ABRASION: This is the wearing away of the sides and floor of a river by the
loads it carried. This load includes pebbles, boulders, sand and silt which are being transported. This
 process eventually widens and deepens the valley of the river because of the loads it carried along the
course of the river.
3. CORROSION OR SOLUTION OR SOLVENT ACTION: This is the chemical action of the water
on the materials it comes into contact with while flowing. For instance, calcium carbonate in limestone
is easily dissolved and removed in solution.
4. ATTRITION: This is the wearing-down of the transported materials when they roll and collide with
one another. During this process large rocks are broken down into smaller stones while angular
fragments are rounded into shapes.
TRANSPORTATION PROCESS OF A RIVER
The materials transported by a river are called LOAD. The transportation of the load is undertaken in the
following four ways:
1. SUSPENSION: This takes place when smaller particles such as silt and mud are carried in suspension
as the water flowing along the river course.
2. SALTATION: This is the process where larger particles are moved in series of hops and jumps along
the river bed, touching the river beds and sides at intervals as they are transported.
3. TRACTION: This is a process where large fragments of materials are rolled or pushed along the bed
of a river.
4. SOLUTION: This is a process whereby certain minerals dissolved in water are carried in solutions
along the course of a river, from the upper course of a river to the lower course. It is especially potent
in limestone regions.
EVALUATION:
1. Discuss four processes of river erosion.
2. List and explain any three transportation processes in a river course.
3. What do you understand by the word ‘load’?
GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. (a) With the aid of annotated diagrams, describe the various stages of a river course.
(b) Mention four ways in which rivers is important to man. (WASSCE June, 1999)
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. A river transports its load through the following processes except (A) solution (B) suspension
(C) traction (D) plucking.
3. Which of these is a process of river erosion? (A) Suspension (B) Saltation (C) Corrasion
(D) Abrasion (E) Traction.
4. The wearing away of the sides and bottom of river channel is called (A) corrosion (B) suspension
(C) corrasion (D) solution.
5. The seasonal variation in the volume of water in a river is known as the (A) regime (B) drainage
(C) pattern (D) water divide.
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read Erosional and Depositional Features of a River.
REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. Essential Geography for SSS by O.A. Iwena.

WEEK 2: DATE: .............................

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: ACTION OF RUNNING WATER
CONTENT:
(1) Erosional features of a river
(2) Depositional Features of rivers
SUB-TOPIC: (1) EROSIONAL FEATURES OF A RIVER
The upper course of a river begins at the sources of the river near the watershed. The flow is very
swift as it descends the steeps and the action of the river is predominantly vertical erosion. The valley
developed is thus deep, narrow and distinctively V-shaped. In some cases where the bed rock is hard and
resistant, vertical erosion carves very deep and narrow valleys called GORGES.
GORGES OR RAVINES: The gorges can exist in almost any part of the river course, provided the
conditions are suitable. Gorges are narrow, steep sided valleys. They are predominantly found in upper
course of a river. Where vertical erosion is greater than lateral erosion. Examples of these features are
Shiroro Gorge on River Kaduna in Nigeria, the Volta Gorge in Ghana and the Rhine Gorge in Germany.
Gorges provide good sites for building dams across rivers to generate electricity.

A Gorge
V-SHAPED VALLEY: This is formed as a result of vertical erosion of the river. The valley is deepened
by vertical corrasion and widened by weathering and mass wasting which causes it to become V-shaped.
RIVER CAPTURE: This is also known as river piracy or river beheading. It is a process by which a river
acquires the headstreams of another river and thus enlarges its own drainage area at the expense of the
other. The weak rivers are deprived of their tributaries; they lose part of their basins and can be totally
disconnected to original streams or rivers. Example is Ogunpa streams in Ibadan city of Nigeria. Another is
river Tilden Fulani which has cut through the weak link between the Naraguta hills and Shere hills in Jos
Plateau State of Nigeria. The rate at which a river erodes its beds depends largely upon its own speed and
the nature of the underlying rocks. The development of a sharp almost right-angled bend along the course
of the river is called elbow of capture which is common evidence of river capture. Another evidence of
river capture is the occurrence of a dry gap in the high ground opposite the elbow of capture. The presence
of a misfit in the lower section of a dry gap also strengthens the proof that a river capture has taken place.
Misfit is a stream that is too small for its valley.

River capture
RAPID AND CATARACT: These are features formed as a result of sudden increase in gradient due to a
resistant rock lying across the river course. Rapids and cataract can occur at any part of the river course,
but they are more common in the upper course where changes of the slope are more frequent and abrupt.
Many African Rivers have rapid and cataracts. Cataracts can occur when there is a greater jump of water
upstream along the course of a river.
WATERFALL: A waterfall is a feature of the upper course of a river. It has a steep slope which forms
plunge pools.
Waterfalls develop when a resistant rock overlying a less resistant rock is horizontal or vertical. It may also
result when a fault line scarp lies across a river valley, or develops from a rapid; or when water plunges
down a plateau edge. Examples include: Kura falls on River Kura near Jos Nigeria, Victoria Falls on River
Zambezi, one of the World’s largest falls and the Livingstone falls on River Zaire.

Waterfall
POT-HOLES: Potholes are formed when a fast flowing river erodes the bed rock, circular depressions are
created. The depression gradually gets deeper to form potholes. If there is a large pothole at the base of a
waterfall, a plunge pool is formed.
RIVER CLIFF AND SLIP-OFF SLOPES: This is a face of a rock standing steeply on the bank of a
river. When the flow of a river water AB enter the bend of the river, it dashes straight into B, eroding the
outer bank to form a steep river cliff at B. A bottom current CD is set up and is hulled back into midstream
at the inner banks. Shingles are deposited at D. Point D is therefore gentle and is referred to as slip off
slopes.

River Cliff and Slip-Off Slopes

INTER-LOCKING SPURS: An Inter-locking spur is part of a valley wall projecting from either side of a
winding valley. They usually obscure the view of the river valley. When viewed upstream, interlocking
spurs overlap, obstructing the view of the valley. As river valleys are widened, their sides are gradually cut
back. The sides therefore project to the valley floor in the floor in the form of the alternating slopes. While
downstream, the inter-locking spurs that project from both sides of the valley are cut back by lateral
corrosion to form BLUFFS.

Interlocking spur
MEANDERS: This is a feature found in the middle course of a river. They are formed when rivers are
unable to flow straight because of the sluggish and low gravity of water movement of heavy loads of sand
and other materials. They help to lengthen the course of a river and to widen its valleys. This helps the
river to flow in a snake form.

Meanders
EVALUATION:
1. List five erosional features of a river.
2. Explain any three of the features listed above.
3. With the aid of a suitable diagram, explain waterfall.
SUB-TOPIC 3: DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES OF RIVERS
As river flows towards the lower course of the river, the major work is depositional. All the loads carried
from the upper course via middle course are deposited at the lower course. This process gives birth to
many features which include ox-bow lakes, flood plains and Delta.
1. OX-BOW LAKES: An ox-bow lake, otherwise called cut-off or mort lake, is a feature found in
the lower course of a river. It is crescent-shaped and has been separated from the main river. As the
river meanders, it becomes more noticeable, the neck between two bends of the meanders becomes
reduced. Examples can be found in flood plains of Mississippi (U.S.A) and Darling (Australia).
 Formation of ox-bow Lake
2. FLOODS PLAINS: There is wide, nearly flat or gently undulating plain of Alluvium in the lower
course of rivers. Flood plain is made up of sediments deposited on the lowland areas boundary of the
river valley. They are formed when river over flows its banks and deposit sediments on the adjacent
valley floor continuously for a long period of time. The accumulation of sediment deposited on the
surrounding lowland by flood water is called flood plain.

3. DELTA: This feature is found in the lower course of a river. The formation of delta is such that as the
river moves slowly towards its mouth, it deposits the load it carries. These deposited materials gradually
build up, forming a low-lying swampy plain called delta.
As these features form, the river divides into several channels which further divide into
smaller channels. All these channels are known as distributaries.
TYPES OF DELTA
There are three types of delta viz; (i) Arcuate (ii) Bird’s foot (iii) Estuary
1. ARCUATE DELTA: This delta consists of both coarse and fine sediments and it has the shape of an
inverted cone. Delta gradually is crossed by many distributaries. Good examples of Arcuate Delta are
the Niger (Nigeria), Nile (Egypt) and the Hwan-Ho.
 Arcuate Delta
2. BIRD’S FOOT DELTA: This delta consist of very fine materials referred to as ‘silt’ with several
long distributaries like the foot of a bird extending into the sea. Good examples are the Mississippi
Delta and the Omo River Delta in Ethiopia.

Bird’s foot Delta

3. ESTUARINE DELTA: This delta is formed when it is partially submerged in coastal waters and
there is a direct flow of water into the sea with little or no sediments. Examples are Amazon, Vistula
(Russia) and Seine (France).

Estuarine Delta
CONDITIONS FAVOURABLE FOR THE FORMATION OF A DELTA
1. There must be active vertical and lateral erosion in the upper course of the river to provide
sediments.
2. The coast must be sheltered, preferably tideless.
3. The sae adjoining the delta should be shallow to prevent the disappearance of sediments.
4. There should be no large lakes in the river course to remove the sediments.
5. There should be no strong current running at right angles to the river mouth to prevent the washing
away of the sediments.
4. LEVEES: As the river flows, it continues to deposit sediments and materials on its banks when it is in
flood, thereby raising the bank upward and higher than usual. These raised banks are called levees.

5. Braided Stream: This is a feature of the lower course of a river whereby the river breaks into several
channels as a result of deposition of materials along its channel. The river later re-join and split again.

EVALUATION
1. List and explain the basic depositional features of a river.
2. What are the importance of Ox-bow Lake?
3. Write short notes on
i. Arcuate delta
ii. Tributaries
iii. Distributaries
iv. Delta
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. With the aid of appropriate diagram, describe any three of the following
i. Ox-bow lake
ii. Meanders
iii. Interlocking spur
iv. Waterfall
2. In what ways is a delta important to man?
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. One of the features found in the upper course of a river is (A) gorge (B) u-shaped valley
(C) meander (D) levee.
2. The bend at which the head waters of a weaker river is diverted into a stronger river is known as
(A) wind gap (B) deferred junction (C) elbow of capture (D) beheaded stream.
3. Which of the following is a feature of the middle course of a river? (A) Meander
(B) Ox-bow lake (C) Gorge (D) River capture.
4. Which of the following does not favour formation of deltas? (A) A long upper course of a river
(B) A reduction in river velocity at its lower course (C) A lot of sediments in the lower course of a river
(D) The existence of large lakes in the middle and lower portions of a river.
5. One of the features found in the flood plains of a river is (A) inter-locking spurs (B) tributaries
(C) V-shaped valleys (D) Ox-bow lake.
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read the process of wind erosion
REFERENCE TEXT
1. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by O.A. Iwena.
2. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by Peter Oluwafemi.

WEEK 3
CLASS: SS2 DATE: ................................
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
TOPIC: ACTION OF WINDS
CONTENT:
1. Processes of wind erosion
2. Features of wind erosion and their mode of formation.
SUB-TOPIC 1: PROCESSES OF WIND EROSION
Erosion takes place mainly by winds in deserts. Wind erosion involves the removal or wearing away of
rocks in desert by wind energy or blowing wind.
The main agent of erosion in the desert is the wind. Wind erosion takes place through the process of
(i) Deflation (ii) Abrasion (iii) Attrition
1. DEFLATION: This is the lifting and blowing away of loose sand and pebbles by wind. Deflation
results in the lowering of the land surface to form large depressions called deflation hollows.
2. ABRASION: This is the process whereby sand particles carried by wind are used to blast or wear
away rock surface as in rock pedestal, zeugen and yardang.
3. ATTRITION: This is the process whereby wind borne particles collide with one another, resulting in
the wearing away of each other. This results in the reduced round sizes of the particles.
EVALUATION
1. What is wind erosion?
2. Name and describe 3 process of wind erosion.
SUB-TOPIC 2: FEATURES OF WIND EROSION AND THEIR MODE OF FORMATION
As the wind removes or wears away rock in the desert through the processes of deflation, abrasion and
attrition certain features are formed. The following are some of the features of wind erosion:
1. Rock Pedestals or Mushroom Rocks: The sand blasting effect of winds against any projecting rock
masses wears back the softer layer so that an irregular edge is formed on the alternate bands of hard
and soft rocks. Continuous wind abrasion produces a mushroom like rock called rock pedestals. They
are common in the Tibetan Mountains of Central Sahara desert and the devil’s rock in Niger Republic.
 Rock pedestal
2. Zeugen: These are tabular masses which have a layer of soft rock lying beneath a surface layer of a
more resistance rock. The effect of wind abrasion wears them into a ridge and furrow landscape.
Examples are found in Northern Nigeria, Kalahari Desert and Western Australia.

Zeugens
3. Yardang: These are formed when bands of resistant (hard) and weak (soft) rock lie parallel to the
prevailing winds. Wind abrasion produces other types of ridge and furrow landscape. The soft bands of
rock are removed more easily into passage ways while the hard bands remain standing. They are in
short form when hard and soft rocks in vertical bands are in the direction of prevailing winds. The hard
rocks standing are called yardang. Examples are in Sallah (Central Algeria), Atacama Desert (Mexico)
etc.
 Yardang
4. Mesas and Buttes: As a result of action of denudation, the hard top layer of rock resists agents of
denudation and protects the softer layers of rocks below from being eroded. At times Mesas may be
formed in canyon regions. Canyon develops in the space between Mesas and Butte. Denudation
sometimes may reduce mesas in some areas to become isolated fat-topped hill called buttes. They are
common in the Arizona region and in South Africa.

Mesa and Butte

5. Inselbergs: This is a residual hill commonly found in desert regions. It usually rises abruptly
from level ground and is characterised by steep slopes and round top. Inselbergs are generally
believed to be remains of hills, plateaux which have been cut down to their present height by
water and wind erosion. Examples are in Kalahari Desert and Northern Nigeria.
 Inselberg
5. Deflation Hollows: Its formation involves the lifting and blowing away of loosed materials from the
ground in the desert by strong wind, resulting in two strong winds struggling to pass over each other. The
loosed materials may be carried in the air or rolled on the ground. The movement in the air or rolling along
the ground depends on the size of the materials. The fine particles may be carried in the air far away from
the desert to another location outside the desert. Deflation lowers the surface and may eventually form a
depression called deflation hollow. Example of such deflation hollow is the Quattara depression in Egypt
(Sahara desert).

Deflation Hollows
6. Ventifacts: They are wind polished and faceted or sharpened pieces of pebbles or stones which vary in
size from large boulders to small stones. Such rock fragments which are too heavy to be moved by the
winds are planned on the windward side. Wind abrasion shapes and polished the pebbles; and new facets
develop when wind direction changes. Ventifacts may have one or more than one face or facet. A good
example is that of Sahara which has three faces and is called dreinkater (German: three faces). When it has
one face it is called einkater (German: one face). An einkater implies that wind direction is constant and
always blowing from one direction hence only one face is planned.

Ventifacts
EVALUATION
1. What is the main agent of erosion in deserts?
2. Name and describe 3 processes of wind erosion.
3. Describe how Yardangs are formed.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Describe wind Abrasion.
2. Using relevant diagram, describe the formation of rock pedestal.
3. What are Zeugens? Describe how Zeugens are formed.
4. How are Mesas and Buttes formed?
5. Describe Inselbergs and give examples of where they can be found.
6. Write explanatory notes on deflation hollow.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Objective Test
1. Wind erosion takes place mainly in (a) desert (b) rivers (c) ocean (d) streams (e) lakes.
2. One of the processes of wind erosion is called (a) deposition (b) deflation (c) Zeugens (d) Canyon
(e) Pebbles.
3. Deflation is (a) Lifting and blowing of loose sand and pebbles (b) deposition of sand on hills
(c) rainfall in desert regions (d) a resistant rocks (e) not a process of wind erosion.
4. Yardang is formed when (a) rain destroys houses (b) there is no sunshine (c) hard and soft rocks in
vertical bands are in the direction of prevailing winds. (d) There is too much water (e) there are no
prevailing winds.
5. One of the following is not a feature of wind erosion (a) Zeugen (b) yardage (c) inselberg
(d) mesa and butte (e) seif dune
6. Ventifacts are products of (A) sand blasting (B) wind abrasion (C) sheet erosion (D) wind depression.
ESSAY QUESTION
1. Explain the mode of formation and characteristics of Yardang.
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read about wind deposition.
REFERENCE TEXT
1. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by O.A. Iwena
2. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by Peter Oluwafemi.
3. Exam Focus Geography for WASSCE and SSCE by O. Areola et al.

WEEK 4
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 2 DATE: ………………
TOPIC: ACTION OF WINDS
CONTENTS:
(1) Features of wind deposition and their mode of formation
There are depositional features in the arid and semi-arid region, this includes: Dunes, Barchans, loses and
seifs dunes.
DUNES: Dunes are hills or ridges of sand formed by the pilling up of sand into hill-shaped by the action of
wind. It is the accumulation of sand and shaped by the movement of winds. They may be active dunes
constantly on the move or inactive fixed dunes rooted with vegetation. Dunes are well represented in a
TRUE DESERT where sea of sand is being continuously re-deposited and reshaped into a variety of
features. Because of their great contrast in shape, size and alignment, they have been given a long list of
names; such as alluvial dunes, head dunes, tail dunes, advanced dune, lateral dune, pyramidal dune,
sword dune, parabolic blowout dune, barchans dune, hairpin dune, smoking dune, transverse dune,
seifs dune. We shall only consider two which include barchans and seifs.
(a) BARCHANS: These are crescent or moon-shaped sand dunes. They may occur in groups or singly.
They have horns which project from the crescent and thin out to become lower in the direction of the wind.
They are desert landform. Barchans are formed by wind deposition in deserts. It has a convex shape on
windward side and a concave shape on the leeward side with horns of 15–30m long. Examples are
common in Sahara, Chilean and Persian deserts.

Barchans
MODE OF FORMATION
Barchans are formed when an obstacle like rock impedes or prevents the movement of winds. These
obstacles may be rock outcrop, a dead animal or a patch of grass which lies in the path of a prevailing
wind. The materials carried by the wind are dropped and deposited behind the obstacle. Continuous
deposition leads to the growth of the Barchans. The windward side of a barchans is convex and gentle,
while the leeward side of a barchans is sheltered in concave and steep.
(b) SEIFS OR LONGITUDINAL DUNES: Seif is a desert landform. The word seif is Arabic word
meaning ‘sword’. These are longitudinal dunes formed into long narrow steep-sided ridges of sand.
Examples are in. Examples of seif dunes are found in the great Sand sea of Egypt and Libya (Sahara
deserts) and Namib Desert, West Australian Desert and Chad Desert.

Seifs or Longitudinal dunes

MODE OF FORMATION
Seif is formed during wind deposition. They lie parallel to the prevailing winds which clear the corridors
between dunes of sand and sweep them clean. They stretch up to a hundred kilometres and rise to over
60m.
LOESS: These are fine rock particles blown out of the deserts by wind. Loess is a fine loam, very fertile
and porous sand. Some are blown into the sea while some are blown to a distance land. Good examples of
loess are the extensive loess deposits in North-West China which are blown there from the Gobi Desert and
loess plateau of the Hwang-OH. Loess can be formed from fine particles of rock crushed under an ice-
sheet and later blown by the wind after the ice-sheet has melted.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF LOESS DEPOSITS.
i. They are usually very fertile hence encourages agricultural development.
ii. They have caves which serve as houses.
iii. They are fine loams hence are very rich in lime.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BARCHANS AND SEIFS.
a. Barchans are moon-shaped sand dunes while seifs are longitudinal sand dunes.
b. Barchans don’t necessarily lie parallel to each other while seifs do.
c. Barchans have horns while seifs do not have horns.
d. Barchans are not separated by corridors while seifs are separated by flat corridors.
e. Barchans lie at 90 to the prevailing winds while seifs lie parallel to the prevailing winds.
f. In barchans, the leeward side is steep and concave, the windward side is convex and gently sloping while
in seifs, both sides are steep.
g. Barchans are lower than seifs in height.
h. Barchans are more prone to migration than seifs.
i. Barchans usually develop from the accumulation of sand caused by small obstruction such as rock or a
pieces of vegetation while seifs usually develop from small sand ridges.
EVALUATION:
1. List and explain two basic features of wind deposition.
2. With the aid of a diagram explain longitudinal seifs and dune.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
ESSAY
1. With the aid of a diagram, discuss the formation of barchans.
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The crescent-shaped sand dunes deposited individually or in groups in sandy deserts are called
(A) Loess (B) Yardangs (C) Zeugens (D) Barchans.
2. Which of the following landforms is associated with wind deposition? (A) Barchan (B) Rock pedestal
(C) Yardang (D) Zeugen.
3. Which of the following pairs are desert landforms? (A) Wave-cut platforms and seif dunes
(B) Sandbars and sandpits (C) Yardangs and tombolos (D) Barchans and zeugens.
4. Which of the following is associated with wind deflation in arid regions? (A) Rock pedestals
(B) Oasis (C) Barchan (D) Yardangs.
5. Loess is an example of (A) clayey soil (B) loamy soil (C) wind deposited soil (D) montane soil.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read glacial action in your textbook.
REFERENCE TEXT
1. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by O.A. Iwena.
2. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by Peter Oluwafemi.

WEEK 5
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 2 DATE: ............................
TOPIC: GLACIAL ACTION
CONTENT:
(1) Action of glacial in temperate region
(2) Features of glacial erosion in the highland areas
(3) Glacier erosion in lowland
(4) Economic importance of Glacier Features
SUB-TOPIC 1: ACTION OF GLACIER IN TEMPERATE REGION
Action of glacier is an important agent of erosion, here, transportation and deposition of materials is
confined to mountains and temperate regions of the wind.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH GLACIERS
i. ICE: This refers to the solid form of water, formed as a result of freezing when the temperature is
continually below 00C.
ii. GLACIER (moving ice): This implies very large accumulation of ice, (either a frozen sea or river) in
motion.
iii. GLACIATION: This is referring to the wearing away of the earth surface by large accumulation of
ice in motion (glacier).
iv. SNOW: This is frozen water vapour which falls in form of crystal through the atmosphere.
v. SNOW LINE: This implies the lower limit of perpetual snow cover on the mountain.
vi. SNOW FIELD: This is the region that is permanently under snow cover.
It is important to note that Glaciations generally gives rise to erosional features in the highland and
depositional features on the lowlands.
ACTION OF GLACIER EROSION
1. SAPPING: Sapping is the breaking up of rocks of alternate freezing and thawing of water at the bottom
of cracks between a mass of ice and the sides and floor of a valley or the sides of a mountain.
2. PLUCKING: By plucking, the glacier freezes the joints and beds of the underlying rocks tears out
individual blocks and drags them away.
3. ABRASION: By this, the glacier scratches, scrapes, polishes and scours the valley floor with the debris
frozen into it. These fragmented debris are powerful tools of erosion (denudation).
EVALUATION
1. Highlight the various terms associated with glacier.
2. Mention three actions of glacier erosion.
3. Discuss two of the actions mentioned in 2 above.
SUB-TOPIC 2: CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF GLACIER EROSION IN THE HIGHLAND
1. STRAITION: Striations are scratches left on rocks over which glacier passes. The rock fragment (of
different shapes and sizes) embedded in the glacier affects striation of rocks.
2. CORRIES OR CIRQUE: This is a deep and rounded hollow or depression with steep side form as a
result of the downside movement of a glacier from it snow cover valley head, and intensive shattering
of the upland slope. They are arm chair hollows, resulting from the plucking of rocks materials down
the slope when the ice finally moves; it will form a lake, called CORRIE LAKE OR TARN.
3. ARETE: When two corries cut back opposite side of the same mountain, forming a knife – edge ridge
in between is known as Arête. Hence Arête is a ridge like structure separating the two corries.
4. PYRAMIDAL PEAK: When a mountain has three or more corries basins around its flanks, erosion
will cut back corries and with time a pinnacle will be formed which is shaped like a pyramid, and this
is called pyramidal peak, a typical example is the Swiss-Italian border. The diagram below illustrates
corries, arête and pyramidal peak

Cirque, arête and Pyramid Peak

5. BERGSCHRUND: Bergschrund is formed near, or at the head of glacier. It is a deep and vertical crack
separating the lower part of the glacier that has started moving down its valley and the upper part which
is static. This actually takes place during summer when ice begins to move out of the corries down the
mountain valley. As the glacier moves, small-scaled cracks also develops as glacier negotiates a bend
along its valley such cracks are called CREVASSES. Bergschrund is derived from German, and
Rimaye in French.
 Bergschrund
6. U-SHAPE VALLEY OR TROUGH: This is a wide, flat floor with very steep side which has been
eroded by glacier. All the sides and floors including all debris are washed away by glacier. This results
in the formation of a U-shaped valley which forms the main valley.
7. HANGING VALLEY: This is formed when glacier action from tributaries erodes materials into the
main or U-shaped valley. It can be used for the generation of Hydro-Electric Power (H.E.P)
8. ROCK BASIN AND ROCK STEP: When two tributaries join a main valley, the additional weight of
ice in the main valley cuts deeper into the valley floor at the point of convergence, thus forming a rock
step. It can also be formed due to differences in resistance to frost action. On the other hand rock basin
is formed when glacier erodes and excavates the valley floor so deep to form a rock basin.
9. MORAINES: Glacier moving down the valley sweeps away everything in its way – stones, soil and
fragments of rocks loosened by frost action, all these materials are called moraines. But because of the
movement of glacier, the materials adopt certain shapes which are found when the ice has melted; this
then becomes the different types of moraines. These include:
(a) MEDIAL MORAINES: These are lines of stones and rock found in the middle of a valley or when
two lateral moraines join or collapse.
(b) LATERAL MORAINES: These are lines of stones and rocks found at the side of the valley.
(c) GROUND MORAINE: This is the material which is found at the bottom of the glacier.
(d) TERMINAL MORAINE: This is moraine found lying where the ice ends its journey either
temporarily or finally.
EVALUATION:
1. Briefly explain the following (i) U-shaped valley (ii) bergschrund (iii) hanging valley (iv) lateral
moraine (v) terminal moraine.
2. With the aid of an annotated diagram, describe the following (a) pyramidal peak (b) corries
(c) arête
SUB –TOPIC 3: GLACIER EROSION IN LOWLANDS
Erosional features of glacier which occur in lowland areas include:
1. ROCHE MOUTONNEE: This is a resistant residual rock structure. The surface is striated by ice
movement. Its downstream side is smoothed by abrasion and roughened as a result of plucking and it is
usually much steeper. Rock moutonnee are found in both highland and lowland glaciated region.
2. CRAG AND TAIL: Crag is a mass of hard rock which protects the softer leeward slope from being
completely worn down by the oncoming ice. It has a gentle tail, strewn with eroded rock debris.
A classic example is the Castle Rock of Edinburgh, Scotland.
 Crag and tail
CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES OF GLACIER DEPOSITION IN LOWLAND
1. BOULDER CLAY: Boulder clay is the ground moraine of the glaciers. It generally consists of stones
of various sizes and shapes in a mass of sand and clay. Some examples of boulder clay include East
Anglia and the Northern Mid-West of USA and this form the rich arable lands.
2. ERRATICS: These are transported rock fragments which are composed of materials entirely different
from bedrock or rock fragments of the region which they are deposited. They are deposited when the ice
carrying them melts into water. They abound in both lowland and highland areas of Europe e.g. Silurian
grits are found perched on the carboniferous limestone of the Pennines. They hinder farming where they
are found in large numbers.
3. DRUMLINS: These are swarms of oval, elongated wale-back hummocks composed wholly of boulder
clay, with their elongation in the direction of the ice flow that is on the downstream side. The shape of
drumlins is better described as basket of eggs. Drumlins are found in country down in Northern Ireland
and glacier plains around the Great Lakes in North America.
4. ESKERS: These are long, narrow, sinuous ridge composed of sand and gravel which mark the former
sites of sub-glacier melt water; they vary from a few meters to 60m in height and may be several
kilometres long. Eskers are found in some parts of USA and Scandinavia e.g. Punkaharju Esker of
Finland.
5. TERMINAL MORAINES: These are made up of coarse debris deposited at the edge of the ice sheet,
to form hummocky and hilly country. Example of this is the Baltic Heights of the North European
Plain.
6. OUTWASH PLAINS: These are made up of fluvio –glacial deposits washed out from the terminal
moraines by the streams and channels of stagnant ice mass. The melt – waters sort and re-deposited the
materials in a variety of forms from the low hilly heathlands. An example is the Luneburg heath of the
North European Plain.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GLACIER FEATURES:
1. They provide glacier lakes which are of real value to man by providing natural route ways as those of
the Great Lakes of North America.
2. Hanging valley sometimes provides water falls which are suitable for the developments of
Hydro–Electric Power. Examples are those of Norway and Switzerland.
3. The glaciated regions offer services as tourist centres.
4. Boulder clay plains are sometimes very fertile, examples include; East Anglia in Great Britain and parts
of the Dairy of North America.
5. Old glaciated lakes beds are invariably fertile; they owe their properties to the rich alluvial deposits
which collect on the floors. Example is the Canadian prairies in North America.
EVALUATION
1. With good examples and locations describe the following (a) Terminal moraine (b) esker
(c) drumlins (d) boulder clay.
2. Mention four economic importance of glacier features to man.
GENERAL EVULATION
1. Account for the economic importance of glacial features to man.
2. Briefly explain the following: i. Bergschrund ii. Medical moraine iii. Lateral moraine
iv. U-shape valley v. Hanging valley
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Objective Test
1. Which of the following terms is not associated with glacier (a) corrosion (b) snow (d) snowfield
(d) snowline
2. The breaking down of rocks of alternate freezing and thawing of water at the bottom of the cracks; is
associated with ------------ (a) plucking (b) abrasion (c) sapping (d) cracking.
3. Another name for Corrie Lake is (a) tern (b) torn (c) tarn (d) torn.
4. Which glacial feature is found in the Swiss, at the Italian border? (a) Corrie (b) Arête (c) Pyramidal peak
(d) U-shaped valley
5. Moraine can be divided into ----------- (a) 5 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d)2
6. Moraines are best described as (A) pieces of rocks embedded in the glacier and brought down the valley
(B) unsorted glacial deposits comprising a wide range of eroded materials (C) ice in motion (D) long,
narrow ridges of sand which mark the former sites of sub-glacial meltwater streams (E) glacial troughs
which become filled with water after the disappearance of the ice.
ESSAY QUESTION
1. Describe the following: (i) Arête (ii) U-shape valley (iii) Moraine
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read on the action of wave in your Geography textbook.
REFERENCES TEXTS
1. Certificate physical and Human Geography for Senior Secondary Schools (New Impression) by O.
Areola, K. Ahmed, O.I. Irueghe, B.O Adeleke and G.C. Leong.
2. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools (New Edition) by P. Oluwafemi, and S. Ajayi.
3. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by O.A. Iwena.

WEEK 6
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 2 DATE: ......................................
TOPIC: ACTION OF WAVES
CONTENT:
1. Definition of Waves, Tides and Ocean Currents and their Characteristics.
2. Erosional Processes of Waves
3. Erosional Features of Wave Action
4. Features of Coastal Deposition
SUB-TOPIC 1: DEFINITION OF WAVES, TIDES AND OCEAN CURRENTS
Waves are formed by winds blowing over the ocean surface which cause the surface water to move
towards the coast in ripples or waves. In other word wave can be defined as an oscillatory movement of a
large body of water approaching the coast. It is the most powerful and important agent of marine erosion.
Tide is the alternate rise and fall of the surface of the sea, approximately two times a day.
Ocean current is the regular movement of the surface water of the ocean from one part of the ocean to
another.
SUB – TOPIC 2: EROSIONAL PROCESSES OF WAVES (MECHANISM OF WAVE EROSION)
1. Corrosion: It is the wearing down of the base of the cliff by mass of fragments carried by wave action.
2. Attrition: It is the breaking down of materials like pebbles, boulders, etc. when they hit cliff faces and
each other, as the wave continues its activities, into smaller particles. This results in relatively fine pieces
of fragments which are well polished.
3. Solution/Solvent action: It involves the disintegration of rock materials such as limestone and chalk in
the coast by chemical action of the sea.
4. Hydraulic action: In this process, fast moving waves force themselves into cracks and cavities within
the base of the cliff under pressure and enlarge the cracks.
SUB – TOPIC 3: EROSIONAL FEATURES OF WAVE ACTION
The features produce by wave action include:
(a) Cape: - A cape is a prominent projection, headland or cliff protruding into the sea. Capes are made up
of hard rock and are usually resistant to wave actions. Examples of cape in West Africa are Cape Three
Points in Ghana, Cape Verde in Senegal etc.
(b) Bay: - A bay is a wide curved inlet of sea or a wide opening carrying indentation of the sea or lake into
the land. Bays are less steep than capes, they are inlets made up of relatively soft rocks, bays usually
contain water and they are used as harbour.

Cape and bay

(c) Cliff: A cliff is a steep rock faces adjoining the coast and usually following the collapse of the part of
the rock overlying a notch. Some cliffs are vertical while others are inclined depending on the structure
and resistance of the coastal rocks.

Cliff
(d) Caves: A cave is a hole produced in the regions of local weakness at the base of a cliff. The feature is
often formed by wave action when the softer rocks are more quickly eroded than the harder rocks. It is
characterised by round nature or cylindrical shape, the inside slopes are steep-sided.
(e) Stack: A stack is a steep pillar of rock which results from the collapse of an arch by wave action rising
from the sea. A stack was formerly part of the mainland but has become isolated by wave action. The
pillar of rock left behind by wave action is known as STACK
(f) Stump: A stump is the eroded remains of a rock pillar which is only just visible above the sea level. A
stump is shorter than a pillar, it has fairly steep sides.

Cave, stack and stump

EVALUATION:
1. Define the term waves
2. State four erosional features of wave action.
3. Describe two of the above features.
SUB-TOPIC 4: FEATURES OF COASTAL DEPOSITION
Depositional landforms resulting from wave transportation include: (i) Beaches (ii) Spits (iii) Bars
(iv) Marine dunes and belts
a. Beaches: They are made up of sand and gravel. They are depositional features on the coastal. Beaches
are formed when sand and gravel loosened from the land are moved by waves to be deposited along
the shore.
b. A Spit is a tongue like features made up of aluminium deposit that extends from the land to the sea.
They are characterised by long and narrow ridges. An example is the Senegal estuary in West Africa.
c. Bar: This is a bank of mud, sand and shingle deposited in water offshore parallel to the coast. It may
be deposited across the mouth of the river or across the exit to a harbour.
d. Marine dune and belts: These are dunes or sand dune belts which result from the force of onshore
winds. They are carried landwards by these winds and deposited where they occur.
EVALUATION:
1. List and explain four features of coastal deposition.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Write an explanatory notes on the following features
(i) Beaches
(ii) Capes and bays
(iii) Cliff
A. With the aid of annotated diagrams describe the formation and appearance of the following:
(i) Stack
(ii) Cave
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Objective Test
1. When the roof of a natural arch collapses, the resulting rock pillar left standing in the sea is called
(A) headland. (B) stack. (C) tombolo. (D) wave-cut platform.
2. Which of the following features is formed by marine erosion? (A) Stack (B) Rift valley (C) Spit
(D) Hanging valley.
3. Which of these features is associated with wave (a) action (b) bay (c) barchans (c) bush (d) dunes?
4. Which of the following is not a feature of wave deposition (a) barchans (b) bay (c) spit (d) cliff
5. Spits are formed by (A) ocean currents and trade winds (B) wave erosion (C) long share drift and wave
deposition (D) westerly winds.
ESSAY QUESTION
1. Describe the mechanism of wave erosion.
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read about climatic factors.
REFERENCES TEXTS
1. Certificate Physical and Human Geography for Senior Secondary Schools (New Impression)
by O. Areola, K. Ahmed, O.I. Irueghe, B.O Adeleke and G.C. Leong
2. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools (New Edition) by P. Oluwafemi, and
S. Ajayi
3. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by O. A. Iwena

WEEK 7: MID –TERM BREAK

WEEK 8
SUBJECT: Geography
CLASS: SS2 DATE: ..........................
TOPIC: CLIMATE II
CONTENT:
(1) Climatic Factors
(2) Climatic Types
 (3) Characteristics of climate types
(4) Geography distribution of climate types
SUB-TOPIC 1: CLIMATE FACTORS
Climate varies from one part of the world to another due to the effects of the following factors:
(i) LATITUDE: Latitude here refers to the location of a place in question on the surface of the earth in
relation to the equator. The altitude of the midday sun is always high in the tropics and hence
temperatures are always high. Outside the tropics the altitude is lower and temperatures are
correspondingly lower. In general, temperatures decrease from the equator to the poles. Equatorial
regions also have a more constant or equable climate because the sun is always near. On the contrary,
there is a much greater seasonal variation at the temperate regions and the poles where the sun is near at
one season and far away at another.
(ii) ALTITUDE AND RELIEF: Generally, the higher we go, the cooler it becomes. Therefore the top of
plateaux and mountains is usually cooler than their surrounding plains. In general, temperature
decreases by 0.65°C for every 100metres of ascent that is 6.5°C for every 1000metres (1km) of ascent, or
1°C for approximately 160metres of ascent. This decrease in temperature with increasing
elevation/altitude is called lapse rate or environmental lapse rate. High altitude location usually receives
much rain which is called relief or Orographic rain.
(iii) PLANETARY WINDS AND PRESSURE: The land surface is heated more quickly than water
surface because of the high specific heat of water. Winds which blow from the sea are generally more
moisture – laden than those blowing from the land. This is the reason why the coastal areas of West
Africa have heavy rainfalls when the south – west winds are blowing from the Atlantic Ocean than
when the North – east wind are blowing from the Sahara region. Pressure belts also have direct effect
on winds in the sense that wind blows from area of high pressure to area of low pressure.
(iv) DISTANCE FROM THE SEA: The climate of places close to the sea usually differs from that of
places farther inland owing to the moderating influence of the sea which is usually referred to as
maritime influence. Coastal areas usually have more equable climate, more rainfall and a longer rainy
season than those further inland. In general, places get progressively drier with distance from the sea
and this can be observed in Nigeria as one move from Lagos or Calabar to Maiduguri. Places very far
from the sea often experience desert or semi-desert conditions.
(v) CONTINENTALITY: Land surfaces are heated more quickly than water surfaces because of the high
specific heat of water. In other words, it requires only one-third as much energy to raise the
temperature of a given volume of land by 0.6°C as it does for an equal volume of water. This account
for the warmer summer, colder winter and great range of temperature of continental interiors as
compared with maritime districts.
(vi) OCEAN CURRENTS: The warm air from the sea keeps the immediate surrounding lowlands warm
while the cold currents tend to reduce summer temperature especially the on-shore winds. Cold
currents force rain bearing wind to drop most water into the sea. Thereby making the coastal land dry.
(vii) SLOPE OR ASPECT: A steep slope experiences a more rapid change in temperature than a gentle
one. Sun-facing slopes are usually warmer than sheltered slope. In the northern hemisphere for
example, south facing slopes are usually warmer than the north facing slopes which are sheltered from
the direct influence of the sun. The slopes of mountains facing the direction of the prevailing winds
also receive more rain than the leeward side, especially if the prevailing winds are on-shore and
moisture laden.
(viii) CLOUD COVER: Clouds reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface and the
amount of earth radiation leaving the earth’s surface. When there are no clouds both types of radiation
are at a maximum. The heavy cloud cover of the equatorial regions explains why the day temperatures
rarely exceeds 30C and why the night temperatures are not much lower. In hot deserts the absence of
clouds and the presence of dry air result in very high day temperatures of over 38C and much lower
night temperature of 21C or below.
(ix) NATURAL VEGETATION AND SOIL: There is a definite difference in temperature between
forested region and open ground. It is, in fact, cool in the jungle and its shade temperature is a few
degrees lower than that of open spaces in corresponding latitudes. During the day trees lose water by
 transpiration so that the air above is cooled. Relative humidity increases and some mist and fog may
form.
Light soils reflect more heat than darker soils which are better absorbers. Such soil differences may
give rise to slight variations in the temperature of the region. As a whole, dry soils like sands are very
sensitive to temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay, retain much moisture and warm up or
cool down more slowly.
EVALUATION:
1. List and explain five factors that affect climate.
2. Write short note on the following: (i) Insolation (ii) Normal lapse rate (iii) Continentality effect on
climate.
SUB-TOPIC 2: CLIMATIC TYPES
Climatic types may be basically divided into four while each of the four groups has its sub-groups as
outline below:
A. HOT CLIMATE: This climatic types lies between 300N and 300S. The hot climate is sub-divided into
four namely; (i) Equatorial climate (ii) Tropical continental, (iii) Tropical monsoon and (iv) Hot deserts.
B. WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATE: This climatic types lies between 30 0N and 450S. It is sub-divided
into (i) Warm Temperate Western Margin and (ii) Warm Temperate Eastern Margin
C. COOL TEMPERATE CLIMATE: This climatic types lies between 45 0N and 500N. It is sub-divided
into (i) Cool Temperate Western Margin, (ii) Cool Temperate Eastern Margin and (iii) Cool Temperate
Continental
D. COLD CLIMATE: This climatic types lies between 50 0N&S and beyond. It is sub-divided into
(i) Cold Temperate, (ii) Tundra and (iii) Polar climate.
A. HOT CLIMATE
1. Equatorial Climate
Location: This is located between latitude 50N and 50S of the equator.
Area: Amazon basin, Zaire basin, Guinea Coast of West Africa etc.
Climatic characteristics
i. Temperature is uniformly high throughout the year with a mean annual temperature of about 270C.
ii. The daily range of temperature is usually between 60C and 80C.
iii. The annual range of temperature is about 30C.
iv. Rainfall is generally high and well distributed throughout the year, usually between 1524mm and
2699mm.
v. There is hardly any month which does not experience rain.
vi. The rainfall is usually heavy and convectional.
vii. The region experience double maximum rainfall which occurs just after the equinoxes (March &
September).
viii. The relative humidity is constantly high usually over 80%.
Human activities
1. Lumbering
2. Plantation Agriculture
3. Hunting
4. Fishing
2. Desert Climate
There are two major types of desert namely hot and cold deserts.
i. Hot Desert Climate
Location: The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents within
latitude 150 and 300 north and south of the equator. Areas covered by this type of climate include the
Sahara desert (North Africa) which is the largest, Arabian desert, Iranian desert etc.
Climatic Characteristics
i. There is high temperate ranges between 300C – 600C.
ii. Aridity or rainless is the most outstanding feature of the area.
iii. Annual range of temperature is about 90C
iv. Annual rainfall is about 250mm.
 v. High rate of evaporation.
vi. Desserts are associated with cold current.
vii. The relative humidity is very low.
Human Activities
i. Food gathering e.g. fruits
ii. Nomadic hunting for wild animals
iii. Nomadic pastoral farming
iv. Crop production include cotton, rice, sugar cane, millet etc. with the aid of irrigation.
ii. Cold Desert Climate
Location: The cold desert climate of the world is located within latitude 45 0 and 600 north and south of the
equator. They are otherwise referred to as the mid-latitude desert. This climate is found in interiors of
Eurasia, North America and in Patagonia (South America)
Climatic Characteristics
i. There is hot summer and cold winter.
ii. Winters are cold with temperature below 70C while summers are hot (380C).
iii. Rainfall in low (25cm) and unreliable due to long distance from the sea.
iv. Most rain occurs in late winter and early spring
v. Four seasons are here, autumn, summer, winter and spring.
Human Activities
i. Food gathering
ii. Nomadic herding
iii. Little cultivation of crops
B. WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATE: This climatic types lies between latitude 30 0N and 450S. It is sub-
divided into (i) Warm Temperate Western Margin and (ii) Warm Temperate Eastern Margin.
C. COOL TEMPERATE CLIMATE: This climatic types lies between latitude 45 0N and 600S. It is sub-
divided into (i) Cool Temperate Western Margin, (ii) Cool Temperate Eastern Margin and (iii) Cool
Temperate Continental
D. COLD CLIMATE: This climatic types lies around 50 0 North and South and beyond. It is sub-divided
into (i) Cold Temperate, (ii) Tundra and (iii) Polar climate.
i. Polar Climate
Location: This climate is found around 900S and N of the equator especially around the north and south
poles. These areas of occurrence are Antarctica in the southern hemisphere, Greenland and Iceland in
northern hemisphere.
Climatic Characteristics
i. Temperature is generally very low getting below 00C.
ii. Annual range of temperature is minimal or negligible.
iii. There is continuous falling of snow.
iv. There is no form of vegetation as the land is covered by ice throughout the year.
v. Human habitation is very scarce, except only in Greenland where the Eskimos have naturally survived up
to date, living in their Igloos-houses built of solidified or hard blocks of ice.
Human activities
1. Fishing in summer
2. Hunting of wild life
3. Herding of some animals that adapt to cold weather
ii. Tundra Climate or Arctic Climate
Location: It is located around the Arctic and Antarctic circles region around latitude 60 0 and 900 North and
South of the equator especially coastal strip of Greenland, north Canada and Alaska etc.
Climatic Characteristics
i. It has long, cold winter and short cool summer
ii. The temperatures are low throughout the year with a mean annual temperature normally below 00C.
iii. The annual rainfall is about 25cm in summer
iv. Presence of snow high incidence of frost and lots of blizzards
v. There is continuous night in winter and continuous day in summer.
Human activities
i. Semi-nomadism is confined to the coast on furbearing animals
ii. Fishing in summer
iii. Hunting by the Eskimos in Greenland where CARIBON (American deer) is hunted for meat, milk and
skin.
EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between the equatorial and the tropical continental climate.
2. Differentiate between cold desert climate and hot desert climate.
3. State four climatic characteristics of cold temperate climate.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Explain the part played by temperature in climate. What are the various factors that affect its
distribution round the globe?
2. Write a careful description of the climate of your political region show how the seasons vary
throughout the year.
3. Discuss the cold desert climate under these headings: (i) location (ii) climatic characteristics
(iii) human activities
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Write notes on Warm Temperate Climate and Cool Temperate Climate.
READING ASSIGNMENT:
1. Read about the Greek and Koppen’s climatic classification.
REFERENCES TEXTS
1. Certificate Physical and Human Geography for Senior Secondary Schools (New Impression)
by O. Areola, K. Ahmed, O.I. Irueghe, B.O Adeleke and G.C. Leong
2. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools (New Edition) by P. Oluwafemi, and
S. Ajayi
3. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by O. A. Iwena
4. Exam Focus Geography for WASSCE and SSCE by O. Areola et al.

WEEK 9 & 10
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS2 DATE: .....................................
TOPIC: CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
CONTENT:
(i) Greek climatic classification
(ii) Koppen’s climatic classification
SUB-TOPIC I: GREEK CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
Climatic classification is a conscious attempt at grouping different climates with similar characteristics
together. This is because climate is not the same in every place.
The most common classification of climates are:
i. Greek classification
ii. Koppen’s classification
GREEK SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE
This is the earliest, simple and rough climate classification put forward by the Greek people. The Greek
made their classification on the basis of Temperature. On this basis, the world is divided into climatic
zones namely (i) Torrid zone (ii) Temperate zone and (iii) Frigid zone
A. TORRID ZONE: This zone is found within the tropics (i.e. tropic of Cancer and Capricorn). It is very
hot because of its nearness to the equator and the temperature is high throughout the year.
B. TEMPERATE ZONE: This zone is found between the torrid and frigid zone. It has moderate
temperature and has seasonal differences in temperature.
C. FRIGID ZONE: This zone is found within the Polar Regions (Arctic and Antarctic). The zone is
generally cold and has lots of ice-caps.
CRITICISMS OF GREEK CLASSIFICATION
1. The problem with this classification is that it emphasises temperature leaving out other climatic
factors.
2. It is too simple.
3. It ignores the influence of latitude and altitude, presence of vegetation and wind.
4. It fails to recognise climates such as the humid and the desert regions.
EVALUATION
i. Define climatic classification.
ii. What are the 3 zones of Greek classification of climate?
iii. Mention four disadvantage of Greek classification of climate.
SUB-TOPIC 2: KOPPEN’S SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
Dr. Vladimir Koppen devised the best climatic classification in 1918. The basis of Koppen’s classification
was Temperature and Rainfall (precipitation). He identified 5 major climatic groups which correspond with
the five main vegetation groups. They are represented by capital letters as follows:
A= TROPICAL RAINY CLIMATE
This climate is moist and hot with average monthly temperature above 18 0C. It has heavy rainfall
throughout the year which is more than evaporation.
B= DRY CLIMATE
This climate lacks surplus water. Evaporation exceeds annual rainfall. No river flows permanently in this
region. This is a really arid (dry) region.
C= WARM TEMPERATE RAINY CLIMATE (Humid Mesothermal Climates)
Here, the average temperature of the coldest month is below 18 0C but above – 30C. The average
temperature of the warmest month is 100C. It has both summer and winter season.
D= SNOWY AND COLD CLIMATE (Cold snow forest climate)
This zone’s average temperature of the coldest month is – 3 0C and that of the warmest month is 10 0C. It is
characterised by frozen and snow cover for several months.
E= POLAR CLIMATE (Ice climate)
The average temperature of the warmest month is below 10 0C. There is lack of warm season and
precipitation is in the form of snow.
OTHER SUB-DIVISIONS OF KOPPEN’S CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
The five major climatic groups already described are sub-divided into different sub-groups for each of the
climates as follows:
A has Af, Am and Aw sub groups.
B has Bs and Bw sub groups.
C has Cw, and Cf sub groups.
D has Df and Dw sub groups.
E has Et and Ef sub groups.
HOW TO UNDERSTAND THE CLIMATIC SUB GROUPS
The small letters f, s, w and m show how seasonal precipitation is and they mean the followings:
f = no dry season generally
s = no dry season in summer
 w = no dry season in winter
m =moderate dry season in winter and summer
The capital letters of S and W show the two subdivisions of dry climates
S= means steppe or semi desert
W= means desert or arid
In polar climates
T= means Tundra
F= means Ice cap
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SUB GROUPS
A-Climates (Tropical rainy climates): There are three sub groups of A – climates. These are Af, Am, and
Aw.
1. Af = TROPICAL RAIN FOREST CLIMATE: This climate is located within 5 0 North and South of
the equator.
Location
(a) Amazon basin of South America
(b) The Zaire basin of Central Africa
(c) The coasts of West Africa
FEATURES OF THE Af CLIMATE
i. Temperatures are high and uniform throughout the year
ii. Mean monthly temperature is 270C
iii. Diurnal range is between 60C to 80C
iv. There is rainfall throughout the year
v. Amount of rainfall is 1500mm to 2000mm
vi. There is a double maxima (two highest rainfall periods)
vii. Humidity is 70% to 80% throughout the year.
2. Am= TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATE
Distribution: This climate is located within latitude 100 and 350 north and south of the equator.
Areas covered by the Am zone include:
i. Monsoon Asia, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, South East and Eastern Asia.
ii. North Australia
iii. Central America, West Indies and parts of the coast of Brazil
iv. Parts of the coast of East Africa and West Africa.
FEATURES OF Am ZONE
i. High temperature of about 270C
ii. Temperature range is 60C
iii. High annual rainfall of 1500mm
iv. There is concentration of rain in rainy season
v. There is alternating wet and dry seasons
3. Aw = TROPICAL GRASSLAND OF SAVANNA
Distribution: This is located within 50 – 250 north and 50 – 200 south of the equator.
Areas covered include:
i. Central America
ii. North West of South America
iii. Interior uplands of Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay
iv. South Central and Eastern Africa
v. West Africa
vi. West Malaysia
vii. Parts of India and South East Asia
viii Northern Australia
FEATURES OF Aw ZONE
i. Temperatures are more extreme 200C – 300C
ii. High range of temperature of 90C
iii. Rainfall between 250mm – 1500mm
iv. Rainfall is seasonal, mainly in summer
v. Rainfall is mainly convectional (single maxima)
B- CLIMATE (DRY CLIMATE)
There are 2 sub-groups of B – climate namely Bs and Bw
i. Bs = Steppe (semi – arid) climate
Distribution: This climate is located within 300 – 400 north and south of the equator. Area covered is Italy,
Argentina, Uruguay, South Africa and Australia.
FEATURES
i. There are extremes of temperature cold winter and hot summer
ii. It has temperature of 190C – 420C
iii. Annual range of temperature is 400C
iv. Annual rainfall is 508mm in summer
v. The relative humidity is very low.
ii. Bw = Desert (Arid) Climate
Distribution: This climate is located in the western coast of the continents 15 0 – 300 north of the equator. It
is found in the areas of West Africa, South Africa, Namibia and Iran.
Features
i. High temperature between 300C– 580C
ii. Humidity is relatively low
iii. Low annual rainfall of 150mm
iv. Temperature range is 110C
C= CLIMATES (warm temperate rainy climate)
There are 3 sub-groups of the climate these are Cf, Cw and Cs
i. Cf = Mild humid climate: It has no dry season with the least month of rainfall having 30mm
ii. Cw = Mild humid climate: it has a dry winter with heavy rainfall in summer
iii. Cs = Mild humid climate: it has dry summer with heavy rainfall in winter
D= CLIMATES (Snowy and cold climate)
There are 2 groups in D climates
Df = Snowy forest climate: it has moist winter, no dry season with cold climate.
Dw = Snowy forest climate: it has dry winter with cold climate.
E= CLIMATES (Polar climates)
The E – climate has 2 sub-groups namely:
ET = Tundra climate; average temperature is less than 100C
EF= Continuous forest climate; average temperature of all months is less than 0 0C. It has ice caps. It is
found in extremes of north and south poles.
ADVANTAGES OF KOPPEN’S CLASSIFICATION
1. It is very simple to understand
2. It is objective
3. It is quantitative because numerical values are used for defining boundaries of climatic groups.
4. It is commonly used in teaching at various levels of educational institutions
DISADVANTAGES OF KOPPEN’S CLASSIFICATION
1. It did not consider the climate of highland
2. Letters used are many and confusing
3. There is no clear boundary of one climate from another.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GREEK AND KOPPEN’S SYSTEM OF CLIMATIC
CLASSIFICATION
1. Greek’s climatic has three major belt while Koppen’s has five major climatic types
2. Koppen’s applied quantitative approach in the classification while Greek’s employs descriptive
approach
3. Greek’s classification does not recognise sub-groups, whereas Koppen’s recognises various sub-group
4. Greek’s climatic classification is based on temperature while Koppen’s is based on climate and
vegetation
EVALUATION:
1. State Koppen’s five major climatic groups.
2. Outline three advantages and disadvantages of Koppen’s classification.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. With the aid of a diagram, describe the Greek climatic classification.
2. Differentiate between Greek and Koppen’s System of Climatic Classification
3. Identify and make a list of major and sub-groups of Koppen’s climatic classification.
4. What three advantages has the Koppen’s classification over the Greek system (SSCE June 1995)
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Objective Test
1. The basis for Koppen's climatic classification is (A) rainfall and temperature (B) rainfall and pressure
(C) temperature and pressure (D) rainfall and humidity.
2. Aw in Koppen's classification of climate refers to (A) Steppe (B) Tropical (C) Mediterranean
(D) Polar.
3. Which of the following towns is located in Koppen's Aw climate? (A) Lagos (B) Tamale C) Algiers
(D) Lome.
4. The climatic element used by the Greek to classify climate is (a) Humidity (b) Rainfall (c) Wind
(d) Pressure (e) Temperature.
5. The zone similar to the Frigid zone in Koppen’s classification is (a) E-climate (polar climate)
(b) A-climate (tropical rainy climate) (c) D-climate (snowy and cold climate) (d) C-climate (worm
temperature (e) B-climate (dry climate).
6. One of the disadvantages of the Koppen’s classification is that (a) it is objective (b) it is quantitative
(c) it did not consider the climate of highlands (d) it uses rainfall as well as temperature (e) the polar region
is considered.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. State three climatic zones of the Greek classification.
2. Explain one of the zones mentioned in 1 above.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read your textbooks for your examinations.
REFERENCE TEXTS
1. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by O.A, Iwena.
2. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools by Peter Oluwasfemi S.A.
11. Revision
12. Examination