MC 1- Anatomy and Physiology

Midterm

Digestive System

 The alimentary canal, also called the gastrointestinal tract, is a continuous, hollow muscular
tube that winds through the ventral body cavity and is open at both ends.
 The correct order through which food passes in the alimentary canal:
1. mouth
2. pharynx
3. esophagus
4. stomach
5. small intestine
6. large intestine
 The functions of the digestive system are:
1. Ingestion. Food must be placed into the mouth before it can be acted on; this is an active,
voluntary process called ingestion.
2. Propulsion. If foods are to be processed by more than one digestive organ, they must be
propelled from one organ to the next; swallowing is one example of food movement that
depends largely on the propulsive process called peristalsis (involuntary, alternating waves of
contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the organ wall).
3. Food breakdown: mechanical digestion. Mechanical digestion prepares food for further
degradation by enzymes by physically fragmenting the foods into smaller pieces, and
examples of mechanical digestion are the mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue, churning
of food in the stomach, and segmentation in the small intestine.
4. Food breakdown: chemical digestion. The sequence of steps in which large food molecules
are broken down into their building blocks by enzymes is called chemical digestion.
5. Absorption. Transport of digested end products from the lumen of the GI tract to the blood or
lymph is absorption, and for absorption to happen, the digested foods must first enter the
mucosal cells by active or passive transport processes.
6. Defecation. Defecation is the elimination of indigestible residues from the GI tract via the anus
in the form of feces.
Mouth
 Oral cavity proper. The area contained by the teeth is the oral cavity proper.
 Tongue. The muscular tongue occupies the floor of the mouth and has several bony
attachments- two of these are to the hyoid bone and the styloid processes of the skull.
 Lingual frenulum. The lingual frenulum, a fold of mucous membrane, secures the tongue to the
floor of the mouth and limits its posterior movements.
Esophagus
 Mucosa. The mucosa is the innermost layer, a moist membrane that lines the cavity, or lumen,
of the organ; it consists primarily of surface epithelium, plus a small amount of connective
tissue (lamina propria) and a scanty smooth muscle layer.
 Submucosa. The submucosa is found just beneath the mucosa; it is a soft connective tissue
layer containing blood vessels, nerve endings, lymph nodules, and lymphatic vessels.
 Muscularis externa. The muscularis externa is a muscle layer typically made up of an inner
circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle cells.
 Serosa. The serosa is the outermost layer of the wall that consists of a single layer of flat
serous fluid-producing cells, the visceral peritoneum.
 Intrinsic nerve plexuses. The alimentary canal wall contains two important intrinsic nerve
plexuses- the submucosal nerve plexus and the myenteric nerve plexus, both of which are
networks of nerve fibers that are actually part of the autonomic nervous system and help
regulate the mobility and secretory activity of the GI tract organs.
Stomach
 Function. The stomach acts as a temporary “storage tank” for food as well as a site for food
breakdown.
 Cardiac region. The cardiac region surrounds the cardioesophageal sphincter, through which
food enters the stomach from the esophagus.
 Fundus. The fundus is the expanded part of the stomach lateral to the cardiac region.
 Body. The body is the midportion, and as it narrows inferiorly, it becomes the pyloric antrum,
and then the funnel-shaped pylorus.
 Pylorus. The pylorus is the terminal part of the stomach and it is continuous with the small
intestine through the pyloric sphincter or valve.
 Rugae. The mucosa of the stomach is thrown into large folds called rugae when it is empty.
Small Intestines
 The small intestine is the body’s major digestive organ.
 Subdivisions. The small intestine has three subdivisions: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the
ileum, which contribute 5 percent, nearly 40 percent, and almost 60 percent of the small
intestine, respectively.
 Ileocecal valve. The ileum meets the large intestine at the ileocecal valve, which joins the large
and small intestine.
 Hepatopancreatic ampulla. The main pancreatic and bile ducts join at the duodenum to form
the flasklike hepatopancreatic ampulla, literally, the ” liver-pacreatic-enlargement”.
 Microvilli. Microvilli are tiny projections of the plasma membrane of the mucosa cells that give
the cell surface a fuzzy appearance, sometimes referred to as the brush border; the plasma
membranes bear enzymes (brush border enzymes) that complete the digestion of proteins and
carbohydrates in the small intestine.
 Villi. Villi are fingerlike projections of the mucosa that give it a velvety appearance and feel,
much like the soft nap of a towel.
 Peyer’s patches. In contrast, local collections of lymphatic tissue found in the submucosa
increase in number toward the end of the small intestine.
Large Intestine
 The large intestine is much larger in diameter than the small intestine but shorter in length.
 Size. About 1.5 m (5 feet) long, it extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus.
 Functions. Its major functions are to dry out indigestible food residue by absorbing water and
to eliminate these residues from the body as feces.
 Subdivisions. It frames the small intestines on three sides and has the following subdivisions:
cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, and anal canal.
 External anal sphincter. The anal canal has an external voluntary sphincter, the external anal
sphincter, composed of skeletal muscle.
 Internal involuntary sphincter. The internal involuntary sphincter is formed by smooth muscles.

Accessory Digestive Organs

Teeth
 Function. The teeth tear and grind the food, breaking it down into smaller fragments.
 Deciduous teeth. The first set of teeth is the deciduous teeth, also called baby teeth or milk
teeth, and they begin to erupt around 6 months, and a baby has a full set (20 teeth) by the age
of 2 years.
 Permanent teeth. As the second set of teeth, the deeper permanent teeth, enlarge and
develop, the roots of the milk teeth are reabsorbed, and between the ages of 6 to 12 years
they loosen and fall out.
 Incisors. The chisel-shaped incisors are adapted for cutting.
 Canines. The fanglike canines are for tearing and piercing.
 Premolars and molars. Premolars (bicuspids) and molars have broad crowns with round cusps
( tips) and are best suited for grinding.
 Crown. The enamel-covered crown is the exposed part of the tooth above the gingiva or gum.
 Enamel. Enamel is the hardest substance in the body and is fairly brittle because it is heavily
mineralized with calcium salts.
 Root. The outer surface of the root is covered by a substance called cementum, which
attaches the tooth to the periodontal membrane (ligament).
 Dentin. Dentin, a bonelike material, underlies the enamel and forms the bulk of the tooth.
Salivary Glands
 Three pairs of salivary glands empty their secretions into the mouth.
 Parotid glands. The large parotid glands lie anterior to the ears and empty their secretions into
the mouth.
 Submandibular and sublingual glands. The submandibular and sublingual glands empty their
secretions into the floor of the mouth through tiny ducts.
 Saliva. The product of the salivary glands, saliva, is a mixture of mucus and serous fluids.
Pancreas
 Only the pancreas produces enzymes that break down all categories of digestible foods.
 Liver
 The liver is the largest gland in the body.
 Function. The liver’s digestive function is to produce bile
Gallbladder
 While in the gallbladder, bile is concentrated by the removal of water.
 Location. The gallbladder is a small, thin-walled green sac that snuggles in a shallow fossa in
the inferior surface of the liver.
 Cystic duct. When food digestion is not occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct and enters the
gallbladder to be stored.
Urinary System

 The function of the kidneys are as follows:

 Filter. Every day, the kidneys filter gallons of fluid from the bloodstream.
 Waste processing. The kidneys then process this filtrate, allowing wastes and excess ions
to leave the body in urine while returning needed substances to the blood in just the right
proportions.
 Elimination. Although the lungs and the skin also play roles in excretion, the kidneys bear
the major responsibility for eliminating nitrogenous wastes, toxins, and drugs from the body.
 Regulation. The kidneys also regulate the blood’s volume and chemical makeup so that the
proper balance between water and salts and between acids and bases is maintained.
 Other regulatory functions. By producing the enzyme renin, they help regulate blood
pressure, and their hormone erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production in the bone
marrow.
 Conversion. Kidney cells also convert vitamin D to its active form.
 The Kidneys
 The kidneys, which maintain the purity and constancy of our internal fluids, are perfect
examples of homeostatic organs.
 Location. These small, dark red organs with a kidney-bean shape lie against the dorsal
body wall in a retroperitoneal position (beneath the parietal peritoneum) in the superior
lumbar region; they extend from the T12 to the L3 vertebra, thus they receive protection
from the lower part of the rib cage.
 Positioning. Because it is crowded by the liver, the right kidney is positioned slightly lower
than the left.
 Renal fascia. The renal fascia, the outermost capsule, anchors the kidney and helps hold it
in place against the muscles of the trunk wall.
 Renal cortex. The outer region, which is light in color, is the renal cortex.
 Renal medulla. Deep to the cortex is a darker, reddish-brown area, the renal medulla.
 Renal pyramids. The medulla has many basically triangular regions with a striped
appearance, the renal, or medullary pyramids; the broader base of each pyramid faces
toward the cortex while its tip, the apex, points toward the inner region of the kidney.
 Renal columns. The pyramids are separated by extensions of cortex-like tissue, the renal
columns.
 Renal pelvis. Medial to the hilum is a flat, basinlike cavity, the renal pelvis, which is
continuous with the ureter leaving the hilum.
 Calyces. Extensions of the pelvis, calyces, form cup-shaped areas that enclose the tips of
the pyramid and collect urine, which continuously drains from the tips of the pyramids into
the renal pelvis.
 Renal artery. The arterial supply of each kidney is the renal artery, which divides into
segmental arteries as it approaches the hilum, and each segmental artery gives off several
branches called interlobar arteries.
 Nephrons are the structural and functional units of the kidneys.
 Glomerulus. One of the main structures of a nephron, a glomerulus is a knot of capillaries.
 Renal tubule. Another one of the main structures in a nephron is the renal tubule.
 Bowman’s capsule. The closed end of the renal tubule is enlarged and cup-shaped and
completely surrounds the glomerulus, and it is called the glomerular or Bowman’s capsule.
 Podocytes. The inner layer of the capsule is made up of highly modified octopus-like cells
called podocytes.
 Proximal convoluted tubule. This is the part of the tubule that is near to the glomerular
capsule.
 Loop of Henle. The loop of Henle is the hairpin loop following the proximal convoluted
tubule.
 Distal convoluted tubule. After the loop of Henle, the tubule continues to coil and twist
before the collecting duct, and this part is called the distal convoluted tubule.
Ureters
 The ureters do play an active role in urine transport.
 Function. Essentially, the ureters are passageways that carry urine from the kidneys to the
bladder through contraction of the smooth muscle layers in their walls that propel urine into
the bladder by peristalsis and is prevented from flowing back by small valve-like folds of
bladder mucosa that flap over the ureter openings.
Urinary Bladder
 The urinary bladder is a smooth, collapsible, muscular sac that stores urine temporarily.
 Function. The detrusor muscles and the transitional epithelium both make the bladder
uniquely suited for its function of urine storage.
 Trigone. The smooth triangular region of the bladder base outlined by these three openings
is called the trigone, where infections tend to persist.
 Detrusor muscles. The bladder wall contains three layers of smooth muscle, collectively
called the detrusor muscle, and its mucosa is a special type of epithelium, transitional
epithelium.
Urethra
 The urethra is a thin-walled tube that carries urine by peristalsis from the bladder to the
outside of the body.
 Internal urethral sphincter. At the bladder-urethral junction, a thickening of the smooth
muscle forms the internal urethral sphincter, an involuntary sphincter that keeps the urethra
closed when the urine is not being passed.
 External urethral sphincter. A second sphincter, the external urethral sphincter, is fashioned
by skeletal muscle as the urethra passes through the pelvic floor and is voluntarily
controlled.
Process of Urine Formation
 Glomerular filtration. Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through the
capillary walls and pores of the glomerular capsule into the renal tubule.
 Tubular reabsorption. Water, glucose, amino acids, and needed ions are transported out of
the filtrate into the tubule cells and then enter the capillary blood.
 Tubular secretion. Hydrogen, potassium, creatinine, and drugs are removed from the
peritubular blood and secreted by the tubule cells into the filtrate.
Micturition
 Micturition or voiding is the act of emptying the bladder.
 Accumulation. Ordinarily, the bladder continues to collect urine until about 200 ml have
accumulated.
 Activation. At about this point, stretching of the bladder wall activates stretch receptors.
 Transmission. Impulses transmitted to the sacral region of the spinal cord and then back to
the bladder via the pelvic splanchnic nerves cause the bladder to go into reflex
contractions.
 Passage. As the contractions become stronger, stored urine is forced past the internal
urethral sphincter into the upper part of the urethra.
 External sphincter. Because the lower external sphincter is skeletal muscle and voluntarily
controlled, we can choose to keep it closed or it can be relaxed so that urine is flushed from
the body.

Endocrine System
 Functions of Endocrine system
 1. Water equilibrium. The endocrine system controls water equilibrium by regulating the
solute concentration of the blood.
 2. Growth, metabolism, and tissue maturation. The endocrine system controls the growth of
many tissues, like the bone and muscle, and the degree of metabolism of various tissues,
which aids in the maintenance of the normal body temperature and normal mental
functions. Maturation of tissues, which appears in the development of adult features and
adult behavior, are also determined by the endocrine system.
 3. Heart rate and blood pressure management. The endocrine system assists in managing
the heart rate and blood pressure and aids in preparing the body for physical motion.
 4. Immune system control. The endocrine system helps regulate the production and
functions of immune cells.
 5. Reproductive function controls. The endocrine system regulates the development and
the functions of the reproductive systems in males and females.
 6. Uterine contractions and milk release. The endocrine system controls uterine
contractions throughout the delivery of the newborn and stimulates milk release from the
breasts in lactating females.
 7. Ion management. The endocrine system regulates Na+, K+, and Ca2+ concentrations in
the blood.
 8. Blood glucose regulator. The endocrine system controls blood glucose levels and other
nutrient levels in the blood.
 9. Direct gene activation. Being lipid-soluble molecules, the steroid hormones can diffuse
through plasma membranes of their target cells; once inside, the steroid hormone enters
the nucleus and binds to a specific receptor protein there; then, the hormone-receptor
complex binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA, activating certain genes to transcribe
messenger RNA; the mRNA then is translated in the cytoplasm, resulting in the synthesis
of new proteins.
 10. Second messenger system. Water-soluble, nonsteroidal hormones-protein, and peptide
hormones- are unable to enter the target cells, so instead, they bind to receptors situated
on the target cell’s plasma membrane and utilize a second messenger system.
Hypothalamus
 The major endocrine organs of the body include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal,
pineal, and thymus glands, the pancreas, and the gonads.
 Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus, which is part of the nervous system, is also considered
a major endocrine organ because it produces several hormones. It is an important
autonomic nervous system and endocrine control center of the brain located inferior to the
thalamus.
 Mixed functions. Although the function of some hormone-producing glands is purely
endocrine, the function of others (pancreas and gonads) is mixed- both endocrine and
exocrine.
Pituitary Gland
 The pituitary gland is approximately the size of a pea.
 Location. The pituitary gland hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of the hypothalamus
of the brain, where it is snugly surrounded by the “Turk’s saddle” of the sphenoid bone.
 Lobes. It has two functional lobes- the anterior pituitary (glandular tissue) and the posterior
pituitary (nervous tissue).
 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 1. Growth hormone (GH). Growth hormone is a general metabolic hormone, however, its
major effects are directed to the growth of skeletal muscles and long bones of the body; it is
a protein-sparing and anabolic hormone that causes amino acids to be built into proteins
and stimulates most target cells to grow in size and divide.
 2. Prolactin (PRL). Prolactin is a protein hormone structurally similar to growth hormone; its
only known target in humans is the breast because, after childbirth, it stimulates and
maintains milk production by the mother’s breast.
 3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH regulates the endocrine activity of the
cortex portion of the adrenal gland.
 4. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH, also called thyrotropin hormone influences the
growth and activity of the thyroid gland.
 5. Gonadotropic hormones. The gonadotropic hormones regulate the hormonal activity of
gonads (ovaries and testes).
 6. Follicles-stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH stimulates follicle development in the ovaries;
as the follicles mature, they produce estrogen and eggs that are readied for ovulation; in
men, FSH stimulates sperm development by the testes.
 7. Luteinizing hormone (LH). LH triggers the ovulation of an egg from the ovary and causes
the ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and some estrogen; in men, LH stimulates
testosterone production by the interstitial cells of the testes.
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
 1. Oxytocin. Oxytocin is released in significant amounts only during childbirth and in nursing
women; it stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine muscle during labor, during sexual
relations, and during breastfeeding and also causes milk ejection (let-down reflex) in a
nursing woman.
 2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water from the
forming of urine; as a result, urine volume decreases and blood volume increases; in larger
amounts, ADH also increases blood pressure by causing constriction of the arterioles, so it
is sometimes referred to as vasopressin.
Thyroid Gland
 The thyroid gland is a hormone-producing gland that is familiar to most people primarily
because many obese individuals blame their overweight condition on their “glands”
(thyroid).
 Location. The thyroid gland is located at the base of the throat, just inferior to the Adam’s
apple, where it is easily palpated during a physical examination.
 Lobes. It is a fairly large gland consisting of two lobes joined by a central mass, or isthmus.
 Composition. Internally, the thyroid gland is composed of hollow structures called follicles,
which store a sticky colloidal material.
 Types of thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormone often referred to as the body’s major
metabolic hormone, is actually two active, iodine-containing hormones, thyroxine or T4, and
triiodothyronine or T3.
 Thyroxine. Thyroxine is the major hormone secreted by the thyroid follicles.
 Triiodothyronine. Most triiodothyronine is formed at the target tissues by conversion of the
thyroxine to triiodothyronine.
 Function. Thyroid hormone controls the rate at which glucose is “burned” oxidized, and
converted to body heat and chemical energy; it is also important for normal tissue growth
and development.
 Calcitonin. Calcitonin decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be deposited in
the bones; calcitonin is made by the so-called parafollicular cells found in the connective
tissues between the follicles.
Parathyroid Glands
 The parathyroid glands are mostly tiny masses of glandular tissue.
 Location. The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
 Parathormone. The parathyroids secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone,
which is the most important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of the blood; PTH is a
hypercalcemic hormone (that is, it acts to increase blood levels of calcium), whereas
calcitonin is a hypocalcemic hormone.; PTH also stimulates the kidneys and intestines to
absorb more calcium.
Pancreatic Islets
 Islets of Langerhans. The islets of Langerhans also called pancreatic islets, are little
masses of hormone-producing tissue that are scattered among the enzyme-producing
acinar tissue of the pancreas.
 Hormones. Two important hormones produced by the islet cells are insulin and glucagon.
 Islet cells. Islet cells act as fuel sensors, secreting insulin, and glucagon appropriately
during fed and fasting states.
 Beta cells. High levels of glucose in the blood stimulate the release of insulin from the beta
cells of the islets.
 Alpha cells. Glucagon’s release by the alpha cells of the islets is stimulated by low blood
glucose levels.
 Insulin. Insulin acts on just about all the body cells and increases their ability to transport
glucose across their plasma membranes; because insulin sweeps glucose out of the blood,
its effect is said to be hypoglycemic.
 Glucagon. Glucagon acts as an antagonist of insulin; that is, it helps to regulate blood
glucose levels but in a way opposite that of insulin; its action is basically hyperglycemic and
 its primary target organ is the liver, which it stimulates to break down stored glycogen into
glucose and release the glucose into the blood.
Pineal Gland
 The pineal gland, also called the pineal body, is a small cone-shaped gland.
 Location. The pineal gland hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of the brain.
 Melatonin. Melatonin is the only hormone that appears to be secreted in substantial
amounts by the pineal gland; the levels of melatonin rise and fall during the course of the
day and night; peak levels occur at night and make us drowsy as melatonin is believed to
be the “sleep trigger” that plays an important role in establishing the body’s day-night cycle.
Thymus Gland
 The thymus gland is large in infants and children and decreases in size throughout
adulthood.
 Location. The thymus gland is located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum.
 Thymosin. The thymus produces a hormone called thymosin and others that appear to be
essential for normal development of a special group of white blood cells (T-lymphocytes, or
T cells) and the immune response.
 Hormones of the Ovaries
 The female gonads or ovaries are a pair of almond-sized organs.
 Location. The female gonads are located in the pelvic cavity.
 Steroid hormones. Besides producing female sex cells, ovaries produce two groups of
steroid hormones, estrogen, and progesterone.
 Estrogen. Alone, the estrogens are responsible for the development of sex characteristics
in women at puberty; acting with progesterone, estrogens promote breast development and
cyclic changes in the uterine lining (menstrual cycle).
 Progesterone. Progesterone acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle; during
pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the uterus so that an implanted embryo will not be
aborted and helps prepare breast tissue for lactation.
Hormones of the Testes
 The testes of the male are paired oval organs in a sac.
 Location. The testes are suspended in a sac, the scrotum, outside the pelvic cavity.
 Male sex hormones. In addition to male sex cells, or sperm, the testes also produce male
sex hormones, or androgens, of which testosterone is the most important.
 Testosterone. At puberty, testosterone promotes the growth and maturation of the
reproductive system organs to prepare the young man for reproduction; it also causes the
male’s secondary sex characteristics to appear and stimulates male sex drive;
Testosterone is also necessary for the continuous production of sperm.
Placenta
 The placenta is a remarkable organ formed temporarily in the uterus of pregnant women.
 Function. In addition to its roles as the respiratory, excretory, and nutrition delivery systems
for the fetus, it also produces several proteins and steroid hormones that help to maintain
the pregnancy and pave the way for delivery of the baby.
 Human chorionic gonadotropin. During very early pregnancy, a hormone called human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by the developing embryo and then by the fetal
part of the placenta; hCG stimulates the ovaries to continue producing estrogen and
progesterone so that the lining of the uterus is not sloughed off in the menses.
  Human placental lactogen (hPL). hPL works cooperatively with estrogen and progesterone
in preparing the breasts for lactation.
 Relaxin. Relaxin, another placental hormone, causes the mother’s pelvic ligaments and the
pubic symphysis to relax and become more flexible, which eases birth passage.

Integumentary System

 The skin and its derivatives (sweat and oil glands, hair and nails) serve a number of functions,
mostly protective; together, these organs are called the integumentary system.
 The skin is composed of two kinds of tissue: the outer epidermis and the underlying dermis.
Epidermis
 The outer epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelium that is capable of
keratinizing or becoming hard and tough.
 Composition. The epidermis is composed of up to five layers or strata; from the inside out
these are the: stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucideum, and corneum.
 Melanin. Melanin, a pigment that ranges in color from yellow to brown to black, is produced by
special spider-shaped cells called melanocytes, found chiefly in the stratum basale.
Dermis
 Collagen. Collagen fibers are responsible for the toughness of the dermis; they also attract and
bind water and thus help to keep the skin hydrated.
 Elastic fibers. Elastic fibers give the skin its elasticity when we are young, and as we age, the
number of collagen and elastic fibers decreases and the subcutaneous tissue loses fat.
Appendages of the Skin
 The skin appendages include cutaneous glands, hair and hair follicle, and nails.
 Exocrine glands. The cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands that release their secretions to
the skin surface via ducts and they fall into two groups: sebaceous glands and sweat glands.
 Sebaceous (oil) glands. The sebaceous, or oil, glands are found all over the skin, except on
the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet; their ducts usually empty into a hair follicle;
the product of the sebaceous glands, sebum, is a mixture of oily substances and fragmented
cells, and it is a lubricant that keeps the skin soft and moist and prevents the hair from
becoming brittle.
Hair and Hair Follicles
 Hairs. A hair, produced by a hair follicle, is a flexible epithelial structure.
 Root. The part of the hair enclosed in the follicle is the root.
 Shaft. The part projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin is called the shaft.
 Arrector pili. Small bands of smooth muscle cells -arrector pili- connect each side of the hair
follicle to the dermal tissue; when these muscles contract, the hair is pulled upright, dimpling
the skin surface with “goosebumps”.
Nails
 A nail is a scalelike modification of the epidermis that corresponds to the hoof or claw of other
animals.
 Color. Nails are transparent and nearly colorless, but they look pink because of the rich blood
supply in the underlying dermis.
  Lunula. The exception to the pinkish color of the nails is the region over the thickened nail
matrix that appears as a white crescent and is called the lunula.”
 Development of Skin Color
Three pigments and even emotions contribute to skin color:
 Melanin. The amount and kind (yellow, reddish brown, or black) of melanin in the epidermis.
 Carotene. The amount of carotene deposited in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous
tissue; carotene is an orange-yellow pigment abundant in carrots and other orange, deep
yellow, or leafy green vegetables; the skin tends to take on a yellow-orange cast when the
person eats large amounts of carotene-rich foods.
 Hemoglobin. The amount of oxygen-rich hemoglobin in the dermal blood vessels.
 Emotions. Emotions also influence skin color, and many alterations in skin color signal certain
disease states.
 Redness or erythema. Reddened skin may indicate embarrassment, fever, hypertension,
inflammation, or allergy.
 Pallor or blanching. Under certain types of emotional stress, some people become pale; pale
skin may also signify anemia, low blood pressure, or impaired blood flow into the area.
 Jaundice or a yellow cast. An abnormal yellow skin tone usually signifies a liver disorder in
which excess bile pigments are absorbed into the blood, circulated throughout the body, and
deposited in body tissues.
 Bruises or black-and-blue marks. Black-and-blue marks reveal sites where blood has escaped
from circulation and have clotted in tissue spaces; such clotted blood masses are called
hematomas.
Hair Growth Cycle
 At any given time, a random number of hairs will be in one of three stages of growth and
shedding: anagen, catagen, and telogen.
 Anagen. Anagen is the active phase of hair; the cells in the root of the hair are dividing rapidly;
a new hair is formed and pushes the club hair (a hair that has stopped growing or is no longer
in the anagen phase) up the follicle and eventually out.
 Catagen. The catagen phase is a transitional stage; growth stops and the outer root sheath
shrinks and attaches to the root of the hair.
 Telogen. Telogen is the resting phase; during this phase, the hair follicle is completely at rest
and the club hair is completely formed.

Nervous System

Organization of the Nervous System

 We only have one nervous system, but, because of its complexity, it is difficult to consider all of
its parts at the same time; so, to simplify its study, we divide it in terms of its structures
(structural classification) or in terms of its activities (functional classification).
Structural Classification
 The structural classification, which includes all of the nervous system organs, has two
subdivisions- the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
 Central nervous system (CNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which occupy
the dorsal body cavity and act as the integrating and command centers of the nervous system
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS, the part of the nervous system outside the CNS,
consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord.
Functional Classification
 The functional classification scheme is concerned only with PNS structures.
 Sensory division. The sensory, or afferent division, consists of nerves (composed of nerve
fibers) that convey impulses to the central nervous system from sensory receptors located in
various parts of the body.
 Somatic sensory fibers. Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and
joints are called somatic sensory fibers.
 Visceral sensory fibers. Those that transmit impulses from the visceral organs are called
visceral sensory fibers.
 Motor division. The motor, or efferent division carries impulses from the CNS to effector
organs, the muscles, and glands; the motor division has two subdivisions: the somatic nervous
system and the autonomic nervous system.
 Somatic nervous system. The somatic nervous system allows us to consciously, or voluntarily,
control our skeletal muscles.
 Autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system regulates events that are
automatic, or involuntary; this subdivision, commonly called the involuntary nervous system,
has two parts: the sympathetic and parasympathetic, which typically bring about opposite
effects.
Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function
 Even though it is complex, nervous tissue is made up of just two principal types of cells-
1. supporting cells and
2. neurons.
Supporting Cells
 Supporting cells in the CNS are “lumped together” as neuroglia, which literally means “nerve
glue”.
 Neuroglia. Neuroglia includes many types of cells that generally support, insulate, and protect
the delicate neurons; in addition, each of the different types of neuroglia, also simply called
either glia or glial cells, has special functions.
 Astrocytes. These are abundant, star-shaped cells that account for nearly half of the neural
tissue; astrocytes form a living barrier between the capillaries and neurons and play a role in
making exchanges between the two so they could help protect neurons from harmful
substances that might be in the blood.
 Microglia. These are spiderlike phagocytes that dispose of debris, including dead brain cells
and bacteria.
 Ependymal cells. Ependymal cells are glial cells that line the central cavities of the brain and
the spinal cord; the beating of their cilia helps to circulate the cerebrospinal fluid that fills those
cavities and forms a protective cushion around the CNS.
 Oligodendrocytes. These are glia that wraps their flat extensions tightly around the nerve
fibers, producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin sheaths.
 Schwann cells. Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers that are found in
the PNS.
 Satellite cells. Satellite cells act as protective, cushioning cells.
 Neurons
 Neurons, also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses)
from one part of the body to another.
 Cell body. The cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron; it has a transparent nucleus
with a conspicuous nucleolus; the rough ER, called Nissl substance, and neurofibrils are
particularly abundant in the cell body.
 Processes. The armlike processes, or fibers, vary in length from microscopic to 3 to 4 feet;
dendrons convey incoming messages toward the cell body, while axons generate nerve
impulses and typically conduct them away from the cell body.
 Myelin sheaths. Most long nerve fibers are covered with a whitish, fatty material called myelin,
which has a waxy appearance; myelin protects and insulates the fibers and increases the
transmission rate of nerve impulses.
 Nodes of Ranvier. Because the myelin sheath is formed by many individual Schwann cells, it
has gaps, or indentations, called nodes of Ranvier.
 Functional classification. Functional classification groups neurons according to the direction
the nerve impulse is traveling relative to the CNS; on this basis, there are sensory, motor, and
association neurons.
 Sensory neurons. Neurons carrying impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS are sensory,
or afferent, neurons; sensory neurons keep us informed about what is happening both inside
and outside the body.
 Motor neurons. Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or muscles and
glands are motor, or efferent, neurons.
 Brain
 Because the brain is the largest and most complex mass of nervous tissue in the body,
 it is commonly discussed in terms of its four major regions –
1. cerebral hemispheres
2. diencephalon
3. brain stem
4. cerebellum.
Cerebral Hemispheres
 Parietal lobe. The primary somatic sensory area is located in the parietal lobe posterior to the
central sulcus; impulses traveling from the body’s sensory receptors are localized and
interpreted in this area.
 Occipital lobe. The visual area is located in the posterior part of the occipital lobe.
 Temporal lobe. The auditory area is in the temporal lobe bordering the lateral sulcus, and the
olfactory area is found deep inside the temporal lobe.
 Frontal lobe. The primary motor area, which allows us to consciously move our skeletal
muscles, is anterior to the central sulcus in the front lobe.
 Broca’s area. A specialized cortical area that is very involved in our ability to speak, Broca’s
area, is found at the base of the precentral gyrus (the gyrus anterior to the central sulcus).
 Speech area. The speech area is located at the junction of the temporal, parietal, and occipital
lobes; the speech area allows one to sound out words.
Diencephalon
 The diencephalon, or interbrain, sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral
hemispheres.
 Thalamus. The thalamus, which encloses the shallow third ventricle of the brain, is a relay
station for sensory impulses passing upward to the sensory cortex.
 Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus makes up the floor of the diencephalon; it is an important
autonomic nervous system center because it plays a role in the regulation of body
temperature, water balance, and metabolism; it is also the center for many drives and
emotions, and as such, it is an important part of the so-called limbic system or “emotional-
visceral brain”; the hypothalamus also regulates the pituitary gland and produces two
hormones of its own.
Brain Stem
 The brain stem is about the size of a thumb in diameter and approximately 3 inches long.
 Structures. Its structures are the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
 Midbrain. The midbrain extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly; it is
composed of two bulging fiber tracts, the cerebral peduncles, which convey descending and
ascending impulses.
 Corpora quadrigemina. Dorsally located are four rounded protrusions called the corpora
quadrigemina because they remind some anatomists of two pairs of twins; these bulging nuclei
are reflex centers involved in vision and hearing.
 Pons. The pons is a rounded structure that protrudes just below the midbrain, and this area of
the brain stem is mostly fiber tracts; however, it does have important nuclei involved in the
control of breathing.
 Medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata is the most inferior part of the brain stem; it
contains nuclei that regulate vital visceral activities; it contains centers that control heart rate,
blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting among others.
 Cerebellum
 The large, cauliflower-like cerebellum projects dorsally from under the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum.
 Structure. Like the cerebrum. the cerebellum has two hemispheres and a convoluted surface; it
also has an outer cortex made up of gray matter and an inner region of white matter.
 Function. The cerebellum provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and controls our
balance and equilibrium.
 Coverage. Fibers reach the cerebellum from the equilibrium apparatus of the inner ear, the
eye, the proprioceptors of the skeletal muscles and tendons, and many other areas.
Meninges
 Dura mater. The outermost layer, the leathery dura mater, is a double-layered membrane
where it surrounds the brain; one of its layers is attached to the inner surface of the skull,
forming the periosteum (periosteal layer); the other, called the meningeal layer, forms the
outermost covering of the brain and continues as the dura mater of the spinal cord.
 Falx cerebri. In several places, the inner dural membrane extends inward to form a fold that
attaches the brain to the cranial cavity, and one of these folds is the falx cerebri.
 Tentorium cerebelli. The tentorium cereberi separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum.
 Arachnoid mater. The middle layer is the weblike arachnoid mater; its threadlike extensions
span the subarachnoid space to attach it to the innermost membrane.
 Pia mater. The delicate pia mater, the innermost meningeal layer, clings tightly to the surface
of the brain and spinal cord, following every fold.
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery “broth” similar in its makeup to blood plasma, from which
it forms.
 Contents. The CSF contains less protein and more vitamin C, and glucose.
 Choroid plexus. CSF is continually formed from the blood by the choroid plexuses; choroid
plexuses are clusters of capillaries hanging from the “roof” in each of the brain’s ventricles.
 Function. The CSF in and around the brain and cord forms a watery cushion that protects the
fragile nervous tissue from blows and other trauma.
 Normal volume. CSF forms and drains at a constant rate so that its normal pressure and
volume (150 ml-about half a cup) are maintained.
 Lumbar tap. The CSF sample for testing is obtained by a procedure called lumbar or spinal
tap; because the withdrawal of fluid for testing decreases CSF fluid pressure, the patient must
remain in a horizontal position (lying down) for 6 to 12 hours after the procedure to prevent an
agonizingly painful “spinal headache”.