GEOGRAPHY NOTES

BGCSE

2021
CRACKIT TUITION
[BOBONONG]
Table of Contents
PHYSICAL WORLD 2
WEATHER AND CLIMATE 23
UTILISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCE 57
ENERGY- 77
ECONOMIC ACTIVTIES 82
AGRICULTURE 88
MINING 104
PROCESSING AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 109
POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT STUDIES 117
RESEARCH SKILLS 143
MAP READING 156

Section A
1
 PHYSICAL WORLD
The structure of the earth

The earth is made up of three main layers

 The crust
 The mantle
 The core

Crust- Mantle- Core-baryshpere

lithosphere mesosphere
Thickness Its thickness It is 2900km thick Outer -2175km
varies from place thick
to place

Temperature Cool Over 2000ْ ᵒc About 5500ºC

Mineral Continents- Iron, magnesium Iron and nickel

content granite (SIAL) and silica collectively
Oceans - basalt called NiFe
rocks (SIMA)
Position Outer most layer Middle layer Inner most
State Solid rocks Semi-liquid Inner core - solid
(molten) this is due to
pressure exerted
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 on it by the
other # layers

Outer core -
liquid

THE CRUST
 Makes up continents and oceans floors
 It consists of two parts that is granite (SIAL) and basalt rocks
(SIMA)

CONTINENTAL (Sial) OCEANIC (Sima)

Thickness 35 to 70 km on average 6 to 10km on average
Age of rocks Very old rocks of over Very young rocks of
1500 after death under 200 million
years
Weight of rocks Lighter with an average Heavier- average of 3.0
2.6
Nature of rocks Light in colour Dark in colour
Numerous types Few types
Granite Basalt

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

It was proposed by Alfred Wegner in 1912. He believed that about 300

million years ago, all existing continents were one super continent
called PANGEA. It later broke into 2 hemispheres, that is, the northern
and the southern hemisphere. The northern hemisphere was called
LAURASIA and the southern was called GONDWANALAND.

EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THE THEORY

 Different coastlines on the opposite sides of continents fit

like a jig-saw puzzle when put together e.g. eastern coast of
North America and western coast Europe
 Similar rock types and structure are found in Brazil and
West Africa
 Rocks of the same age are found along the western coast of

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 Africa and Eastern coast of Southern America
 Remains of dead plants and animals of the same type and
age are found along the eastern coast of America and west
coast of Africa.

PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

It was formulated in the 1960s by a number of scientists who studied

earthquakes and volcanic activities.

The theory is based on the premise that the earth’s crust consist of a
series of plates (continental and oceanic plates). The theory is about
the movement of plates and it tried to explain the continental drift
theory. It suggests that the continents and the ocean floors are
constantly in motion such that they move towards each other
(converge/collide) by forces of compression or away from each other
(diverge) by forces of tension. These plates are moved by convection
currents produced by the heat in the mantle

The continental plates (SIMA) carry continents while oceanic plates

(SIAL) carry oceans. According to the theory there are 10 plates.
These are:

The diversion and collision of plates results in the formulation of some

features such as:

 Zones of subduction
 Trench
 Mid-oceanic ridges
 Fold mountains
 Volcanic mountains chains etc

There are three types of margins found during plate movement

 Constructive
 Destructive
 Conservative/transform/passive

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 FOLDING

It refers to the bending of rocks due to plate movement

(compression).

Plate movement will result in rock layers having an up folded part

called an anticline and the down folded part called syncline.

The sides of a fold are called limbs.

TYPES OF FOLDS

1. Simple fold – formed when there is compression (almost of

equal strength) from both sides.
2. Asymmetrical fold – it forms when there is more pressure
exerted one limb. The pressure results in one limb becoming
steeper than the other due to the continued compression.
3. Overfold – more compression continues, resulting in one
limb being pushed over the other
4. Overthrust/thrust fault – there is more and more pressure
resulting in the rock cracking or developing a crack and one
of the limbs is pushed totally over the other one.

FORMATION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

There are 2 ways in which Fold Mountains can be formed.

1. Continental and oceanic plate collision/convergence

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  Oceanic and continental plates collide due to
compressional force
 Oceanic plate sinks (because it is denser) and continental
overrides ( this happens at the subduction zone)
 A trench/ geosyncline develops between the 2 plate
 Sediments are eroded from the continental plate and fill
in the trench layer after layer
 More sediments accumulate in the trench (as there is
continued erosion)
 Sediments are compressed and become compacted
together to form sedimentary rocks
 Continued compressional force the rocks to be uplifted,
crumpled, squeezed and stand up to form Fold
Mountains.

2. Continental and continental collision (e.g Eurasian plate and

African plate converging to give Atlas Mountains)

 2 continental plates collide due to compressional force

 Neither of the plates sink as they are of the same density
 Due to forces of collision, trench/geosyncline develops
 Sediments accumulates in the trench and due to the weight
of the sediments the continental floor subsides downwards
 The width of the trench decreases as there is continuous
compression causing the sediments to increase
 Sediments are compressed and become compacted
together to form horizontal sedimentary rocks
 Continued compressional force the rocks to be uplifted,
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 crumpled, squeezed and stand up to form Fold Mountains.

Examples of Fold Mountains

Old Young
Cape ranges (South Africa) Atlas (N. Africa)
Appalachians (N.America) Alps (Europe)
Urals Rockies (America)
Welsh (U.K) Himalayas (Asia) (collision of Indo-
Australian and Eurasian plate)

CHARACTERISTICS OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

 They have steep slopes

 They are of great vertical heights
 They have several peaks
 They have valleys
 They have parallel ranges
 They have lakes
 They are ice capped
 They have saddles
 They are usually forested

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OLD AND YOUNG FOLD MOUNTAINS

Old Young/old
They are low They are very high
They have a broad peak They have a sharp/narrow peak
They have a gentle slope They have steep slopes
Have shallow valleys Form deep narrow valleys
They are sparsely forested They are densely forested
Ice capped top

POSITIVE IMPACT OF FOLD MOUNTAINS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES

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 FEATURE HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Scenic beauty Tourism
Presence of mineral (in case of Mining
volcanic eruption)
Dense forests Lumbering
Rangelands Pastoral farming
Presence of lakes Arable and pastoral farming
Wind ward slope influencing Agriculture
relief rainfall
Presence of peaks Satellite installation for
communication purposes

OTHER IMPACTS OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

Positive
 They act as wind breakers
 They can used for defence
Negative
 Influences cold temperatures because of their heights
 Their steep sides result in thin soils
 They are climatic barriers as they influence less rain in the lee-
ward side
 They are barriers to construction of communication links e.g.
roads

DISTRIBUTION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

They are found where:

 Plates converge
 In destructive plate margins

FAULTING
Fracturing of earth crust due to compressional, tensional and lateral forces
Types of faults

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 1. Normal fault – it occurs when tensional forces acts on a rock
resulting in one part of the rock displaced up and the other
one thrown down. It may result in the formation of a rift valley.
An escarpment may be formed. An escarpment is a steep
slope formed on the raised block of a normal fault.
2. Reverse fault – it occurs when compressional forces acts on a
rock causing one block to be pushed up over the other block.
It may result in block mountains/horsts.
3. Tear fault – it occurs when tensional force acts on the crust
resulting in horizontal displacement of the crust.
4. Thrust fault – it occurs when intense compressional forces act
on a rock resulting in the rock cracking.

FORMATION OF RIFT VALLEYS

There are two theories that attempted to explain the formation of rift valleys.
One relies on the tensional forces and the other one on the compressional
forces

Compressional Tensional
4 lines The earth crust 4 lines The earth crust
experiences movement due to experiences movement due to
compressional tensional
4 lines Two parallel faults will 4 lines Two parallel faults will
develop develop
4 lines The block on either side of 4 lines The block in between
faults is pushed up/raises sinks/subsides
4 lines A low lying depression 4 lines It forms a depression like
called a rift valley is formed. The feature called a rift valley. The
raised blocks forms block raised blocks forms block
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mountains mountains

CASE STUDY: THE GREAT RIFT VALLEY OF AFRICA/ EAST AFRICAN

RIFT VALLEY

It is the largest rift valleys found around the world.

FEATURES OF THE GREAT RIFT VALLEY OF AFRICA

 It has parallel faults

 It has steep slopes
 It is 7200km long with 5600km in Africa
 It is between 30-100km wide
 It has 2 main branches
 It has several lakes .g Lake Malawi, Tanganyika, Turkana, Nyasa,
Albert, Rudolf
 It has volcanic mountains
 It has river e.g White and blue Nile
 It has deep valleys
 It has block mountains

IMPACTS OF RIFT VALLEYS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES

FEATURES HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Great scenic beauty major tourist attraction
Contain lakes and rivers great sources of water for
irrigation
Often have rich volcanic soils good for arable farming
Have dense forests good for lumbering
Volcanic activities influence mining
They influence relief rainfall good for farming

NEGATIVE IMPACT

FEATURES HUMAN ACTIVITIES

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 Steep slopes Influences soil erosion
Its relief Is a barrier to construction of
infrastructure

VULCANICITY

It is a process through which magma, ashes and gases are forced out
to the surface of the earth. The magma can appear as flowing lava,
volcanic bombs, fragments of rocks ash and dust.
Magma can reach the surface through a
o Vent (hole)
o Fissure (crack)

When magma emerges at the surface it loses its gases and it is called
lava.

HOW VOLCANOES ARE FORMED

- There is plate movement, either divergence or convergence
(this leads to zones of instability)
- The crust develops faults or cracks
- Pressure is released and magma from the mantle will rise
through the fault
- This results in eruptions accompanied by ashes,cinders,broken
rocks ( eruptions can be very explosive if magma has too much
gas)
- On reaching the earth surface, the magma loses its gases and
is called lava.
- The lava accumulates and features such as pipe, dykes,
conelets are formed.
- A cone shaped mound will be formed and thus a volcano.

EXAMPLES OF VOLCANOES IN AFRICA

- Mount Kilimanjaro – Tanzania

- Mount Kenya – Kenya
- Mount Cameroon – Cameroon
- Mount Drakensburg - South Africa
- Mount Nyiragongo – Democratic Republic of Congo

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 STAGES OF VOLCANOES

A volcano goes through 3 stages in its lifecycle:

1. Active- when a volcano is active and erupts frequently. There

are about 700 active volcanoes around the world e.g Mount
Etna, Mount St Helen in the USA, mount Cameroon.
2. Dormant/ sleeping volcano-these are volcanoes that erupt less
frequently or after a long time. E.g Mount Rainier (USA)
3. Extinct/dead volcano- volcanoes which has not erupted in their
known history or those that longer erupts e.g Mount Kilimanjaro
(Tanzania), Snowdon (Wales)

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

This refers to areas where volcanoes are mostly found. These include
the following:

- Along plate boundaries

- At the pacific ring of fire
- Areas of weakness in the crust e.g where faulting occurs
- Along mid-oceanic ridges
- In volcanic islands e.g Madagascar
- Western coast of South America
- At the Great Rift Valley of Africa
- On the North East of Asia
- In the Caribbean Islands

INTRUSIVE AND EXTRUSIVE VOLCANIC FEATURES

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INTRUSIVE FEATURES
These are volcanic features which are formed within the crust. They
are formed when magma cools and solidifies in the crust before
reaching the earth surface. Examples are:

1. Batholith
They are formed when magma accumulates and cools before
reaching the surface of the earth. It normally forms the base of
a mountain. Due to erosion, the batholiths may be exposed to
the surface e.g Nyika Batholoth in Malawi

2. Laccolith
They form when magma solidifies along the crust forming a flat
based,round topped feature fed by a pipe e.g Elkoub Oup in
Algeria

3. Lipolith
Magma solidifies along the crust forming a saucer-like
depression e.g Bushveld region in South Africa

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 4. Dyke
Magma finds its way and cuts across the crust and forms a wall
-like feature along line of weakness e.g Dolorite in Lesotho

5. Sill
Magma penetrates horizontally along the crust and solidifies to
form a sill. E.g Three Sisters in the Cape Province of South
Africa

EXTRUSIVE FEATURES

These are volcanic features which are formed when the magma,
ashes and gases reaches the earth surface and loses its gases to
become lava.

EXAMPLES OF EXTRUSIVE FEATURES

Volcanic mountains
Lava plateau
Caldera
Geysers
Hot springs etc

TYPES OF LAVA

BASIC/FLUID ACID/VISCOUS
o highly fluid o highly viscous
o dark coloured o light coloured
o low silica content o high silica content
o erupts frequently and less o erupts less frequently and
explosive violently
o form gentle slopes o form steep slopes
o takes a longer time to cool o cools and solidifies fast
and solidify therefore flows therefore flows very short
longer distances distances
4 LINES 4 LINES

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FEATURES OF VOLCANOES

o Pipe- the channel through which lava rises

o Crater- a shallow depression found at the top of the volcano
o Vent- the opening/hole on the ground through which magma is
release
o Conelets – the small parasitic cones that build when magma
escapes on the sides of the volcano
o Geysers – when super heated water underground shoots/erupts
explosively often forming a natural fountain e.g at the
Yellowstone National Park (USA)
o Caldera – this is an enlarged crater. Can be formed in two ways,
through
- a violent eruption ( when magma erupts violently and the
crater is blown away resulting in a very wide depression)
- Subsidence- when the mountain becomes too tall and collapses
forming a wide depression at the top.
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o Caldera/crater lake- forms when the crater or caldera is filled
with water and becomes a lake e.g Lake Basumtwi in Ghana
(caldera), Ngorongoro in Tanzania (crater)
o Plug – forms when magma hardens within a vent on an active
volcano.
o Dome – forms when viscous lava erupts slows and solidifies to
form a roughly circular mound shape protrusion.

1. Lava cone- it is made up of lava. Its slope depends on whether

the lava is fluid or viscous. Fluid lava forms gentle sided slopes
and vicious forms steep sided slopes. E.g Nyamlagira near Lake
Kivu in DRC (fluid lava) and Hoggar mountains in Algeria
(viscous)

2. Composite cone- it is formed of alternating layers of lava and

ash. The volcano begins each eruption with great violence
forming a layer of ash. As the eruption proceeds, the violence
stops and lava pours forming a layer on the top of the ash. It
has a large crater which smaller develops. Conelets may also
form on the sides of the main cone E.g Mt Kilimanjaro

3. Ash and cinder – is formed when lava is blown to great heights

when it is violently ejected and it breaks into small fragments
which fall back to earth and build up to form a steep sided
cone.

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IMPACTS OF VOLCANOES ON HUMAN BEINGS

Positive/advantages

FEATURE HUMAN ACTIVITY

Fertile volcanic soils Arable production
Great scenic beauty encourages tourism e.g Mount
Kilimanjaro

Presence of minerals encourages mining

Give rise to important caldera and Domestic and industrial water

crater lakes supply

Give rise to important caldera and Fishing

crater lakes
Give rise to important caldera and Irrigation
crater lakes
Hot springs for medical purposes

Geysers For geo-thermal power

Thick forests for lumbering

Negative/disadvantages

o Danger/destruction of human life and property during eruptions

o Very cold because of great heights
o Some have steep slope hence have thin soils for agriculture to
be carried out

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 o Destroys the vegetation
o Causes environmental pollution in the form of dust and gases
(carbon monoxide)
o People can become ill because of breathing in ash and
poisonous gases.
o Presence of lahar ( mudflow which is a mixture of ash and
water) which blocks roads and railway lines also making
communication difficult

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF VOLCANOES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

 Causes pollution with volcanic gases and dust

 Triggers earthquakes
 Destroys the vegetation
 Causes Tsunamis/tidal waves which leads to floods which drowns and
kills people destroy people’s property
 Causes acidic and thin soil
FISSURE ERUPTION

 It is a huge upland which is flat at the top with steep sides

 It is usually very quiet
 The lava comes out through fissures or small cracks in the earth’s
crust
 The lava spreads out over the surrounding area layer upon layer to
form a lava platea

WHY SOME VOLCANOES ERUPT VIOLENTLY.

Magma contains gases, which are under great pressure. In some,

there is a sudden decrease in pressure in the rising magma and this
causes the gases in it to expand very rapidly. The sudden expansion
can cause violent explosions.

WHY SOME AREAS IN AFRICA EXPERIENCE VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

 Some areas are near areas of instability/plate boundaries

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  Some areas experience earth movements due to tension and
compression forces
 Some areas have cracks or are experiencing faulting
 Some areas experience tremors /earthquakes

EVIDENCE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY IN AFRICA

 Presence of volcanic mountains
 Low lakes/calderas
 Associated volcanic features-intrusive features (batholiths, laccoliths,
sills, dykes) and extrusive features (hot springs, lava plateaus, geysers,
craters)

WHY SOME VOLCANIC SLOPES ARE SPARCELY POPULATED WHILE SOME

ARE DENSELY POPULATED

SPARCELY DENSELY
- Still active - Are dormant/extinct
- Have steep slopes - Have gentle slopes
- Are too cold - Water supply from lakes
- Have thin/infertile soils - Have fertile soils
- Rarefied air - Have clean air
- Little rainfall - Have adequate rain fall
- Prone to - Presence of pastures
diseases/pests/epidemics
- Acid rain - Ancestral connections
- Employment opportunities in
hotels for tourism
- Availability of forests for
lumbering

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EARTHQUAKES

Earthquake: The vibration/shaking or sudden movement of the earth crust.

Seismology: the study of earthquakes

Seismologist: a scientist who studies earthquakes

Plate collision also results in the faulting of the crystal rocks thereby
creating fractures or cracks through which magma can escape. When
vulcanicity occurs, the earth crust is bound to shake, thus, earthquakes and
volcanic actions and often associated.

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
1. Collision of tectonic plates along a line of fault
2. volcanic eruptions

REGIONS OF EARTHQUAKES/DISTRIBUTION

- Along plate boundaries

- At the pacific ring of fire
- Areas of weakness in the crust e.g where faulting occurs
- Along mid-oceanic ridges
- In volcanic islands e.g Madagascar
- Western coast of South America
- At the Great Rift Valley of Africa
- On the North East of Asia

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NATURE OF EARTH QUAKES

The point at which an earthquake originates is called the focus. This takes
place several kilometers below the earth’ surface. The energy in an
earthquake travels as SHOCK WAVES from the focus.
The type of shockwaves known as BODYWAVE travels through the crust to
hit the surface of the earth. The point at which the surface is first hit is
called EPICENTRE.
From the epicenter, shockwaves travel as SURFACE WAVES and spread to
affect a wider area of the earth’s surface.

There are two types of body waves which are:

Primary wave - causes crustal waves to move or shake back and forth

Secondary waves – causes crustal rocks to move from side to side

There are two types of surface waves namely:

Love wave – causes rocks to dance from side to side at right angle to
the direction of wave movement
Rayleigh waves – causes rocks to vibrate in a vertical circular
movement

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 HOW EARTHQUAKES OCCUR

- There plate movement/collision of plates

- Faulting/folding occurs
- Pressure/energy is released at the focus
- Shockwaves radiate outwards/towards the epicenter
- Vibrations are felt
- The minor vibrations cause tremors and major vibrations causes
earthquakes.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

o They can destroy buildings, communication systems and other

infrastructure e.g roads, telephone and electric poles
o They can cause displacement of oceanic floors which result in
flooding of coastal settlements
o They may destroy natural vegetation and animal habitat
o Can cause loss of life/injuries
o Can cause tidal waves/tsunamis
o Can cause mud flows
o Destroy the earth’s scenery by opening up deep cracks.
o May lead to displacement of people/relocation
o May cause destruction of farmland
o May cause outbreak of fires

HOW THE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES CAN BE REDUCED

o Predicting future earthquakes/early warning e.g planning

earthquake regularity
o Formation of disaster plans e.g training emergency services
such as fire, police and ambulance crews
o Construction of earthquake resistance building e.g use of steel
frames which can sway during earthquakes
o Evacuation/ use of rescue teams
o Education about earthquakes
o Construction of roads which provide quick access for
emergency services
o Enforcing strict building regulations

WHY IMPACTS OF EARTHQUAKES VARY FROM PLACE TO PLACE

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  Time of the day- during there could be fewer impacts since people
are awake and can easily and quickly respond unlike at night.
 Distance from the epicenter- places nearer to the epicenter will
experience more damage than those far.
 Structure of the rocks – places with strong rock base may experience
less damage as compared to those with weak rock bases.
 Depth of the focus - the deeper the focus the lesser the impact of
the earthquakes and vice versa. This is because as shock waves travel
longer distances to reach the earth surface they lose their strength.
 Strength of the earthquake – stronger earth has larger impacts and
vice versa.
 Population size – places with less people have less impacts and vice
versa.
 Distance from the sea – places closer to the sea maybe affected by
flooding and tsunamis as compared to those which are far.

DETECTING EARTHQUAKES

The intensity of earthquakes refers to the effort produced or the strength of

an earthquake. It is detected by an instrument called SEISMOGRAPH.

The magnitude (size) of an earthquake is the total amount of energy

produced. It is measured or recorded on a RICHTER SCALE, which ranges
from 0 to 9.

The greater the reading on the ritcher scale, the greater the extent of
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damage caused on the earth’s surface.

WHY INTERIORS OF MOST CONTINETS DO NOT EXPERIENCE

EARTHQUAKES

 It is far away from plate boundaries

 They are no plate boundaries
 It has stable plates/rigid plates

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather – the average condition of the atmosphere observed over a short
period of time

Climate - the average condition of the atmosphere observed over a long

period of time

Elements of weather need to be measured in order to obtain a picture of

the weather. A weather station is a place where the weather elements are
measured and recorded. Each weather station has a Stevenson’s screen. The
Stevenson’s screen contains four thermometers: namely:

- The maximum thermometer

- Minimum thermometer
- The wet bulb thermometer
- The dry bulb thermometer

CHARACTERISTICES OF A STEVENSON’S SCREEN

FEATURE REASON/ JUSTIFICATION

It is white in colour To reflect sun’s rays
It has louvers To allow free air circulation
It is made of wood Wood is a bad conductor of heat
It is double roofed To insulate it from the sun’s heat
It has a sloppy roof To shed away rain water
It is raised 121cm above the ground To avoid water and heat from the
ground

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MEASURING AND RECORDING TEMPERATURE
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE
The maximum thermometer is used to measure the maximum temperature
of the day.

How it works

When temperature rises, the mercury expands and pushes the index along
the tube. When the temperature falls, the mercury contracts and the index
remain behind. The maximum temperature is read at the bottom of the
index.
In the example above, the maximum temperature to be recorded is 30ᵒC.
After taking the reading a magnet is used to draw the index back to the
meniscus. This is called RESETTING.

MINIMUM TEMPERATURE

The minimum thermometer is used to measure the minimum temperature of

the day.

How it works

When temperatures fall, alcohol contracts and pulls the index down above
the tube. When the temperature rises, alcohol expands but the index
remains behind. The minimum temperature is obtained or read by reading
the scale at the end of the index which was in contact with the meniscus.
The instrument is reset by shaking it.
In the example above, the minimum temperature to be recorded is 15ᵒC.

SIX’S THERMOMETER
It is U shaped and has a round bulb and a conical bulb. The round bulb on
the left side is filled with alcohol (measures minimum temperature) , the
conical bulb on the right side is filled with mercury (measuring maximum
temperature).

25
How it works

 When temperature rises, alcohol on the left expands and this causes
the mercury to flow on the left side.
 As mercury flow upwards, it pushes up the metal index, thus
recording maximum temperature.
 When temperature drops, alcohol contracts and flows on the reserve
direction forcing the index on the left to go up thus recording
minimum temperature.
 The reading on both sides of the tubes is taken on the bottom side of
the metal index.

TEMPERATURE STATISTICS

 MEAN DAY TEMEPRATURE – this is the average day temperature. It is

calculated by adding the minimum temperature of the day and

26
 dividing by 2.
e.g. max 19
min 17

Calculate the mean for the day

 MEAN MONTH TEMPERATURE – this is the average temperature of

the month. It is calculated by adding the mean day temperatures and
dividing by the number of days in that month.
 MEANS ANNUAL TEMPERATURE – this is the average temperature of
the year. It is calculated by adding the mean month temperatures and
dividing by 12.
 DAILY RANGE OF TEMPARATURE – it is obtained by subtracting the
minimum reading from the maximum reading of the day.
E.g. max 22
mini 20

Calculate the daily range of temperature

 MONTHLY RANGE OF TEMPERATURE – it is obtained by subtracting

the lowest mean day temperature from the highest mean day
temperature
 ANNUAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE – it is obtained by subtracting
the lowest mean month temperature from the highest mean month
temperature.

DESCRIBING TEMPERATURE

Temperature Describing words

Below -10 Very cold
-10 to 0 Cold
0 to 10 Cool

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10 to 21 Warm
21 to 30 Hot
Over 30 Very hot

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEMEPTRATURE

1. Cloud cover – lowers the day time temperature by reducing the amount
of incoming solar radiation, keeping the night warmer by reducing loss of
out emitted radiant heat.

2. Latitude

Low (Equator) High (Polar)

Sun almost directly over head Sun’s heat received at oblique angles
resulting in high temperature resulting in low temperatures
Solar rays travel shorter distance to Rays travel long distances resulting
equator resulting in high temperature in heat loss thus low temperatures
Heat concentrated over a smaller Heat concentrated in large area
area resulting in high temperatures resulting in low temperature

3. Altitude
This refers to the height of relief above sea level. Water vapour and dust in
the air prevent heat formed at the surface of the earth from rapidly passing
back into space. At high altitudes e.g on the top of mountains, the air is
rarefied and it contains less dust and water vapour. The heat from the
earth’s surface therefore rapidly escapes and the air remains cold.

4. Distance from the sea

Summer Winter
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Sea absorbs heat slowly Sea loses heat slowly
Land absorbs heat slows Land loses heat quickly
Coastal areas affected by cool Coastal areas affected by war breeze
breeze from the sea from the sea
Continents are hot Continents are cold

5. Aspect
Aspect is the direction in which the land faces. Slopes, which face the north
in the southern hemisphere, will receive more heat in winter than those
facing south.

6. Ocean currents
Warm currents raise the temperature in coastal areas while cold currents
from oceans decrease temperatures of coastal areas. The temperature is
modified by cool sea breeze or land breeze.

MEASURING AND RECORDING HUMIDITY

HUMIDITY
This refers to water vapour in the air. The instrument used for measuring
humidity is the hygrometer or wet and dry bulb thermometers.

29
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
This is the ratio between the content of water vapor in the air and the
maximum amount the air can hold at a given temperature, expressed as a
percentage.

HOW A HYGROMETER WORKS

 A hygrometer consists of two ordinary thermometers which are
the dry bulb and the wet bulb thermometers.
 The wet bulb thermometer is wrapped with a muslin cloth
which is attached to a wick.
 The wick is dipped in a small container of distilled water to
keep the bulb wet.
 The reading of the wet bulb thermometer is always lower than
that of the dry bulb because when evaporation takes place it
causes cooling and contraction of the thermometer so it shows
a lower temperature/reading.
 When the air is dry, there will be high evaporation from the
cloth and the thermometer will show low readings.
 When the air is very humid, the evaporation is low so the
temperature is not influenced very much.
 The dry bulb thermometer does not have a muslin cloth and it
measures the temperature of dry air.
The readings of the two thermometers are used to calculate the
relative humidity. The difference between the readings of the two
thermometers is called the wet bulb depression. When the wet and
dry bulb thermometers have the same reading we say the air is
saturated.

READING THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY

TABLE OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY VALUES

DRY BULB WET BULB DEPRESSION

30
 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
20 100 80 79% 74% 69% 67%
%
21 100 80 75% 73% 69% 65%
%
22 100 80 76% 73% 67% 64%
%
23 100 80 75% 71% 67% 60%
%

1. Find the difference between the wet bulb and dry bulb reading
to get the wet bulb depression
2. Refer to the relative humidity table/values
3. Find the coordinating point of the dry bulb and the wet bulb
depression
4. Read the figure at the coordinating point as the relative
humidity in percentage.
N.B - when the difference between the two readings is zero, relative
humidity is 100%/air saturated.
- When the difference is small or little, relative humidity will be
high
- When the difference is large, relative humidity will be low.

CALCULATING RELATIVE HUMIDITY

WET BULB READING 21ᵒC

DRY BULB READING 23ᵒC
(Do the calculations)

RAINFALL
Rainfall refers to the amount of water droplets which fall from the sky when
clouds become saturated with water particles. Rainfall is one form of
precipitation. Other forms are snow, hail, fog etc Rainfall is measured by an
instrument called a rain gauge.

31
HOW RAINFALL IS MEASURED AND RECORDED
 The amount of rainfall is collected in the collecting jar.

 The collected rainfall is then carefully poured into a measuring

cylinder marked in millimeters
 The cylinder is then placed on a flat surface
 The reading is taken from the bottom part of the meniscus and
recorded in millimeters after every 24 hrs

POSITIONING OF THE RAINGAUGE

1. Away from buildings to avoid destructions and runoff from roof

tops
2. Away from trees to avoid destructions from the tree leaves.

32
 3. It must be put at least one meter above the ground to prevent
splashes going into the gauge and to avoid heat from the
ground.
4. The ground around the rain gauge should preferably be grassy
to avoid rain splashing into the funnel
5. It must be placed upright to collect the rain

TYPES OF RAINFALL

Relief/orographic rainfall
Relief refers to the shape of the landscape. Relief rainfall is influenced by
high landscapes e.g mountains

HOW IT IS FORMED
WINDWARD SIDE
 It occurs when on-shore winds (winds from the sea to land)
carry warm moisture with them up a mountain slope.
 As air rises, it expands and absorbs more moisture
 The air becomes saturated
 It then cools and condenses to form clouds (tiny water droplets)
 When the water droplets become too heavy and cannot be
held in the atmosphere, they fall as rain.
There are two sides of the mountain that is, the leeward and the wind ward
side. The wind ward side receives more rain than the leeward side. This is
so because

WIND WARD LEEWARD

Warm moist air Cool dry air
Has less density and rises Has high density and descends
Expands Contracts
Pressure decreases Pressure increases
Air cools Air warms
Condensation No condensation
Air ascends Air descends

33
COVENCTIONAL RAINFALL
It occurs when air immediately above the ground surface is heated so that
convection currents are set up. The warm air is lighter in density; therefore
it will expand and rise. The warm moist air will be cooled and gets saturated.
The moisture contained in the air condenses to form clouds which will fall
as rain.
1. Solar radiation heats the air above the ground.
2. The air sets up convectional currents, expands, rises and
absorbs moisture
3. The air becomes saturated
4. At condensation level the moisture in the air condenses to form
clouds
5. When the water droplets become too heavy and cannot be held
in the atmosphere, they fall as rain.
6. Cool, dry air which is heavier descends to replace warm air so
that the cycle continues.
Characteristics of convectional rainfall
- Fall in the late afternoon
- Intense or heavy rainfall
- Accompanied by thunder and lightening
- Brought by cumulonimbus clouds
- Sudden down pours
- Has large drops

FRONTAL/CYCLONIC/DEPRESSION RAINFALL

 It occurs when two air masses converge (meet) in the

atmosphere.
 Cold air which is dense tends to be displaced downwards (i.e. it
descends or falls) whilst warm air which is light turns to rise
34
 over the descending cold air.
 The rising warm air expands and absorbs moisture.
 It gets cooled and condensed to form clouds.
 When the water droplets become too heavy and cannot be held
in the atmosphere, they fall as rain.

The line of separation between the two air masses is called the front.
The part of a front is ahead of the warm mass is called the warm
front ( ). The part of the front ahead of the cold air mass is
called cold front ( ). The area between the warm front and the
cold front is calle’’’warmm sector. The two air masses are different in
terms of their temperature, density and moisture content.

CLOUDS

Clouds are made up of tiny water droplets or ice particles. The shape,
height and movement of clouds can indicate the type of weather that
may occur in the region. The lines drawn through places having the
same amount of clouds cover are called isonephs. Cloud cover is not
measured y an instrument but it is estimated by observing in oktas
(eights). One oktas represents 1/8 of the sky covered by clouds. The
symbols are as follows:

35
Clouds are classified according to their appearance, form and height.
There are four main groups of clouds and several types of clouds that
fall into these groups.

The following are roots and translations of the names of the clouds:

Cirro – curl of hair, high

Strato – layer
Alto – mid
Nimbo – rain, precipitation
Cumulo- heap

GROUPS, TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT CLOUDS

HIGH CLOUDS

They occur above 6000 meters above sea level and are given the

36
prefix “cirro”. Due to cold temperatures at these levels, the clouds are
composed of ice crystals. They are often thin, striped and white. The
main types of high clouds are;
1. Cirrus
- Composed of ice crystals
- White in colour
- Fibrous looking
- Feather-like in appearance
- Are often the first sign of an approaching warm front (as they
thicken into cirro-stratus)

2. Cirro-cumulus
- Appear as small, rounded white puffs that appear in long rows
- Form thin clouds
- Composed of ice crystals
- Seen in winter and indicate fair but cold weather

3. Cirro-stratus
- Sheet-like high clouds that often cover the entire sky
- Thin white- almost transparent that the sun can be seen
through them
- Usually come 12-24 hours before a rain or snow storm
MIDDLE CLOUDS
They are given the prefix “alto” and appear between 2100 and 6000
meters above sea level.
1. Alto-stratus
- Composed of water droplets and ice crystals
- Usually cover the entire sky

37
 - They often form ahead of storms with continuous rain or snow

2. Alto-cumulus
- Composed of water droplets
- Appear as grey puffy masses
- Usually form in groups
- Forms ahead of thunderstorms
- Heap-like in appeareance
LOW CLOUDS
Are not given any prefix, although their names are derived from
“strato” or “cumulo” depending on their characteristics
1. Stratus
- Grayish clouds that often cover the entire sky
- Resemble fog that doesn’t reach ground level
- Brings mist or drizzle

2. Strato-cumulus
- Puffy and grey looking
- Most form in rows with blue sky visible in between them
- Rain rarely occurs but they can turn into nimbostratus clouds

3. Nimbo-stratus
- Dark grey
- Associated with continuously falling rain or snow
- Often produce precipitation that is usually light to moderate
rain
- Dense and shapeless

38
 - Thick

CLOUDS OF GREAT VERTICAL EXTENT

1. Cumulus
- White, puffy clouds that look like pieces of floating cotton
- Often associated with fair-weather
- Has flat base and the top of each cloud has rounded tops
- They grow upward and can develop into giant cumulonimbus
clouds

2. Cumulo-nimbus
- White or black in colour
- Summit like towers and mountains
- Often indicate convectional rainfall with thunder and lightening

WINDS
Wind is air in motion. It has both direction and speed. When leaves
39
fall, trees sway and dust particles move up we realize that wind is
blowing.

Wind direction

An instrument that is used to indicate the direction of wind is called

wind vane. A wind vane needs to be erected in an exposed position
to get the right direction. It is made up of two parts. One part is an
arrow/vane which is free to move with prevailing winds. The other
part is the compass point to show the direction the wind is moving
from.

Prevailing winds – common winds

40
Wind rose
A wind rose is used for recording the direction of prevailing winds of a place
over a period of a month. It consists of an octagon with 8 compass points.
Each of the small rectangles represents the date/direction in which the wind
comes from. Those days which are still are recorded in the box of calms and
the number of calm days is indicated in the centre of the octagon.

41
Wind speed
Wind speed is measured with an instrument called cup anemometer. It
consists of:
1. four semi-circular cups
2. horizontal spokes/arms
3. vertical shaft/mast/spindle
4. speed meter/dial

The semi circular cups are attached to the ends of the horizontal arms,
mounted on the vertical shaft. When there is wind the cups rotate, so the
stronger the wind the faster the rotation. The number of rotations is
recorded on the meter give the speed of wind in km/h.

42
SYMBOLS USED TO DESCRIBE WIND SPEED

43
SUNSHINE

The amount of sunshine a place receives depends on the seasons, factor

determine by latitude and by the position of the earth in its revolution
around the sun. At the meteorological station, sunshine duration (length) is
recorded by a sunshine recorder. It consists of a glass sphere attached to a
metal frame. Underneath this glass sphere is a sensitised card, which is
graduated in hours and minutes.

How it works

 When the sun shines, the glass sphere is focused onto the card.
 As the sun moves across the sky from east to west, a trace of
burn develops on the card.
 The trace of burn can only be seen when the sun shines.
 After 24hrs the card is taken out and the length of the trace is
considered and converted into hours and minutes to find out
the total amount of sunshine for a particular day.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Air is made up of gases and therefore it has a weight which exerts more
pressure on the earth surface.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PRESSURE

ALTITUDE

Since air exerts a downward force on the earth surface, its pressure will be
greatest near the earth surface and lower at a higher altitude. This is
because at lower areas air has to support a greater weight of air than at
high areas. Therefore air pressure increases with decreasing altitude. When
air descends its pressure increases and when air rises its pressure decreases

TEMPERATURE

Temperature increases with decreasing pressure. When temperature rises,

44
the air expands and its molecules move wide apart, therefore pressure of
the air will decrease. when air is cooled it contracts and when this happens
the outward pressure of the molecules is spread over a smaller area. This
means that the pressure of the air increases. The pressure of air increases
when its temperature falls.

EARTH ROTATION
When the earth rotates, the air molecules at the north and the south poles
will be thrown away to the equator. in theory this should result in air piling
up along the equator to make the pressure at the equator to be high.

But temperature tends to make the process a bit complicated. This is

because low temperatures at the poles cause the air to contract – high
pressure develops. High temperatures along equator cause air to expand-
low pressure develops.
Air pressure is measured by an instrument known as barometer. It is
measured in millibars (mb). There are two types of barometers, an aneroid
barometer and a mercury barometer.

ANEROID BAROMETER

It consists of a metal box with air completely drawn out so that there is no
pressure acting inside the box.

45
HOW IT WORKS
 When pressure increases, the metal box lid collapses/moves
inwards
 The movement of the box activates the lever system/the lever
system moves
 The pointer/dial moves to the right when pressure is high
 When pressure decreases the metal box lid springs
upwards/outwards
 The dial/pointer will move to the left to register low pressure
MERCURY BAROMETER

46
It consists of mercury in a container and a glass tube placed into the
mercury.
 At sea level the air pressure supports the level of mercury at
about 760mm high
 When air pressure increases, it presses on the surface of the
container
 When air pressure reduces, there is less pressure on the
mercury in the container allowing the mercury to flow down the
tube
 A scale places against the tube helps read the amount of air
pressure acting on the surface.
N.B: any reading below 1000 means low pressure, while that above 1000
means high pressure

THE DISTRIBUTION OF WORLD PRESSURE BELTS AND PLANETARY

WINDS

Air pressure has some influence on the direction of winds, thus winds tend
to blow from areas of high pressure to those of low pressure. The winds are
named after the direction they blow from.
Prevailing winds/planetary winds
These are winds that blow often. The earth rotation causes the winds to be
deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere. The force that makes the deflection is known as the
Coriolis force.

47
There are 3 major wind types in each hemisphere

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

1. North Easterly Polar winds

They blow from polar high pressure areas to low pressure
temperate belts
2. South Westerly winds
Blow from subtropical high pressure belts to temperate low
pressure belts
3. North Easterly Trade winds
Blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the

48
 doldrums (along the equator)

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

1. South Easterly Polar winds

Blow from the polar high pressure belts towards the temperate
low pressure belts
2. North Easterly winds
Blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belt to the temperate
low pressure belts
3. South Easterly Trade Winds
Blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the
doldrums.

INTERTROPICAL CONVEGENCE

The climate of Africa is greatly influenced by the movement of air masses i.e.
maritime (wind blown from the sea) and the continental. The point where
the air masses meet is called Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

TROPICAL CYCLONE
Tropical cyclones occur where two tropical air masses meet along the ITCZ
front. This area is an area of intense pressure. The isobars are closely
spaced and they form a circular shape. Strong winds spiral towards the
center rushing upwards with great force in area called vortex, which
surrounds the centre of the eye of the cyclone. The rapid raising air gives
rise to torrential/heavy rains and strong wind which cause damage to
building and vegetation.

HOW A TROPICAL CYCLONE DEVELOPE

There are three conditions necessary for tropical cyclones to develop.
 A sufficient sources of moist air of temperatures of about 27
degrees Celsius near the sea surface
 The air must be blowing inwards and rising rapidly to great
heights to give cloud of great vertical extends which are
capable of providing rain

49
  There must be an outward flow of air at the upper level.
LA NINA
It is a weather condition that is influenced by excessive cooling of the
tropical Pacific Ocean. It results into cold conditions. When air rises
over the continents during summer, cooler moist air from the sea
moves in to replace it. The air which moves away over the continents
eventually descends over the sea. As it descends it accumulates
moisture and creeps back into the continents. The circular movement
of air between the continents and oceans described above is known
as the walker circulation. The winds which blow from over the seas
known as the trade winds, brings in moisture and rain to the
continents.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

- It brings floods
- It causes soil erosion
- It causes leaching of the soils
- Fields become water logged
- Destruction of infrastructure
SOCIAL IMPACTS

- Leads to starvation
- Can cause loss of life
- Causes damage of infrastructure
- Can cause diseases such as malaria
ECONOMIC IMPACTS

- Decreases crop production

- Causes rise in prices
- Causes loss of jobs

50
EL-NINO

It is a weather condition that is influences by excessive warming of

the tropical Pacific Ocean. It results into droughts and low crop yields
in Southern Africa.
During El Niño periods the walker circulation is changed. Instead of air
mostly rising above the continents in summer, it rises above the seas.
Why this happens is not exactly known but it is believed that the
heating affects of volcanic eruptions, which cause the temperature of
the sea to rise cause it. The rising air over the sea reverses the walker
circulation.

THE HISTORY OF ELNINO

 It was discovered in 1567
 The name ‘EL nino’ comes from Peruvian fishermen who were
fishing along the western shore of South America
 They noticed that normally cold water that flowed from the north
to the south became warm.
 The water therefore was not good for fishing
 At the same time, this brought a long period of drought and lack
of fish and sometimes torrential rains that swiped out all the
crops in southern Africa.
 Therefore the fishermen named it El nino, which is a Spanish
word for ‘little one or Christ’s child’

El Nino events come every three to seven years. These events can
last for many months or persist for more than a month.

IMPACTS OF EL-NINO ON THE ENVIRONMENT

- Results in very high temperatures

- Causes lack of rainfall
- Can cause veld fires
- Results in warm winters

51
 - Can result in droughts
- Results in low crop yields
EFFECTS OF ELNINO ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN BOTSWANA AND
SOUTHERN AFRICA
 crop failure/shortage of food
 animals/livestock die
 migration to urban areas
 loss of income

EFFORTS MADE BY THE GOVERNMENT TO REDUCE THE IMPACTS

OF EL-NINO
- Observing the tropical pacific zone
- Availing weather forecast to the public in advance
- Educating people about the impacts/dangers of elnino
- Prediction of elnino
Therefore the ability to anticipate how the climate will change
from year to year will lead to better management of agriculture,
water supplies and fisheries in Southern Africa.

CLIMATIC REGIONS IN AFRICA

The world is divided into several climatic regions of zones, each with its own
climatic characteristics, related natural vegetation and associated human
activities.

EQUATORIAL CLIMATE

LOCATION
It is located in the low land between 5ᵒC north and 5ْ ᵒC south along the
equator. This type of climate is experienced in the Congo basin, south

52
western Nigeria, South western Ghana and the southern part of the Ivory
Coast.
CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS

 It is hot, wet and humid throughout the year

 It lies along the doldrums low
 It has little variation in mean monthly temperature with an average
monthly range of about 3°C
 It receives heavy rainfalls throughout the year due to low pressure
cells lying over the region.
 The rainfall type received is convectional which is accompanied by
thunderstorms, lightning and hail.
 The rain falls mostly in the afternoons
 There is one uniform season
 Mean monthly temperatures are around 27°C
 Thick clouds and high humidity are present most of the time (they
prevent day temperatures from rising too high and night temperatures
falling too low

E.g

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temp 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 30 30 26 26 26
in °C
Rain 230 220 250 200 150 60 50 25 30 80 150 175
in mm

8 lines

WHY TEMPERATURES DO NOT RISE TOO HIGH IN THE EQUATORIAL

 Thick cloud cover
 High humidity
 Dense vegetation

NATURAL VEGETATION

The climatic condition of the abundant rainfall and uniform temperature

53
throughout the year favors tree growth. Trees are tall and broad leaved
making up a forest called equatorial rainforest or tropical green.

Description of the rainforest

1. The trees form 3 layers

 top layer- consists of tall trees, which grow up to 45m tall and
form a continuous thick canopy
 middle layer- consists of thick stemmed trees, which grow up
to 30m tall e.g palm trees, ferns etc
 Bottom layer- consists mostly of herbaceous plants which grow
from stems of other trees. The layer grows up to 18m tall
2. Most trees are broad leaved and are ever green e.g mahogany,
greenheart, ebony and rose wood
3. Plants bear fruits and flower throughout the year because there are
no seasons.
4. It has a variety of plants species which includes
creepers,ferns,herbs,shrubs etc
5. The tall trees form a continuous canopy which hinders the growth of
short plants and grass
6. Most plants have drip tips which enables them to shed excess water
7. The grass that is available there is the tall grass which is not
nutritious
8. Vegetation near rivers or clearings, where sunlight can penetrate, has
dense under growth

HOW VEGETATION HAS ADAPTED TO THE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

Have drip tips to shed away excess

water
They have straight, branchless to support the tall big trees
trunks with large buttress root
They grow very tall in an effort to get sunlight
They have broad leaves to catch sunlight and lose
excess water through
transpiration

54
 The leaves have waxy surface to shed the heavy rainfall
Plants leaves have many for increased transpiration
stomata

Plants have leathery leaves for protection against strong

sunlight
Plants have shallow roots as water is easily available
from the surface
The plants have buttress roots to support their height
They have thin trunks as there is no need to store
water in trunks
Plants are evergreen because there is no seasonal
change
Plants flower and fruit due to abundant sunshine and
throughout the year high amount of rainfall
throughout the year.

HUMAN ACTIVITIES

The Equatorial is generally sparsely populated

 Cultivation-most advanced ones practice shifting cultivation. Many

parts of the forests are cleared for cultivation of
yams,maize,bananas,cocoa,coffee,tobacco etc
 Gathering-Vegetative food is abundant in the form of wild
fruits,nuts,leaves and other veldt products
 Hunting-The rainforest is habitat for a variety of wild animals which
are hunted
 Fishing-the ever-flowing rivers provide a large supply of fish and other
marine animals
 Lumbering- people cut down hardwood trees in the forests for timber
 Industrial activities – timber processing industries use timber as a raw
material to produce furniture, boats, products for construction of
houses, railways sleepers. Plantations also have their industries.
 Hydro-electric power production- because of abundant water

55
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH EVELOPING LAND IN THE EQUATORIAL
REGION.

 Excessive heat tends to limit physical ability of carrying out work. It

also results in loss of energy and exposes people to the dangers of
heat stroke and skin cancer.

 Humidity also limits physical ability of carrying out work. It may result
in diseases such as yellow fever and malaria.

 Rapid deterioration of soil- because of too much rain the soils lose
humus through soil erosion and leaching

 The fact that the place is a jungle- makes construction of roads and
railways difficult and expensive. It is also dangerous since people may
encounter wild animals, poisonous reptiles and insects.

 A difficulty in livestock farming- pastoral farming is hindered by the

absence of grass. The grass available is tall and not nutritious. The
livestock can also be attacked by tsetse-fly which causes sleeping
sickness.

 Prevalence of pests- the hot and wet climate encourages the spread
of diseases and pests. Germs and bacteria are more easily transmitted
through moisture.

TROPICAL CONTINENT/SAVANNA/SUDAN CLIMATE

LOCATION

It is located between 5N and 15N and 5S and 15S of the equator. It is best
developed in Sudan where the summer and winters are most distinct
(therefore sometimes called the Sudan climate)

CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS

 It has hot, wet summers and cool, dry winters.

56
  The annual range of temperature is about 11C
 Alternating dry and wet seasons due to movement of the sun.
 The hottest month is just before the rainy season (October in
Southern hemisphere and April in the Northern hemisphere.
 Heavy summer rain of convectional type accompanied by
thunderstorms, lightning and hail.
 It usually rains in the late afternoons
 Annual rainfall is of about 762mm
 High humidity in summer due to high temperature and rainfall
 In the northern hemisphere rain is May to September and the
Southern hemisphere is from October to April.

VEGETATION IN TROPICAL SAVANNA

 The name of the vegetation in this region is called tropical grassland
or savanna parkland.
 Vegetation varies with amount of rainfall distribution.
 Areas near the equator have savanna woodland vegetation (bigger,
denser trees due to increased amount of rainfall0
 Areas near the desert have savanna scrub (scrub thorny bushes and
coarse short grasses due to a decrease in rainfall.)

CHARACTERISTICS AND ADAPTATION OF SAVANNA VEGETATION

Description/feature Adaptation/justification
Deciduous trees (shed leaves in To minimize loss of water through
winter) transpiration
Long rooted trees To reach underground water
Trees have small leaves To reduce transpiration
Trees have broad trunks/thick stems
To store excess water for use during
the dry period
Trees are dispersed To reduce competition for water and
nutrients
Grass dies leaving roots to lie To grow again during the wet season

57
dormant during the dry season
Umbrella shapes crowns (y shape To provide shade around roots and
branches) trunk to help conserve moisture
around the tree

HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN TROPICAL SAVANNA

 Nomadic pastoralism – they large herds of cattle, goat and sheep to

graze on savanna grassland. In drier parts they move one place to
another in search of water and pastures for livestock. They keep
livestock for subsistence and commercial purposes.
 Arable farming/ growing crops/crop cultivation – growing of maize,
millet, sorghum, cotton , tobacco etc. they crops for subsistence and
commercial purposes
 Mining – diamonds in Botswana, copper on Zambia, iron in Zimbabwe,
tin and petroleum in Nigeria
 Industrial activities with agro-based industries e.g sorghum milling
 Tourism – savanna has a wide range of wildlife so it has national
parks and game reserves e.g Chobe national park,
 Fishing – due some places having direct access to the sea, having
perennial rivers lakes and dams, people do practice fishing

IMPACTS OF HUMAN CATIVITIES ON THE SAVANNA ENVIRONMENT

 Deforestation due to cutting trees for fuel wood, clearing of land for
farming, veld fires etc
 Overgrazing – over population of livestock and poor management of
grazing land leads to over grazing and eventually soil erosion. The
problem is worsened by drought
 Pollution – mining and industrial activities causes water, land and air
pollution increasing the problem of global warming.
 Desertification – areas bordering the deserts are turning into deserts
due to over use of the dry land through over cultivation, over grazing
and deforestation.
 Loss of wild life – use of toxic waste kills both plants and animals.
Over hunting and poaching may result in extinction of wild animals
 Land degradation – mining causes land scaring with open pits and
waste heaps. Landslides become a problem as huge gullies and
dongas develop due to soil erosion
58
FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT IN THE SAVANN REGION

 Drought – long drought periods affects both crop and livestock

farming
 Pests and diseases – presence of tsetse fly brings sleeping
sickness to people and nagana to cattle, locusts affects vegetation
and crops. Malaria is also very common due to mosquitoes
 Deforestation – exploiting grass and trees for different purposes
e.g for firewood, thatching grass, leads to deforestation
 Less fertile soils – this is caused by heavy rains which leads to
leaching and soil erosion which carries away the top fertile soil

HOT DESERT

LOCATION
It is located between 15 and 30 both north and south of the equator.
12 lines
Examples of deserts in Africa
1. Sahara (largest in Africa)
2. Kalahari in Botswana
3. Namib in Namibia

Climatic characteristics
 Cool winter (10c)
 Hot summers (29c)
 Deserts have very high day temperatures in summer and very low
night temperatures in winter due to the absence of cloud cover
 Annual temperature range is very high, this is due to high summer
temperatures and low winter temperatures.
 Very little or no rainfall which occurs in summer
 Annual rainfall rarely exceeds 250mm
 It is of a convectional nature

Why rainfall is low in deserts

 Deserts lie across high pressure belts (horse latitudes)
 Dry off shore winds blow across deserts
 Deserts lie along cold descending currents which have very little
moisture
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N.B: in semi desert temperatures are not extreme as in hot deserts and
annual rainfall varies from 250mm to 500mm
20 lines
Vegetation (both hot and semi desert)

The vegetation here is of xerophytic type (drought resistant) e.g barrel

cactus, desert sage, saguaro, palm trees

Description/feature Adaptation/justification
Long rooted plants To search for water and plants
nutrients underground
Few or no leaves To reduce transpiration
Leaves in thick skins and waxy To reflect heat and reduce
surfaces transpiration
Needle shaped leaves To reduce transpiration
Thick stems For storing water
Seeds in tough skins or hard shells To protect them the intense heat
while lying dormant before
germination/ the rainy season
Few stomata To reduce transpiration
Umbrella shaped crowns To reduce transpiration around roots.
Thorny leaves To reduce transpiration

Human activities in hot deserts and semi deserts

 Hunting and gathering – hunt wild animals and gather wild fruits and
berries
 Mining – done in areas with mineral deposits e.g gold , oil, diamonds
etc
 Nomadic herding – keeping animals such camels goats and sheep and
move from place to place in search of water.
 Growing crops – done in crops with constant water supply along
rivers (Nile, Indus and Tigris)
 Growing drought resistant crops – dates, wheat, vegetables and fruits

Factors hindering development in desert/ semi desert

 Drought – low and unreliable rainfall/lack of water
 Poor infertile soils/lack of nutrient
 Loose and mobile soils
 Sandy acidic soils
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  Saline/salty water
 Dry soils/lack of moisture
 High temperature/high evaporation rate
 Pests and diseases

Mediterranean climate
It is found between 30 and 45 north and south of the equator. E.g. Cape
Town in South Africa, central Chile, California, Algiers in Algeria.

Climatic characteristics
 Sunny, warm to hot dry summers
 Cool to warm wet winters
Temperature
 Moderate of about 12 C (warm summers)
 Winter are cool at about 10 C

Rainfall
 Occurs when temperatures are low (winter rainfall)
 Rainfall varies between 250mm to 800mm
 During summer there is no rainfall as the air is dry, heat is high and
humidity is low
 Receives cyclonic type of rainfall brought by Western winds in winter.
NATURAL VEGETATION

Vegetation varies because temperature and rain varies.

1. Evergreen forest/woodland- occurs in the wettest part of the
Mediterranean region i.e where rainfall is over 650mm e.g cork trees,
ecucalyptus
2. Evergreen coniferous forests – occurs where rainfall is average e.g
pines, firs, cider,
3. Mediterranean bushes and scrub – found in the dry parts of the
Mediterranean region e.g dwarf trees, short grasses, sweet smelling
herbs

Description/feature Adaptation/justification
Grasses wither and die during dry To grow again during the wet
seasons leaving roots dormant season
Leaves have few stomata To reduce transpiration
Waxy leave surface To reduce transpiration
Plants with long tap roots To reach underground water
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 Plants roll their leaves in summer To reduce transpiration
Scattered thorny shrubs and To reduce competition for
bushes moisture
Needle shaped leaves To reduce transpiration

HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION

 Orchard farming – growing of citrus fruits e.g oranges, limes, grape

fruits etc
 Crop cultivation – mainly cereals e.g barley, wheat,
 Viticulture – growing of grapes for making wine and grapes dried into
raisins and sultanas
 Cultivation of nuts – e.g chestnuts. Almonds, hazel nuts etc
 Industries e.g wine making, flower milling, fruit canning etc
 Tourism – the bright sunny weather attract tourist mainly from cold
countries.
 Lumbering – because of the abundant woodland trees.

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF BOTSWANA

Botswana has 4 main types of climates mainly:

- Tropical sub-humid
- Sub humid
- Semi arid
- Desert or arid climate

Temperature
Botswana experiences hot summers with the mean monthly averages of 27ᵒc
and cool winters with an average of above 12ᵒc. Temperature of over 40c
can be recorded on some summer days especially in the west and south
western parts of the country. The highest temperatures are usually recorded
in December and January.
Winter temperatures ranges between 2ᵒc and 19ᵒc. Lower temperatures
below the freezing are often recorded between June and July. During winter
the daily temperature is high due to the absence of clouds and lack of
moisture.
Rainfall distribution

Rainfall is generally low. The northern parts of the country especially the
Chobe district gets the highest rainfall (more than 600mm). the south
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eastern part or areas around Gaborone and Lobatse gets more than 500mm.
rainfall gradually decreases from these area to the west and south western
parts of the country. Rain falls mainly between November and April.

Natural vegetation

Vegetation types is influenced by climatic and soil conditions. There are

three main types namely:
- Deciduous forests – found in the north eastern part of the country
(Chobe district). This area receives the highest amount of rainfall.
Theses tree shed their leaves during the dry season to reduce
transpiration. E.g Mukwa, Mukusi
- Savanna vegetation – Botswana has different types of savanna
vegetation due to the differences in climatic and soil characteristics.
a. Mophane savanna- found in the eastern and north eastern parts of
the country, which are frost free.
b. tree and bush savanna – found in semi arid regions with rain fall
amounts of 400mm to 600mm. it consists of acacia thorn trees e.g
moloto,mokoba etc
c. Bush savanna – found in semi arid environments with lower rainfall
of about 300mm to 400mm. it is characterised by scattered shorter
trees, bushes and grasses.
d. Shrub savanna – occurs in the driest parts of the country, where
rainfall is below 300mm. it is characterised by thorn bushes, cacti
e. Grass savanna – found at Mababe depression, Lake Ngami and
around Makgadikgadi salt pans. Grass savanna consists mainly of
coarse or wiry short grasses
- Aquatic vegetation- consists of water loving plants like reeds, water
lilies and palms. It is found in swampy areas e.g Okavango delta and
on the banks of Chobe River.

Human activities
- Crop cultivation
- Fishing
- Pastoral farming
- Mining
- Manufacturing and processing industries e.g BMC
- Tourism

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 SECTION B

UTILISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL

RESOURCE

Botswana is blessed with a lot of natural resources which needs to be

conserved for everyone to benefit from them. These resources include
 Water
 Coal
 Forests
 Rangelands
 Veld products
 Wild animals etc
The concept of Sustainable Development came about as a tool for wise use
of the resources worldwide. It is defined as

The wise use of resources by the present generation without jeopardizing

the changes of the future generation to use the same resources.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVLOPMENT

 Recycling of resources
 Reusing resources
 Reducing amount of usage
 Poverty eradication programmes etc

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UTILISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER

Hydrological/ water cycle

Water in the atmosphere reaches the earth mainly in the form of rain or
snow. The water falling on the surface is distributed in various ways. Some
water runoff the surface as rivers and streams and empty into lakes or seas.
Some of the water sinks into the ground. The rest of the water on the other
hand is absorbed by vegetation. Water is then returned to the atmosphere
as water vapour.

Evaporation – change of water from liquid to a gaseous state due to high

temperature
Transpiration – this is where plants lose water through their leaves
Condensation – this is a process whereby water changes from a gaseous
state to a liquid due to a fall in temperature.
Infiltration – this is a process where water seep/ sink through/ into the

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ground
Precipitation – when water falls from clouds e.g rain, snow, hail etc

SOURCES OF WATER

There are two main sources of water. These are

 Surface water
 Underground water

SURFACE WATER

This is water that settles on the earth surface e.g dams, rivers, oceans, lakes
etc. The circulation of surface water is influenced by either perennial or
seasonal rivers.

Perennial rivers
These are rivers that contain water all year round. However there are few
perennial rivers in Botswana. These are Chobe and Okavango river. This
means that many areas do not depend on surface water.

Seasonal rivers
These are rivers that contain water for a short period of time after heavy
rainfalls e.g Tati, Motloutse, Lotsane, Notwane etc. apart from rivers, there
are also dams which provide surface water such as Gaborone, Letsibogo,
Mopipi, Molatedi etc

UNDERGROUND WATER
This is water that comes from infiltration. This water is found underneath
the earth surface. It can be stored in wells and boreholes.

WATER AUTHORITIES THAT SUPPLY WATER IN BOTSWANA

 Water utilities
 Water affairs
 Local council

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WAYS IN WHICH THE WATER AUTHORIES ECOURAGE WATER
CONSERAVTION

 They encourage people to reuse water

 They introduced the pre-paid meter
 They do public awareness on water conservation
 They encourage people to re-cycle water
 They encourage people to reduce the consumption of water

DEMAND FOR WATER

There are different types of water consumers in Botswana e.g
Public demand, industrial demand and domestic demand
REASONS FOR HIGH/INCREASING WATER DEMAND
 Increasing population
 Growth of industries e.g mining
 Increase in livestock
 Growth of farms which needs irrigation
 Improved lifestyle e.g use of Jacuzzi and construction of
swimming pools
 urban growth/expansion of towns and cities
 increase in construction of infrastructure e.g roads, schools

REASONS FOR WATER SCARCITY

Though the need/demand for water in Botswana is increasing, there is

a problem of water scarcity due to the following reasons.
 Semi arid conditions of the country
 The rainfall in Botswana is unreliable
 There is low level of underground water recharge due to high
temperatures
 There is high rates or high temperature.
 Topography of the country is not flat making dam construction
difficult and costly
 Main river systems are shared with other countries, so, it is not
easy to interfere with them e.g Chobe and Okavango.
 Porous nature of the soil/sandy soils
 Salinity of underground water
 deep water table which make it difficult to explore underground

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 water

FACTORS THAT CAN LIMIT WATER SUPPLY TO DIFFERENT AREAS

PHYSICAL HUMAN
- semi arid conditions - too costly/high
installation cost
- Unrealiable rainfall - Vandalizing of pipes
e.g theft of pipes
- Low rainfall - Busting of pipes e.g
during road works.
- Porous nature of
soils/sandy soils
- Salinity/saltiness of
underground water
- Most local rivers are
seasonal rivers
- Deep water table

MEASURES FOR IMPROVING WATER SUPPLY

- Importing water from other areas e.g north-south project,

Molatedi dam
- Education on water conservation
- Collecting/harvesting rainwater e.g water catchment tanks,
wells,
- Introducing government scheme e.g borehole subsidy scheme
- Desalinization of salty water
- Use of bowsers e.g council

NATIONAL WATER MASTER PLAN

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NORTH-SOUTH WATER PROJECT
The government came up with a project that was to solve the problem of
water shortage. The project started in started in 1990 and will run up to
2020. It has two phases, phase 1 and 2. The estimated cost of the project
was 1.3 billion pula.

PHASE 1
This was the first project to be implemented. The dam has been built in
Letsibogo on the Motloutse river near Mmadinare.

PHASE 2
It was divided into 2 parts

Part 1
It covers the construction of the second dam which is located on the lower
Shashe river at a place called Polometsi. It was expected to be completed
by 1995.
Part 2
This will include the construction of the second line during the years 2010
and 2013. This will double the supply of water from the dams.

Advantages
It helps to provide water to the communities in the south of the
country
 Helps create jobs
 Construction of dams resulted into development of
infrastructure
 Water supply stimulated development of industries
Advantages
 It does not cover the years beyond 2020
 Land suitable for agriculture is suitable for laying pipes
 Vegetation is lost during clearing of land
 It is an expensive project

WATER CONSERVATION

Water resources in Botswana are limited and cost of developing water

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 resources is high and will become even higher when the country is
found to exploit more remote and less accessible water resources.
People must therefore start conserving water. Conserving means
consuming a resource in such a way that the level of the resource is
not lowered. Conservation implies that a resource is consumed for
ever without being depleted

HOW TO CONSERVE WATER

 Reuse waste water- private households can use waste water to
water their garden
 Recycle water – harvesting effluents from sewage works and
treating them to be used again
 Installation of water catchment systems e.g wells, basement
water catchment system
 Construction of dams
 Public education on water conservation
 Increase billing of water
 Reduce leakages in the system by mending pipes
 Introduce pre-payment method
 Growing drought resistant plants
 Fencing/protecting water sources
 Use of water tariffs

WETLANDS

Wetlands are all places in which water remains on the ground permanently
or temporarily thus affecting the physical characteristic of an area e.g
Okavango delta, Makgadikgadi pans, rivers, dams

Importance /value of wetlands

 Source of water for irrigation, domestic use
 Source of food e.g fish, water lilies
 Sources of raw material e.g reeds for building and for basket
weaving
 Attracts tourists
 Used for recreational purposes e.g fishing, swimming
 They are habitat for animals e.g fish, crocodiles
 They are a means for transport

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  They control floods
 Source of medicinal plants

PROBLEMS FACED BY LOCALS/COMMUNITIES LIVING AROUND

WETLANDS
 Flooding
 Difficulties in transport
 Danger from wild animals
 Water borne diseases

HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT COULD LEAD TO THE DESTRUCTION OF

WETLANDS
HUMAN ACTIVITY DESTRUCTION
 industrialization  pollution
 fishing  overfishing
 agriculture  Over abstraction of
water
 overstocking  over grazing
 basketry  over harvesting of reeds
and thatch grass
 construction  over abstraction of sand
 damming of rivers  reduce water
downstream, disturbs
movement of marine life
and their breeding

THE NATIONAL WETLAND POLICY

It was developed to appreciate the value of wetlands and the threats facing
it. Its aims are to:
 promote the conservation and use of Botswana’s wetlands
 sustain the social and economic value of Botswana’s wetlands

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  Maintain the ecological functions and benefits of Botswana’s
wetlands.

CONVENTION ON WETLANDS OF INTERNATIONAL IMPOTANCE (RAMSAR

CONVENTION, 1971)

The RAMSAR convention is concerned with conservation and sustainable

utilization of wetlands especially water flow habitat. The convection does not
dictate policies but serves as forum for fostering objective discussion on
sustainable use of the source base of wetlands. Its aims are to:

 Stopping the progressive loss of wetlands now and in future

 Recognize the ecological functions of wetlands
 Recognize the economic, cultural, scientific and recreational
value of wetlands.
 Encourage international cooperation
 Encourage wise use of wetlands
 Encourage research
 Encourages wise use of wetlands

ADVANTAGES OF BOTSWANA AS A PARTY OF THE RAMSAR

 The privilege of participating in the global environmental

debate on the conservation and wise use of wetlands
 Access to international research funding
 Advice from experts on wetland conservation.

WATER AS AN INTERNATIONALLY SHARED RESOURCE

From the water cycle, it is evident that water is an international resource.

 Rivers flow across the globe from one country to another

 Rainfall across the earths’ surface irrespective of national
boundaries
 Evaporation and wind movement distribute water all over the
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 globe although some parts of the globe have more water
sources than others.


UNTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF WILDLIFE IN BOTSWANA

Botswana is one of the few countries where wildlife can be seen in national
parks and game reserves.

Wildlife - a country’s flora (plant life) and fauna (animal life)

National park - protected areas in which animals and plants
are reserved
Game reserve - a protected area in which only animals are
reserved
Endangered species - animals that may soon get extinct
Photographic tourism -a tourist activity in which tourists take
photographs of animals after paying a fee to do so.
Community Based Natural Resource Management Programs - projects
set for local communities and designed for proper management of wildlife
resources.

NATIONAL PARKS, GAME RESERVES AND HUNTING AREAS IN BOTSWANA

25 lines
IMPORTANCE OF WILDLIFE TO BOTSWANA

ECONOMY OTHER BENEFITS

- source of employment - Source of food e.g
as people can be hired game meat
in national parks and
game reserves
- source of tourist - Source of raw material
attraction e.g elephant tasks, hides
etc
- source of government
revenue from the tourist
industry

- source of foreign

73
 exchange
- it leads to diversification
of economy

- It leads to development
of other industries e.g
service industries like
banking, lodges etc

IMPACTS OF WILD ANIMALS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Animal excretion add manure They destroy vegetation
to the soil
They balance the ecosystem They cause soil erosion
They cause loss of soil
structure
Their movement result in
development of tracks
They destroy the habitat for
other wildlife

CONFLICTS BETWEEN WILDLIFE AND OTHER LAND USERS

 Conflicts between wildlife and some Batswana (Basarwa) who

see wildlife as a source of meat not to be reserved or
preserved.
 Conflicts between wildlife and some people who feel that
dangerous animals are a constant threat to their live, therefore
it is better to kill them.
 Conflicts between wildlife and farmers – because wild animals
kill their crops and livestock but they are not allowed to kill the
wild animals
 A land that is reserved for wildlife is considered to be a loss for
agricultural activities
 Conflicts between wildlife and firewood and wild fruit gatherers
– all the flora and fauna in reserved areas are not to be
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 harvested.
 Conflicts between wildlife and expansion of settlements – land
reserved for animals is a loss to settlement expansion.

ROLE OF THE STAKE HOLDERS IN THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF WILDLIFE

GOVERNMENT ROLE
The role of the government lies in the national conservation strategy.
Conservation is encouraged through the department of wildlife and national
parks which aims at:

 Increasing education and participation by all members of the

society in improving the environment (through the Community
Based Natural Resource Management)
 Protecting endangered species
 Conserving major ecosystems like the Okavango Delta
 Improving the distribution of income rewards from conservation
(e.g people whose livestock are killed by wild animals are
compensated)
 Establish a balance between population growth and supply of
natural resources
 Sells and advertises the country’s tourism locally and abroad
 Promote wildlife clubs in schools
 To minimize conflicts between human and wildlife population
 Controlling hunting through hunting permits and licenses
 Controlling the wildlife population etc

NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS

NGOs like Kalahari Conservation Society (KCS), Association of Wild Clubs of

Botswana and Somarelang Tikologo encourage conservation education
through:
 Provision of funds/sponsorship for trips, research projects and
environmental projects
 Provision of personnel
 Education to the locals on wildlife conservation
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  Promotion of policies of conservation of wildlife
 They do research on wildlife

LOCAL COMMUNITY
 Directly get involved in the management and conservation of
wildlife in their areas.
 Promote wildlife based rural development e.g resources based
management
 Educate each other about wildlife conservation

LOCAL AUTHORITY
 Allocate land for wildlife conservation e.g land boards
 Establish rules and regulations on access and control of
resources e.g rangelands
 Provide facilities such as boreholes e.g councils

PRIVATE SECTOR

 Provide guidelines in proper hunting of animals by tourists e.g

safari hunters
 Provide sponsorships for community projects
 Provides training to the locals

WAYS / METHODS USED TO ENCOURAGE SUATAINABLE USE OF

WILDLIFE

 Introduce anti-poaching laws

 Using hunting seasons
 Issuing of hunting licenses
 Use of conservation and national parks Act
 Public education on the importance of wildlife conservation
 Protection of endangered species.

IMPACT OF FENCES (BUFFALO FENCE AND CORDON FENCES) ON

ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

 Cause restriction of movement

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  Affect the breeding of wild animals
 Vegetation along the fence get destroyed/ overgrazing occurs
 Animals may get caught by fence and some may die
 It affects distribution of animal species
 Controls the spread animal diseases e.g foot and mouth

UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS AND VELD PRODUCTS

Forests and veld products are wildlife goods found naturally in an area and
can be harvested by locals for consumption or commercial purposes.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Forest products are mainly found the north east (especially phane) and
south east (especially morula) because of higher rainfall in these areas
meaning more trees grow here as compared to the rest of the country. The
higher rainfall areas of the east have many products e.g Lengana,
mosukujane, moretlwa and mogwana while the west have fewer but some
very important ones such as sengaparile. The Okavango delta has many
products including tswii (water lilly).

IMPORTANCE OF THE COMMERCIALISATION OF FORESTS AND VELD

PRODUCTS TO STAKE HOLDERS/ECONOMIC BENEFITS.

GOVERNMENT
 Creates employment
 Generate revenue which help to reduce rural-urban migration
 Diversify the economy
 Foreign exchange as some are commercially exported

PRIVATE SECTOR
 There is an organization of sengaparile as it is bought and
manufactured into tablets for export.
 Mophane is bought by a commercial company, worldwide
commodities and exported to RSA
 Many small vendors are involved in the selling of veld products
on the local markets.

LOCAL COMMUNITY
 It is a source of food

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  Can be used for medicinal purposes
 Way to supplement income

Examples are:
- Collection and selling of phane by thousands of people in the
north and district
- Communities in Kweneng west, Ghantsi, Kgalagadi and
Ngwaketse south harvest and sells sengaparile to Thusanyo
lefatsheng.
- Mosukudu and mosukujane are used as tea substitutes and
medicinal purpose.
- Mokola has helped in the development of basket making
industry in Ngamiland district which gives some type of
employment or income to an estimated 2000 women.
- Motshikitshane and motshikiri are prized thatch grass

NGOs
 Involved in the gathering of these products
 Mainly concerned with making these activities sustainable

Examples are:
- Council for scientific and industrial research of RSA which is
trying to help develop phane silk production
- Thusanyo Lefatsheng which employs extension workers to try
to show people how to harvest sengaparile without destroying
the plant so it remains sustainable. It is also put quotas on
individual sellers to try to prevent overharvesting.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF GATHERING

 Phane trees are often destroyed by harvesters wishing to get

all the worms even at the highest level.
 Extinction of some products in some areas caused by a
combination of over harvesting and drought
 Depletion of products closer to the village
 Poor harvesting methods leading to the destruction of
sengaparile plant and leaving of deep holes that can be further
eroded destroying the local environment.

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  Destruction of mokola palm by harvesting all its leaves
 Over harvesting thatch grass leading to range land degradation
 Fencing of land and the prevention of gatherers from entering
and the overgrazing of cattle destroying the areas of grasses
and veld products.

ROLES THAT STAKEHOLDERS CAN PLAY TO MAKE FORESTS AND VELD

PRODUCTS SUSTAINABLE

GOVERNMENT
 Bring in legislation under the national conservation strategy
that will make the utilization of these sustainable.
 Gathers should be registered
 Gathers should be given permits
 Set quotas
 Develop commercial cultivations of these products
 Carry scientific research into these products as they are not
well known
 Should give recognition to veld products as a distinct land use
under NDP and so monitor their use more closely

LOCAL AUTHORITIES

 Must look past their needs to the future and practice selective
harvesting
 Learn about the product they are using such as proper way of
harvesting and ways of cultivating the product
 Set up organization that organize education of locals, place
local quotas, decide on areas to be harvested and areas that
could be left for recuperation and market the product.
NGOs

 Lead the way in research and development

 Provide funding

Thusanyo Lefatsheng has its objective to:

- Develop methods of cultivation processing and marketing of
indigenous trees and medicinal plants

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 - Harvesting of such plants in a sound and ecological manner
- The protection and cultivation of endangered plant species
- The introduction of sustainable agricultural methods
- The creation of rural employment

EXAMPLES OF VELD PRODUCTS

- Devils claw
- Mosithane
- Herbal trees
- Morula
- Phane worm
- Honey etc

HUMAN FACTORS LEADING TO DESTRUCTION OF FORESTS

- Expansion of settlements leading to deforestation thus reduction in
the size of rangelands.
- Overstocking leading to overgrazing
- Over harvesting of thatch grass
Clearing of land for agriculture
- Occurrence of veld fires
- Construction of infrastructure
- Pollution e.g air pollution leading to acid rain which kills plants
- Mining/ industries
- Lumbering
SOLUTION TO PROBLEMS OF FORESTS DESTRUCTION
- Afforestation – growing of trees where forests have been cut
- Reforestation- planting of trees in areas with few trees
- Public awareness on forest conservation
- Use of alternative energy sources e.g use of gas instead of firewood.
- Use of government laws/policies e.g use of permit for firewood
collection for commercial purposes

FOREST RESERVES IN BOTSWANA

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Large forest occur mainly in Chobe and some areas there have been
declared forest reserves. There are 6 forest reserves which are protected by
law namely:

- Chobe forest reserve

- Kasane forest reserve
- Kasane forest extension
- Maikaelelo forest reserve
- Sibuyu forest reserve
- Kazuma forest reserves

The following are prohibited in these areas:

- Unauthorized cutting of trees

- Burning of grass
- The grazing of livestock
- The removal of trees to make fields

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ORGANISATIONS CONCERNED WITH CONSERVATION OF FORESTS
ORGANISATION BRIEF OBJECTIVES PROGRAMMES
FOREST It is a non- - To promote public 1. community
ASSOCIATION governmental awareness and based
OF BOTSWANA organisation education on the woodland
(FAB) which is non- importance of management
profit making. trees and natural 2. home tree
It was formed resources planting
in 1983 by - To assist in the 3. school
individuals protection of programmes
concerned forests, bush trees 4. agro forestry
about the and shrubs
depletion of - To promote forest
natural industries and
related
employment
throughout the
country
- To assist
organisation
involved in tree
planting and
fencing extension
work
- To act as a focal
point for all NGOs
forestry activities
THUSANO A non- - Processing and
LEFATSHENG governmental marketing of
organisation indigenous trees
in the field of and medical plants
forests and - Harvesting of
veld products medical and
aromatic plants in
a sustainable
- Protection and
cultivation of
endangered plants
species
- Creation of rural
employment

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RANGELANDS
It is a stretch of grazing land where animal feed or it is a land that supplies
forage / vegetation for grazing animals. It is often not fenced.

Rangeland degradation/destruction
It is the deterioration of reduction of grazing land for livestock by human
and nature / the permanent decline in the rate at which land yields livestock
products due to human action and natural causes.

Types of rangelands

Communal - rangelands that are used by the community/general

public
Commercial - rangelands that are privately owned. Divided into
paddocks and the animals are monitored.
An example of a type of rangeland in Botswana is Barolong farms.

Examples of rangelands
- Grassland
- Shrub lands
- Woodlands

FACTORS INFLUENCING RANGELANDS

- suitable climatic conditions

- The available soil type
- Duration of gazing in the area

HUMAN FACTORS CAUSING RANGELAND DEGRADATION

- Deforestation
- Overstocking which leads to overgrazing
- Over harvesting of thatch grass
- Veldfires
- Expansion of settlements due to population growth
- Lack of knowledge/education/poor methods of farming

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PHYSICAL FACTORS CAUSING RANGELAND DEGRADATION

- Flooding due to heavy rains

- Drought/lack of rainfall
- Poor/less fertile soils
- Salinization of the soils
- Hot/high temperatures (which may cause veldfires)

EFFECTS/RESULTS OF RANGELAND DEGRADATION

- Soil erosion resulting in gullies and removal of top soil

- Desertification
- Loss of quality of the soil
- Loss/low quality livestock
- Increased water run-off
- Poor pastures/lack of grass for livestock

HOW RANGELANDS CAN BE MANAGED/ SUSTAINABLE USE OF

RANGELANDS

- Ranching/fencing/paddocking to control movement of livestock

controlled stocking of livestock
- Practicing rotational grazing
- Growing fodder crops
- Construction of fire breaks
- Controlled cutting of vegetation
- Public education and research on rangelands
- Zero grazing
- Afforestation
- Irrigation of fodder crops rather than relying on rainfall
GOVERNMENT’S EFFORT TOWARDS MANAGEMENT OF RANGELANDS

In 1975, the government introduced the Tribal Grazing Land Policy (TGLP) to
prevent rangeland degradation. The reasons/objectives of the TGLP were:

- To fence grazing areas to control movement of livestock

- To reduce overgrazing and soil erosion
- To divide land into communal, commercial and reserved
farming areas

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 - To educate farmers on sustainable use of rangelands.
However, the TGLP later failed and the government stopped its services.
Though the TGLP failed it had some successes.

Success Failures
It controlled Poor management of ranges
overstocking/overgrazing in by farmers
communal areas
It encouraged growth and Unwillingness to limit/reduce
commercialization of livestock their stock numbers by
industry farmers
It encouraged livestock owners Lack of monitoring/supervision
to adopt better methods of by relevant
herd and range management authorities/extension workers
It encouraged use of Lack of knowledge/education
commercial areas/ranching by farmers

ENERGY-
Africa has the potential of producing power. There are 2 main resources of
power.

 Non- renewable fossil fuels e.g coal and oil

 Renewable e.g water and the sun
Some of the examples of sources of energy are:

 Wind
 Water
 Sun
 Coal etc

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HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER STATION

Penstock - a large metal pipe

Turbine - a wheel with blades
Grid - a net used to separate the water from unwanted
materials
Hydro-electricity - energy produced by force of flowing water
Tail race - a passage through which water is released after it
has turned the turbines
Power house - where voltage is changed to the acceptable
standard of the country.

HOW IT WORKS

 Water flows through the grid into the penstock to the power
house
 The water turns the turbines
 The generator is activated
 Electricity is produced
 The transformer will change the voltage to an acceptable
standard of that country.
 The water from the turbines flows to the tail race

DISTRIBUTION OF DAMS FOR HYDRO-ELECTRICITIC POWER SUPPLY IN

AFRICA
20 lines

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Examples of HEP stations in Africa South of Sahara

HEP Country Water source

which was
dammed
Kainji Nigeria
Kafue Zambia
Kariba Zambia/Zimbabwe
Akosombo Ghana
Cabora Bassa Mozambique
Aswan Egypt

FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION OF AN HEP

 Availability of a steep gradient

 Availability of a large market e.g. industries
 Availability of skilled man power
 Availability of large capital
 Availability of a strong geographic rock base
 Availability of a regular water supply/perennial water source
 Availability of an ice free area

ADVANTAGES OF AN HEP

 Serves as a tourist attraction

 Helps to provide cheap electricity for locals
 Stimulates development of industries
 Helps in controlling flooding
 Can be used for transportation
 Source of food e.g fish
 Source of water for irrigation and domestic use
 It uses a renewable resource

DISADVANTAGES OF AN HEP

 Construction cost is high

 Reserves can be flooded
 During drought ,power output drops

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  Agricultural land around the reserves is submerged
 Reduction in water down stream
 Leads to loss of vegetation (deforestation)
 Disruption of the ecosystem
 Disturbance of the breeding of the water species

THERMAL POWER

This is the production of electricity from heat. Coal and oil are the usual
energy sources used in the thermal station. An example of a thermal power
station in Botswana is the MORUPULE Power station

FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION OF THE MORUPULE THERMAL

POWER STATION

 Nearness to large supplies of coal

 Availability of water from Paje river for cooling the pipes
 Availability of a large market e.g. Gaborone, Palapye etc
 Availability of skilled man power e.g. from Palapye, Gaborone
etc
 Availability of large flat land
 Availability of capital from the Botswana government

HOW IT WORKS

 Coal is crushed and blown into a furnace

 The coal dust is burnt to produce heat energy
 The heat energy will change the water in the pipes into steam
 Steam passes through the turbine under great pressure/ steam
turns the turbine
 The central shaft turns inside a large coil in the generator
 Electricity is produced
 Steam passes along pipes into the cooling tank/cools and
condenses

The power produced at Morupule is linked to all major centers in

88
Botswana by 220kv and 132kv transmission lines. The station gets
water from Paje River 45km north west of Morupule.

ADVANTAGES OF A THERMAL POWER STATION

 It provides cheap electricity to the local community and

industries
 It creates employment
 It uses a local resource and therefore it is cheap to produce
 It stimulates development of industries
 Water that is used for cooling can be reused

DISADVANTAGES OF A THERMAL POWER

 It causes air pollution

 It is too expensive to construct
 It uses a non-renewable resource
 It needs huge supplies of water for cooling
 Clearing of land for construction destroys vegetation
 Can cause waste heaps
 It is dirty to handle (coal dust)
 Coal is bulky and result in high transport cost
 It is not safe due to its explosive nature of the power station

SOLAR ENERGY

It is energy produced from the sun

HOW IT WORKS

 The sun rays are trapped by the solar panels

 The heat energy (from the sun rays) is converted to electricity
by photovoltaic cells
 Electricity is stored in booster batteries for use later

EXAMPLES OF VILLAGES IN BOTSWANA USING SOLAR POWER

 Manyana
 Motshegaletau

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  Takatokwane
 Thamaga etc

ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

 It can be used in most parts of the works

 It uses a renewable resources
 It is clean (causes no pollution)
 It is cheap to use

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

 Installation costs are high

 It is unreliable e.g when it is raining
 It needs a lot of sunlight to produce large amount of energy

BOTSWANA’S STRATEGY FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION

 Public education on the importance of conservation energy

 Introduction of pre-payment meters by BPC
 Substitute scares and more expensive fuel with those which are
renewable and cheaper e.g solar power
 Increasing billing
 Use load shedding
 Use of quotas
 Use of sensor lights
 Switching off of unused electrical appliances and lights

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 SECTION C
ECONOMIC ACTIVTIES
TOURISM INDUSTRY
Tourism is a whole business of providing services such as accommodation,
entertainment and other amenities such as food, furniture and shopping
facilities for travelling visitors. Ecotourism is tourism that is planned to
respect and safeguard the environment.
A tourist is a person who travels away from his/her home for pleasure on a
temporary basis. There are two types of tourists:
 Internal tourist – a tourist who travels within the boundaries of his/her
country.
 International tourist – a tourist who travels outside the boundaries of
his/her country.

TYPES OF TOURISM
 INLAND TOURISM
It refers to the tourist attractions areas and activities found in the
interior of a country or continent, far away from the sea. This will
include game reserves, monuments etc.
 COASTAL TOURISM

It refers to the tourist attraction areas and activities that era found
near the sea, along the beach. This include sea diving, bays etc.
Some of the countries in Africa that practice coastal tourism are South
Africa and Kenya.
Areas of coastal tourism in these countries include:
South Africa Kenya
Mossel Bay Watamu bay
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Durban Mombasa
Cape Town Malindi
Port Elizabeth Sunny Beaches
Oyster Coral Reefs
Marine life Oceans

FACTORS INFLUENCING TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

 Climate e.g. sunny conditions, areas with snow

 Physical landscape e.g. mountains, lakes - mountain climbing /hiking,

sky diving and lakes for swimming, boat cruising.
 Wildlife e.g. birds, wild animals and vegetation.
 Buildings and monuments – Matsieng foot print and three Dikgosi
monument
 Sports and recreational activities e.g. football, golf, fishing etc
 Availability of accommodation e.g. hotels, camping sites etc
 Transport accessibility e.g. better roads, railway line and air lines
 Cultural activities e.g. letlhafula day, domboshaba, dithubaruba
 Political stability
 Beaches
INLAND TOURISM (BOTSWANA)
TOURIST ATTRACTIONS IN BOTSWANA
o Wildlife
o Okavango Delta
o Caves – Gcwihaba Caves, Legaga la ga Setshele
o Rock Paintings – Tsodilo hills, Manyana
o The Kalahari Desert – Sand dunes
o Historical sites e.g. Lentswe la Baratani, Kolobeng, David Livingstone’s
Fig. Tree

ADVANTAGES/BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE/POSITIVE IMPACTS OF TOURISM

INDUSTRY IN BOTSWANA.
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 o It creates employment/income
o Source of foreign exchange
o Leads to the development of infrastructure
o Encourages local industries
o Encourages conservation of natural resources
o It improves international relations
o Encourages preservation of local culture
o Promotes the name of the country
o Promotes the development of remote areas by stimulating the
provision of services

DISADVANTAGES/NEGATIVE IMPACTS
o Poaching
o It brings conflicts between the tourism industry and other land users
e.g. agriculture
o Leads to the spread of diseases across countries e.g. SARS
o Promotes pollution e.g. littering
o Can promote prostitution
o May lead to the erosion of local culture through imitating foreign
clothing, hairstyles etc
o It is seasonal (during the off-peaks season, the industry suffers and
people may lose their jobs)
o Encourages all forms of crime e.g. theft, illegal drugs/substance abuse,
poaching, human trafficking, burglary, rape etc.
PROBLEMS FACED BY BOTSWANA AND OTHER COUNTRIES IN
DEVELOPING/IMPROVING THE TOURISM INDUSTRY
o Lack of capital – the industry requires a lot of capital
o Poor road conditions, especially in remote rural areas
o Serious competitions from other well known countries
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 o Shortage of skilled manpower – needs high level of management
o Limited participation of the local people – few people afford touring
o Poor transport systems e.g. poor air line services
POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS
o Financial assistance by the government e.g. CEDA
o Infrastructural Development to link all tourist attraction areas and
make them accessible e.g. Trans – Kalahari road
o Manpower training for locals e.g. LEA
o Encouraging local people to visit areas of attraction so that they can
develop their own tourist industry e.g. low tourist packages for locals
o Formulation of policies to develop the tourism industries
o Increasing air lines, improving transport systems.

THE ROLE PLAYED BY STAKEHOLDERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

TOURISM INDUSTRY.
THE GOVERNMENT
 Enforces anti – poaching laws

 Protects and conserves natural resources and wildlife through national

parks and game reserves.
 Formulate tourism policies and implement them
 Develop infrastructure in tourist areas
 Advertise the tourism industry abroad through BEDIA, HATAB
THE PRIVATE SECTOR
 Provides/improves tourist accommodation

 Advertises Botswana abroad through agencies

 Can train locals in hotels catering and tourism skills
 Can reduce flight rates and have holiday packages to attract tourists
 Improve tourism attractions

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NON – GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
 Promotes and implements tourism policies

 Provides education
 Can research on tourism related topics to give more information
about the industry
 Can promote conservation of wildlife e.g. Mokolodi Nature Reserve
LOCAL COMMUNITIES
 Promotes conservation through CBNRM (Community Based National
Resource Management)
 Provides resort areas e.g. Cultural Villages

CASE STUDIES
KRUGER NATIONAL PARK (SOUTH AFRICA)
- Located in the northwest corner of Mpumalanga province
- It covers about 20 000km2
- Vegetation is savanna type which is sustainable for game grazing
- Relief is flat
- It has a well developed network of tarred and dirt roads as well as
services to the park
- Plenty of animals by the riverside, so they are easy to view
- 3000 Rest Camps with a total of 5000 beds
- Wide variety of animals/ wildlife
- Several air strips
Problems in Kruger National Park
- Animals do not live in a real natural state i.e. diseases are controlled
by injections and spraying of sick animals
- The park is fenced so animals are not free to search further away for
food

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 - Predatory animals such as lions, leopards and hyenas do not reduce
the number of other animals
- Culling is being done to reduce the number or keep down the
number of animals
- Overgrazing due to large number of elephants
- Competition for water with people in the surrounding areas who want
for domestic use
Benefits/Advantages
- High level of local tourists
- Well developed tourist infrastructure
- Availability of home grown skills to develop the tourist industry
- Employment within and outside park
- Market for local products
Disadvantages/Negatives
- High incidents of all forms of crime e.g. theft, substance abuse
- Dilution of culture/Erosion of culture
- Prostitution/social ills

TOURISM IN KENYA

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Factors influencing tourism in Kenya
- Political stability
- The government of Kenya has actively encouraged tourists
- Great variety of scenery such as highlands, rift valleys and many lakes,
volcanoes.
- Variety of wildlife in parks
- Sunny and sandy beaches
Advantages of tourism in Kenya
- Source of foreign exchange
- Source of income/employment
- Source of government revenue through taxes
- Encourages local craft industry

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 AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the practice of growing crops and rearing animals.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
1. Arable farming – the growing of crops
2. Pastoral farming – rearing of livestock
3. Mixed farming – growing of crops and rearing of livestock
4. Intensive farming – where there are:

 More yields per hectare

 More profits per hectare
 A large amount of capital used
 Small farms used
5. Extensive farming – where there are:

 Less yields per hectare

 Less profits per hectare
 Less workers per hectare
 Small amount of capital invested
 Large farms used
ARABLE FARMING
There are two types of arable farming mainly: subsistence and commercial
farming.
a. Subsistence arable farming (Practiced all over Botswana except in
some areas within the Kalahari desert)
This is the growing of crops for family consumption
Characteristics/features:

98
  It depends on family labor
 Simple hand tools are used/use of simple implements e.g. hoe
 There is small scale production
 Do not use pesticides and fertilizers
 Produce a variety of crops at the same time e.g. sorghum, maize,
water melon etc
 Crop farms are usually unfenced
 Rely on rainfall
Activities
 Clearing of land
 Fencing
 Ploughing
 Weeding (using simple tools)
 Harvesting
Inputs:
 Communal land
 Simple tools e.g. ox drawn plough (drought power), hoe
 Rainfall (natural input)
 Ordinary seeds (seeds from the previous harvest)
 Family labor
 Tree branches used as fence

Outputs (mainly crops)

 Maize
 Water melon
 Groundnuts
 Sweet potatoes
 Millet
 Beans
Problems faced by subsistence farmers
 Pests and diseases
 Drought
 Wild Animals
 Infertile Soil

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  Unreliable rainfall/low rainfall/uneven distribution of rainfall
 High temperatures
 Porous soils/sandy soil/high infiltration soils/poor water holding
capacity
Possible Solutions
 Use of pesticides and insecticides
 Use of irrigation methods
 Fencing and use of scarecrows
 Use of Fertilizers
EFFORTS MADE BY THE GOVERNMENT TO IMPROVE
TRADITIONAL/SUBSISTANCE FARMING
 Arable Land Development Programme (ALDEP)
It was formed to provide loans and grants for:
 Fencing materials

 Water tanks

 Buying simple tools for farmers e.g. ploughs, harrows,

planters and cultivators
 Scotch Cart – to transport inputs and farm produce to
and from the markets and homesteads
 Thrashing Machine

 Chaff – Cutter for cutting stover into small pieces for

feeding livestock

 Accelerated Rain – fed Arable Programme(ARAP)

Its main aim was to provide water and pesticides to farmers

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  Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board
It is responsible for purchasing food grains e.g. maize, sorghum, millet
etc from farmers
b. Commercial Arable farming:
This is a farming system that is based on cash crop farming. It is
mainly for profit making. The areas of commercial farming in
Botswana are:

- Tuli Block Gantsi Block

- Talana Farms Mogobane farms

- Barolong Farms Lobatse Block

- Chobe farms Pandamatenga

Farms
Examples of commercial farms are freehold farms and Leasehold farms
which are privately owned farms.

Characteristics:
o The farms are large
o Rotational farming is practiced
o Chemicals such as pesticides and artificial fertilizers
are used
o Irrigation systems are used
o Large amount of capital is required
o Use of heavy machinery
o Requires skilled labor
o Produce high amounts of outputs

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Activities:
o Clearing and fencing
o Ploughing
o Weeding
o Harvesting
o Processing
o Irrigation
Inputs:
o Commercial or freehold land
o Hired labor
o Selected and treated seeds
o Artificial fertilizers
o Heavy machinery
Outputs:
o High quality grain for sale e.g. rice, maize
o Citrus fruits
o Sunflower
o Groundnuts
o Cotton
o Tea
Problems faced by commercial farmers: Solutions
 Lack of market
Introduce new marketing strategies
 Crop pests and diseases Use pesticides and

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 herbicides
 Lack of enough capital Provision of grants and
loans
Lack of skilled labor Training manpower
Lack of transport Improving transport infrastructure
Wild animals Improve managerial skills
CASE STUDY - TULI BLOCK
Factors that influence the Location of Tuli Block:
o Availability of water for irrigation from Limpopo river
o Availability of large flat land
o Availability of fertile loamy and alluvial soil which are
easy to cultivate
o Availability of casual labour from surrounding villages
such as Tsetsetbjwe and Molalatau
o Suitable weather conditions; just about enough rainfall
and sunlight
PLANTATIONS:
It is a large estate or farm where there is an intensive cultivation of one crop
(monoculture) for sale e.g. sugar cane in Natal, South Africa, Cotton wool
plantation in Sudan (Gezira Scheme), sunflower, coffee etc. It involves a
massive capital investment.
The characteristics or features of a plantation include the following:
 A large freehold land
 Practice monoculture
 Has a nursery
 Transport for workers is provided to and from the
plantation

103
  Has a processing plant on site
 Has workers houses on site
 Has water supply for irrigation
 Has a wide variety of services or amenities on site e.g.
schools for education, hall and bar for entertainment and recreational
purposes, shop for shopping
 There is use of chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides)
 There is use of advanced machinery
BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES TO THE PEOPLE AND THE
COUNTRY
PEOPLE COUNTRY
Creates employment/income Source of Foreign Exchange
Source of livestock food Source of Government revenue
Source of cheap food stuff Diversifies the economy
Leads to rural developments/reduces Leads to the development of other
rural urban migration industries
Leads to high standard of Leads to infrastructural
living/improved lifestyles developments e.g. roads, railway
lines
Acquire Knowledge/skills in advanced Has large supply of raw
modern methods of farming materials/food supply
It has a large scale of production
ensuring increased yields
Reduces dependence on other
countries/reduces imports/self –
sufficient

PROBLEMS/DISAVANTAGES ASSOCIATED WITH PLANTATION FARMING:

 Crops are usually for export, not for local market

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  Plantation farming leads to over production of one
crop/monoculture
 Leads to migration of people
 The economy is dominated by foreign companies
 Creates competition for land
 Diseases may destroy the whole crop in a plantation
 Multinational companies may pull out at any time
 Most of the profits leaves the country
 At the plantations, there is exploitation of workers
 There is pollution from the fertilizers
 Deforestation
 Soil erosion/land degradation
 Plantations causes soil exhaustion
 Leads to subsistence farming being neglected
 Plantations are affected by fluctuation of
prices/demand/recession

SUGAR CANE PLANTATION IN KWA ZULU NATAL SOUTH AFRICA:

It is a tall grass that grows in areas that are influenced by warm and moist
weather. South Africa is known as the great producer of sugar. The sugar
cane plantations are found in the Kwa Zulu Natal Province and it was first
grown there in 1847 by a man called Mr. Morewood.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CULTIVATION OF SUGARCANE IN KWA ZULU

NATAL WEST OF DURBAN.
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 o Suitable temperatures (mean monthly temperatures
between 25 c and 30oc)
o

o Annual rainfall between 1000mm and 1500mm

o Availability of fertile soils
o Availability of large flat land
o Availability of cheap labour from locals
o Availability of better communication systems e.g.
roads
CULTIVATION:
o Stems of sugarcane are cut about 15 – 20cm (1 or 2
joints) with 2 to 4 buds.
o The buds are dipped into insecticides to prevent
diseases
o The stems are then planted in furrows which are
about 13.5cm apart.
o This takes place between September and November
because it is the rainy period and temperatures are appropriate
o The first shoot is cut to allow the growth of the
stronger stem
o The growing period is between 20 – 25 months.
HARVESTING:
o It takes place between May and September
o The cane is cut with machetes
o The cane is then collected in bundles and transported
by trucks to the processing plant
PROCESSING SUGARCANE:
It is first cut into short lengths by revolving knives
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 o It is then crushed by rollers to extract juice
o The juice is weighed and then mixed with lime in
order to remove impurities
o The clarifier removes impurities and the evaporation
and boiling pans purify it further
o The juice is boiled to remove excess water, then is
cooled to produce sugar crystals
o The crystals are then covered in a sticky brown liquid
(molasses) so they are put into the separator
PROBLEMS OF SUGARCANE PLANTATIONS:
o Crop diseases and pests
o Infertile soil
o Shortage of capital
o Heavy storm and floods
o Drought
o Fluctuation of market prices
o
BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE OF SUGARCANE PLANTATION:
o Creates employment
o Source of foreign exchange
o Provides sugar/source of food
o Diversifies the economy
o Its wastes provides fertilizers and animal feed
USES OF SUGAR:
o Sweetens food

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 o Used in an adhesive as an ingredient
o Used in the production of drugs/medicinal
o Used in Photographic materials

COTTON PLANTATION (GEZIRA SCHEME) SUDAN:

The most important and successful large scale irrigation scheme in Sudan is
the Gezira scheme. It is located between the Blue and White Nile Rivers and
also north of the Sennar dam. The Gezira has been known for the
production of good quality cotton for many years.

FAVOURABLE FACTORS FOR THE GEZIRA IRRIGATION SCHEME:

 A large flat land/gentle slope between the Blue and
White Nile Rivers
 Availability of cheap labor from locals

 Have fertile silt soil from volcanic basalt

 Are near perennial water sources/ Blue and White Nile

Rivers
 Has clay beneath silt which reduces drainage of
valuable water
 Has little vegetation to be cleared

 Water can flow by gravity avoiding expense of

pumping
 Availability of reliable water source from the Sennar
dam
 Political stability
CULTIVATION OF COTTON:
 Cotton is sewn in ridges that are a meter apart

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  Several seeds are planted together and when they
have grown to a height of a few centimeters, thinning is done
 The plants start flowering after three months
 They mature into seed pods known as bolls
 The bolls contain a fluffy white fiber called lint
 When they are mature, the bolls burst and open to
expose the lint.
HARVESTING:
 Harvesting is done by hand
 The clean bolls will be separated from the
stained/dirty ones and then sent to the gins for processing
PROCESSING:
 The bolls are put in gins
 Lint is separated from the seeds and compressed into
bales
 Bales of cotton are sent to textile factories to be
weaved into cotton cloth
 The seeds are crushed to produce oil
USES OF COTTON:
 To provide cotton
 The seeds can be used to make cooking oil
BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE:
 Source of large supply raw material
 Creates employment/income
 Source of foreign Exchange
 Diversify the economy
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  Leads to the development of infrastructure
 Source of government revenue
 Leads to the development of other industries
 Leads to rural developments
 Leads to high standards of living
 Reduces dependence on other countries/reduces
importing from other countries
 It has advanced modern methods of farming
PROBLEMS:
 Pests and diseases
 Fluctuating market prices
 Drought
 Infertile soils
 Shortage of capital

IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN BOTSWANA

Irrigation is the controlled application of water to particular area by means a
rivers, boreholes, dams etc. There are various irrigation methods used by
commercial farmers in Botswana:
1. FLOOD IRRIGATION
This is where water is spread over a large area to soak into the
ground. The water flows through irrigation channels with branches
leading to areas to be irrigated. The method is practiced in Tuli Block.

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2. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
The water is pumped through a pipe with a series of holes and the
water is spread out through holes. This method is used in Seleka and
Talana farms.

3. SURFACE/FURROW IRRIGATION
It is usually used in a sloppy area/land to allow water to be directed
to specific areas in the field. This method is used at
Mmathubudukwane in the banks of Madikwe river.

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4. DRIP IRRIGATION
Its water drips at a rate of two litters per hour from the suspended
plastic pipes set 60cm apart. Drip method is highly recommended
compared to other methods because evaporation rate is very low.

5. CENTRE PIVOT

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 A centre pivot is a long structure where pipes are attached with
sprinkles at regular intervals. The fields are usually in a circular place.
This method is used in some freehold areas such as the Gaborone
Block, Talana farms and Tuli Block.

Reasons why irrigation is not wide spread in Botswana

 High evaporation rate
 Lack of knowledge in the application of irrigation
systems
 Unreliable rainfall
 Few perennial rivers
 It is expensive
Advantages of using irrigation
 Increase agricultural yields/production
 Can be used during dry seasons
 Can help to provide water throughout the year

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PASTORAL FARMING IN BOTSWANA
It is the rearing of animals/livestock
Subsistence pastoral farming – the rearing or livestock for family
consumption
Commercial pastoral farming – the raring of livestock for profit/sale
Ranch – a large fenced area of commercial pastoral farming
Freehold farm – privately owned farm
Factors influencing distribution of cattle/livestock
 Availability of vegetation
 Availability of water supply
 Availability of market for the products
 Availability of cheap labor
 Availability for transport to the market
Cattle distribution in Botswana
Most cattle are found in the eastern part of Botswana because there is more
pastures/large grazing area.
There are no cattle farming in the following areas because:
A – Thick forest/tsetse fly/wildlife/national park
B – Swamps/tsetse fly/wildlife/national park/game reserve
C – Salt pans/no drinking water
Commercial farming: Subsistence
farming

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Carried out in ranches

uses communal land

Practices rotational grazing

depends on family labor

Employs trained managers produces
at small scale
Practices regular vaccination
Produces at large scale

Inputs Inputs
Commercial land communal land
Local and exotic breeds local breeds
Stock feeds rain
Hired labor family labor
Vaccines

Outputs Outputs
Milk milk
Meat meat
Skin/hide skin/hide

Activities Activities
Dehorning milking
Dipping branding

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Branding
Vaccinating

Problems: Problems
Unreliable rainfall unreliable rainfall
Livestock diseases livestock diseases
Conflict with the tourism industry
overgrazing
Distant markets livestock
Fluctuating market prices
Overgrazing
Solutions: Solutions:
Regular vaccinating and dipping Regular
vaccinating and dipping
Expansion of transport links using
boreholes
Limit stocking rates
training workers
Limit stocking rates

ADVANTAGES OF KEEPING LIVESTOCK ON RANCHES

They control breeding
Control grazing by paddocking
Easy control of diseases
Control movement of cattle/reduces loss of livestock through going astray

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IMPACTS OF PASTORAL FARMING ON THE ENVIROMENT
o Overgrazing
o Soil erosion
o Depletion of water sources
o Deforestation
o Rangeland degradation
o Desertification
o Extinction of certain plant species
PROBLEMS THAT MAKE IT DIFFICULT FOR MANY CATTLE FARMERS TO
BECOME COMMRCIAL FARMERS
o Lack of access to credit facilities
o Lack of boreholes
o Lack of education/skill/managerial skill
o Lack of forage/pastures
o Poor breeds
o Lack of capital
CHANGES OCCURING IN THE SUBSISTENCE FARMING SYSTEM IN
BOTSWANA
o Use of fertilizers/pesticides
o Hired labour
o Use of irrigation systems
o Regular dipping and vaccinating
o Rotational farming
o Dehorning of cattle

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 MINING
Mining is the extraction of minerals underground.
MINERALS AND ROCKS FOUND IN BOTSWANA
The main type of rocks are:
1. Sedimentary rocks – these are formed when rock particles are
deposited in rivers, seas, oceans and lakes e.g. sandstones and river
sand.
2. Igneous rocks – these are formed from the cooling of very hot liquid
which comes from deep in the earth.
3. Metamorphic rocks – they are formed when sedimentary and igneous
rocks are changed by heat and pressure
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE MINING
o Size of the deposit
o Geological occurrence of the ore
o Market price and demand
o Availability of capital
o Availability of labour
o Availability waters supply
o Accessibility to railway and roads
o Political stability of the area
o Availability of power supply
o Quality of the mineral ore
o Accessibility of the ore
o Relief of the site etc
IMPORTANCE OF MINING TO THE PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENT OF
BOTSWANA
o Brings revenue
o Provides foreign exchange/income
o Creates employment
o Influence the development of infrastructure e.g schools
o Provides raw materials for other industries e.g processing industries
o Stimulates the development of new industries e.g diamond polishing,
construction
o Helps pay for the training of locals e.g DEBSWANA scholarship
program

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METHODS OF MINING
1. shaft mining
It is used when the ore is deep underground. It has several problems that
include:
 danger of underground dangerous gases
 excessive heat
 flooding
 rocks falling

2. Open pit/open cast/strip

It is used when the ore is close to the ground surface
3. Panning
It is used in mining minerals which are found on the river bed
4. Adit/drift mining
It is used to mine minerals on the side of the hill or the mineral ore occurs
in horizontal layers
5. Quarrying
It is when explosives are used to loosen the rock from the rock surface.
PROBLEMS FACED BY COUNTRIES/ECONOMIES DEPENDENT ON
MINERAL EXTRACTION
1. Fluctuating market prices
2. Exhaustion of the mineral ore
3. People may lose their jobs if the mineral ore gets depleted
4. It may lead to the development of ghost town when the mines closes
5. Closure of some businesses e.g. hare ware selling mine equipment
6. Decline in the gross national product

COPPER NICKEL MINE IN SELIBE PHIKWE

GEOLOGICAL OCCURANCE
Deposits of copper are found in the metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary
rocks. These are rocks which can be easily folded under great pressure. Its
ore has only 1% mineral content and found in combination with nickel and
cobalt. The 2 methods of copper extraction are:
 Open pit for surface ore
 Vertical shaft for the deeper ore

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METHODS OF EXTRACTION
1. Removal of waste rocks to expose the ore
2. Drilling using hand drilling
3. Explosives are put at the end of drilling holes to blast the ore into
pieces
4. The ore is loaded into a small train through a haulage way into a skip
which will be pulled to the surface through the shaft
5. The ore will then be loaded into trucks and transported to the
processing plant.
PROCESSING

1. At the processing plant, the mineral ore is put into a primary crasher
where it is crushed into small pieces
2. It is then sent to the secondary crusher where it would be crushed
into particles under 12mm in size.
3. It is then grinded in the ball mills into fine power
4. It is then sent to the concentrator where it would be mixed with
water and some chemicals
5. The wet concentrator ore will be dried and taken for smelting.
SMELTING
1. The ore is heated in the blast furnace
2. It melts and produces a very hot molten liquid called matte
3. The matte is removed from the bottom of the furnace and passes
through water to cool
4. Black powder will be produced
5. It is then packed in bags for exportation
USES OF COPPER
1. For making ornaments
2. For making alloys
3. Making cans
4. Making pipes for plumbing
5. Making electrical appliances etc

DIAMOND MINING
Diamonds in Botswana are mined by the DeBeers Botswana Mining

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Company (Debswana). It is jointly owned by the DeBeers and the Botswana
government. In Botswana, diamonds are mined at Jwaneng, Orapa and
Letlhakeng.
GEOLOGICAL OCCURANCE
Diamonds are found in soft igneous rocks called kimberlite. They are formed
due to volcanic eruption which result in crystallized carbon.

EXTRACTION
Drilling machines are used to drill holes in the rocks
1. Explosives are put into the bottom of the hole and they blast/break
the rocks into small pieces.
2. A mechanical shovel loads the rock pieces into a large truck.
3. The truck transports the rocks out of the pit.
PROCESSING

1. CRUSHING
The rocks from the truck are put into the primary crusher which
brakes them into small pieces less than 15cm in size. The secondary
crusher further crushes the rocks into pieces less than 2.5 in diameter.
2. CONCERNTRATION
The waste material is separated from the diamond by mixing the ore
with water and chemicals in large drums (cyclones) which rotates
quickly. The waste material is usually lighter and is removed from the
top of the cyclone. The diamonds being heavier, fall to the bottom.
Other heavy materials also pass through with the diamonds. This
mixture is called concentrate.
3. FINAL SEPARATION
The concentrate is passed through an x-ray machine called x-ray
separator which separates diamond from most of the remaining heavy
materials. As the diamonds pass through this machine, they shine and
an air gun will blow them into a bin. The remaining heavy materials
are separated by hand.

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 4. GRADING
The diamonds are then sent to Gaborone where they are sorted,
graded and valued at Orapa House by the Botswana Diamond Valuing
Company (BDVC). They are first sorted into gemstones and industrial
diamonds. The best diamonds are the gemstones and are used for
making expensive jewellery. The gemstones are graded according to
their shape, colour, size and their purity. The low quality stones,
known as industrial dimes may be used in drilling or cutting tools,
since diamond is the hardest substance known.
5. VALUING
After grading the diamonds are valued and then sent to London by air.
In London, they are sold to diamond dealers through the Central
Selling Organization (CSO).
CHANGES BROUGHT BY MINING ON THE ENVIRONMENT/LANDSCAPE
POSITIVE
- Development of infrastructure
- Development of other industries

NEGATIVE
- Pollution in all forms
- Development of holes on the earth surface
- Development of waste heaps
- Removal of vegetation, resulting in soil erosion etc

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PROCESSING AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Industrial estate – an area reserved for industrial development

Industrial site – the actual ground on which industries stand

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES

1. PRIMARY INDUSTRIES

They involve the extraction of raw materials from the

environment. Most of the products require processing before
they are used. E.g. farming, forestry, mining, quarrying, fishing
etc

2. SECONDARY INDUSTRIES
They use raw materials from primary industries to produce a
wide range of products. Two types of secondary industries are:

- Processing - It is an industry that refines/cleans/purifies/treats

raw materials into finished goods that resemble the raw
materials used. Only one raw material is used. e.g. BMC

- Manufacturing - It is an industry where 2 or more raw materials

are combined to make or produce new and different end
products. It produces goods of high quality e.g. motor vehicle
assembling industry

PROCESSING MANUFACTURING
- Few changes made to - Products may appear
the raw materials quite different from the
original raw material
- Often employ unskilled - Employ a higher portion
labour who operate of skilled workers in the
simple machinery labour
- Simple - complex
- machines used are large
and require skilled

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 operators

3. TERTIARY INDUSTRIES
It deals with service activities/provides services to the people
e.g. shops, banks, hospitals etc. they can be privately owned
e.g. banks, insurances or owned by the government e.g. Air
Botswana or even parastatals e.g. BPC, WUC

4. QUATERNARY INDUSTRIES
They provide specialized services e.g. computer programming,
computer engineering etc

FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION OF AN INDUSTRY

- Proximity (near) to the raw material

- Proximity to source of power
- Government policy
- Availability of a large market
- Availability of cheap abundant flat land
- Availability of good infrastructure e.g roads
- Availability if skilled man power
- Personal choice

ADVANTAGES BOTSWANA HAS FOR INDUSTRAIL DEVELOPMENT

- Availability of heap labour

- Political stability
- Good infrastructure development of industrial estates with
water and power connections
- Availability of raw material
- Membership to the Southern African Customs Union (SACU)
which offers a large market since there is free movement of
certain goods between member states.

FACTORS HINDERING INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

- Lack of capital
- Lack of skilled labour

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 - Lack/shortage of water
- Expensive urban land
- Competition in the world market
- Small local market because the small population size
- Expensive

IMPORTANCE/BENEFITS OF INDUSTRIES
- It increases the wealth of the country
- Leads to development of manpower training of locals
- Leads to diversification of the of the country’s economy
- Increases employment opportunities
- Decreases dependence on imports.

REASONS WHY INDUSTRIAL ESTATES ARE LOCATED IN THE

OUTSKIRTS OF TOWNS.

- To avoid pollution
- For cheaper land
- To avoid congestion
- For more space to expand
- There is less competition of land at the outskirts

ADVANTAGES OF CONCERNTRATING INDUSTRIES IN INDUSTRIAL

ESTATES (industrial agglomeration)

- There is easy access to people living around industries

- There is easy access to materials
- There is sharing of the costs of certain facilities e.g power
- It is a pool of skilled labour

DISADVANTAGES OF CONCERNTRATING INDUSTRIES IN

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES (industrial agglomeration)

- Pollution
- Competition for land and customers
- Traffic congestion
- They may be far from customers

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EFFORTS MADE BY THE GOVERNMENT OF BOTSWANA TO
IMPROVE INDUSTRAIL DEVELOPMENT

- Financial assistance e.g. CEDA, NDB, BDC, Youth Fund

- Education and training e.g. LEA
- Setting up industrial estates
- Providing factory shells
- Promotion of local raw materials
- Industrialization of rural areas
- Development of infrastructure e.g. roads
- Provision of markets
- Advertising e.g. BEDIA
- Provision of tax holidays
- Quotas and tariffs on imported goods

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SMALL AND LARGE SCALE INDISTRIES

SMALL SCALE e.g pottery, LARGE SCALE

metal work, basketry
Uses less capital investment Uses large capital investment
Uses few manpower Uses more manpower (labour
intensive)
Has low inputs and outputs Has high inputs and outputs
Uses simple technology Uses complex technology
Covers /uses a small area of Uses a large area of land
land

CASE STUDY OF PROCESSING INDUSTRIES IN BOTSWANA

BOTSWANA MEAT COMMISSION (LARGE SCALE)

Raw material - cattle

Location- Lobatse, Francistown

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 FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION OF BMC IN LOBATSE
- Availability of cheap labour from surrounding villages e.g Kanye,
Goodhope, Otse etc
- Availability of cattle from both traditional and freehold farmers
- Availability of water from Gaborone and Nnywane dams
- Good road and rail transport
- Enough land for establishment of the industry

BY PRODUCTS
- Horns are used to make buttons
- Skins are treated and preserved, half of it is sent to the tannery
in Lobatse to be turned into leather while the other half is
exported as wet hides
- Bones are washed and crushed to make bone meal
- Blood is cooked to make blood meal
- Bile from the gall bladder is extracted to used in medicine
- Condemned carcasses and heads are cooked and crushed to
make carcass meal
- Intestines, kidneys,liver,lungs and stomach lining are cleaned
and packed for human consumption

IMPORTANCE OF THE CATTLE INDUSTRY TO THE ECONOMY

- Provides importance market for the local farmers

- Provides employment
- Generate income/foreign exchange
- Leads to development of infrastructure e.g roads,
- Some Batswana are trained to work in the plant
- Promotes the name of the country
- It s source of food
- It is source of raw material e.g horns, bile etc

PROBLEMS FACED BY THE CATTLE INDUSTRY IN BOTSWANA

- Cattle are trekked for a long distance and lose weight

- Fluctuating market prices in the world market
- Cattle diseases e.g foot and mouth
- Competition with butcheries which offer immediate cash to
farmers
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 - Shortage of water during drought period
- Distant markets European Union (EU) result in high transport
costs
- Low quality beef which affect the prices in the world market

SOLUTIONS

- Provision of boreholes to farmers by the government

- Regular vaccinations
- Subsidized prices of supplementary feeds to livestock to
improve the quality if the beef
- Provision of loans and grants for improving the standards of the
beef industry

IMPACT OF BMC ON THE ENVIRONMENT

- Pollution
- Development of waste heaps within the surrounding areas
- Re-allocation of settlements
- Clearing of land leads to loss of vegetation

GUMARE BASKET WEAVERS (SMALL SCALE)

Raw material – mokolwane leaves/motlhakola barks

Location – Ngamiland

HOW BASKETS ARE MADE

- Mokolwane leaves are boiled and then dried in the sun

- Leaves are then cut into long thin strips
- The strips are then boiled together with motlhakola barks to
dye them to a brownish colour
- Reeds, grass, or creepers are used to make basket coils
- Leaf strips are then used to wrap around the basket coil
- The basket is then stitched together

USE OF BASKETS
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 - For decoration
- For winnowing (leselo)
- For storing grain (sesigo)
- For carrying things (grains)

MARKET
- Botswana Craft in Gaborone
- Local shops in Gumare
- Tourists

BENEFITS / IMPORTANCE
- Women are empowered
- Creation of employment
- Promotes tourism in the area
- Utilization of local resources
- Improvement of standard of living for Gumare women
- Improves self-sufficiency

CASE STUDY OF A MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA

Integrated steel works – all processes form input of ore to finished

steel carried out in one place
Pig iron – molten iron with impurities i.e. iron as it comes out from
the blast furnace containing impurities

Iron ore is found in rocks which are associated with volcanic eruptions
and igneous rocks.

Location – Pretoria

Raw material – iron ore

Factors influencing location

- Availability of water from the Vaal river

- Availability of cheap labour from surrounding areas e.g
Mamelodi, Soshanguve
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 - Availability of power supplied by Eskom
- Availability of coke from Natal
- Availability of capital from South African government
- Availability of coking coal from Witbank

METHODS OF EXTRACTION
- Drilling machines are used to open holes in rocks in order to
pave way for explosive
- Explosives are put at the end of the holes to blast the rocks
open
- The ore is then transported by trucks to the processing plant

PROCESSING OF IRON ORE

- The ore will be crushed into small pieces
- The crushed ore is put into a concentrator and mixed with
chemicals to remove impurities
- The ore is dried and then put into the blast furnace where it is
heated at very high temperatures
- Molten iron is called molten pig iron
- The molten pig iron is then cooled

CONVERSION OF THE PIG IRON TO STEEL

Steel is produced by smelting pig iron and some small amounts of

metals such as cobalt and nickel. The steel will be rolled into bars,
plates and sheets. The steel is used as the main raw material for the
manufacture of motor vehicles.

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUT

Scrap iron Casting/moulding Pig iron/cast iron
Limestone Rolling Slag
Coke/coke Forging
Oxygen/air
Alloy metal
Carbon
Water
Sand
Fire clay

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 Electricity

SECTION D

POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT STUDIES

POPULATION STUDIES

Definition of terms

Population: it is the number of people in an area or a country

Doubling time: the number of years it takes for a population to double the
present population e.g. in every 15 years
Dependency ratio: the ratio of the economically dependent part of the
population (under 16 and above 64) to the productive part of the population
(between 16 and 64) or the proportion of working people to non-working
people.
Population growth: the speed at which the population is increasing. Growth
may occur when the number of births is greater than the number of deaths.
Life expectancy: it is the average number of years that one is expected to
live in a particular country e.g. In Botswana life expectancy for men is 54
years and 62 for women
Infant mortality rate: the number of death of infants before their first
birthday expressed per thousand live births. Infant mortality is a widely used
indicator of health condition and general living standard of people in a
particular area.
Population explosion: it is the sudden population increase resulting from a
rapid fall in death rate and a high birth rate.
Population density: the number of people living per square kilometer (km²).
It shows the number of people found within a square unit of land such as a
kilometer (km). It is influenced by factors such as climate, minerals, water
availability, less fertile soils.
Population distribution: the way people are spread or settled in a country. It
is influenced by the availability of water, fertile soils, and minerals etc.
Optimum population: it is the population size which is felt to be most
desirable for the utilization of the country’s natural resources.
Overpopulation: it is when a country has more people and few resources.
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This can lead to hunger, disease or under development.
Under population: it is when a country has more resources and less people
Population census; this is the official count of people in a country at a given
time, usually done every ten years.
Defacto: it is the actual population present in the country
Dejure: it is population in the country, including those residents temporarily
out of the country.
Fertility rate: the number of children born per 1000 women of child bearing
age.
Mortality rate/death rate: the number deaths per 1000 people per year.
Birth rate: the number of live births per 1000 women

WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

DENSELY POPULATED
 East Asia
 East of USA
 West of European

SPARCELY POPULATED
 Sahara desert
 Canada
 Russia/ North of Europe

WHY SOME AREAS ARE SPARCELY POPULATED

 Presence of mountains/mountainous land

 Low rainfall/too much of rainfall
 Extreme climatic conditions e.g too hot/too hot
 Desert areas
 Dense forests
 Occurrence of pests and diseases
 Presence of infertile soils
 Few resources e.g areas without minerals
 Presence of slopes

WHY SOME AREAS ARE DENSELY POPULATED

 Favourable climate e.g. adequate rainfall

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  Presence of resources e.g minerals
 Presence of fertile soils
 Presence of gentle slopes/flat land
 Availability of water sources
 Political factors e.g whereby the government decides where
people should settle
 Availability of pastures/vegetation
 Presence of communication links e.g roads, railway lines etc
 Disease free areas
 Government policy

FACTORS AFFECTING/ INFLUENCING POPULATION GROWTH

HIGH BIRTH RATE

This is when birth rate is higher than death rate. There are several
reasons for high birth rate. They include
o The desire for boys or girls
o Early marriage
o Social prestige
o Religion and beliefs

IMPROVED HEALTH FACILITIES

This has led to a decrease in death rates. Many people survive and
this combined with the fact that birth rate is high leads to rapid
population growth

DECLINE IN INFANT MORTALITY

Many infants are able to survive due to food availability and good
medical facilities. This therefore leads to rapid population growth.

FAMILY PLANNING OF BIRTH CONTROL

It is not fully accepted in developing countries and most people have
not yet seen the need to control births. they end up having many
children which result in rapid population.

IMPROVED FOOD SUPPLY

People live much longer because they get nutritional balanced diets.

IMPROVED WATER SUPPLY

People live longer because they drink clean water
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IN MIGRATION
Population will increase when people from other countries move into
the country

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY RAPID POPULATION GROWTH

LACK OF JOBS
If the population increases rapidly, there won’t be enough jobs for
everyone.

SHORTAGE OF HOUSING/OVERCROWDING
People will not be able to provide enough housing for their families.

OVER POPULATION
If the population grows rapidly they would be few resources which
will not be enough to support the population and this will put
pressure on resources.
SHORTAGE OF FOOD AND WATER
Food and water will be expensive because they would be high
demand (when there are many people in-need of something the
prices will be high). People will not be able to provide enough food
for their loved families.
GROWTH IN CRIME RATE
Crime will increase due to unemployment, lack of food and as well as
lack of housing. This is because some people resort to crime as a way
living.
SHORTAGE OF MEDICAL FACILITIES
There will be shortage of medical facilities, therefore medical costs
will go high
GROWTH OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENT
People would migrate to other areas to look for jobs. Those who are
unable to find descent houses/settlement will settle in the marginal
areas thereby developing squatter settlements.
POVERTY
People who can’t find jobs/employment will become poor.
SHORTAGE OF EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES
There will be many children and schools will not be enough for all of
them.
LOW STANDARD OF LIVING
People will be unable to afford basic necessities such as batter food,
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 shelter and water and their standards of living will be low.
SHORTAGE OF TRANSPORT FACILITIES
If the population grows rapidly there would be many people and
transport facilities such as buses, trains e.t.c will not be enough.
Overcrowding/lack of housing
Pollution
Spread of disease
Land degradation
Social ills e.g. prostitution
Traffic congestion

SOLUTIONS TO TRAFFIC CONGESTION

- One way routes
- Fly-overs
- Overhead pedestrian bridges
- Number plates access
- Traffic circles
- By-passes
- Free ways
- Multi laned roads
- Traffic lights
- Parking meters
- Traffic cops

THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL

Demographic transition model states that population passes through stages
of changes and these changes are linked to the stage of development of the
country.

STAGE 1 (high fluctuating)

It is characterized by high birth rates and high death rates and a low natural
increase in population

Reasons for high birth rates

o Traditional beliefs/social customs - Children are highly valued

as a sign of wealth
o No use of contraceptives
o Infant mortality rate is high so parents have many children to
ensure that some live (death insurance)

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 o Children are a source of free labour on the farms
o Polygamy – when people marry more than one wife they are
bound to have many children
o Desire to sure sexual power by having many children
o Early marriages – when people marry early, they have more
child bearing years as compared to those who marry late.
o Gender/sex preference – the desire have a certain leads to
some people having many children.

Reasons for high death rates

o Poor food supply and poor diets

o Outbreak of plague diseases e.g cholera
o Poor hygiene
o Poor medical facilities
o Lack of food / starvation
o Lack of clean piped water

STAGE 2 (early expanding)

It is characterized by declining deaths, high birth rates and a rapid natural
increase in population. This is because of:

o Availability of improved medical facilities

o Low knowledge on the use of contraceptives
o Improved sanitation
o Supply of clean piped water
o Reduction in infant mortality
o Improved food production leading better diets
o Improved hygiene and sanitation
o High child survival, meaning less pressure to bear many
children

STAGE 3 (late expansion|)

It is characterized by low death rates, sharp decline in birth rates and a slow
natural increase in population.

Falling birth rate because ;

o Better standards of living e.g having bigger houses, cars as a results
people start having fewer children which competition with raising of

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 children.
o people have accepted the use of birth control methods e.g use of
family planning and illegalized abortion
o Low infant mortality rate reduces the need to have more children.
o Increased level of education amongst women/ women also chooses
careers than child bearing.
o Incentives for people having fewer children

STAGE 4 (low stationary)

It is characterized by low birth rates, low death rates and a low natural
increase of population. These have shown that there are:

o Late marriages
o Children are no longer valued as assets (people opt to have
few children)
o people are educated and have fully accepted the used of
birth control methods
o More advancement in medical technology

Areas in stage 4 and 5 have a high aging population with signs of decline.
Problems of an aging population are:
o decline in labour force
o high demand for pensions
o pressure on medical facilities because of occurrence of high
lifestyle diseases e.g heart problems. Hypertension etc
o underutilized services
o underutilized natural resources

SUMMARY

Stage 1 2 3 4
Birth High High Decline Low
rate
Death High Decline Low Low
rate
N.P.I Low Rapid Slow Low
increas increas
e e

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N.P.I= natural population increase

N.B NATURAL POPULATION INCREASE: this is the difference

between birth rate and death rate expressed per 1000 of the
population e.g Birth rate 65 per thousand, death rate 30 per thousand
therefore natural increases in population is going to be 35 per
thousand

65
-30
=3
5
35 per 1000 in one year

Total area Swaziland Lesotho 30 Botswana

in km² 17 000 000 600 000
Total 737 000 167 3000 1164 000
population
٪ living in 26 19 21
towns
Birth rate 47 41 47
per 1000
Death rate 13 12 12
per1000
CALCULATE THE PERCENTAGE NATURAL POPULATION INCREASE
OF EACH OF THE COUNTRIES.

(SKIP 10 LINES FOR THE WORKING)

POPULATION PYRAMID
Age-sex pyramid
It is a special type of bar chart showing population distribution by age
and sex (male and female). The shape of the pyramid can show the
level of development of a country. There are three types of pyramids.

EXPANSIVE PYRAMID
It is associated with developing countries .It is characterized by:

CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTION EXPLANATION

138
 Broad based High birth rates
Steep sloped High death rate
Gets narrow towards the top Low life expectancy
Number of people decreases as age Low life expectancy
increases
Large number of dependents and a High dependency ratio
small number of economically active
group

CONSTRUCTIVE PYRAMID
It associated with developed countries population. Its characteristics
include:

CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTION EXPLANATION
Narrow base Low birth rate
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 Gentle sloped Low death rate
Fairly straight edges High life expectancy
Number of people increase as age High life expectancy
increases
Small number of dependents and a Low dependency ratio
large number of economically
active group
STATIONARY PYRAMID

It has a narrow base that shows a move towards zero growth in

population. It is used to describe highly developed countries. It used
for countries with an aging population. Its characteristics are:

- very few young people

- low dependency ratio
- high life expectancy
- more working population
- more elderly people

N.B: when comparing two pyramids, compare the following:

- gender (males and females)
- Life expectancy
- Dependency ratio
- Birth rate
- Death rate
- The shape

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY IN BOTSWANA

SPARCELY POPULATED ARES

1. the Kgalagadi areas
- low and unreliable rainfall
- poor sandy soils
- drinking water is difficult and expensive to obtain as there is
little surface water
- poor pastures

2. Okavango Delta/area
- Diseases
- Presence of swamps

140
 3. Chobe area
- Most of the land is used for wildlife and forest reserves

DENSELY POPULATED AREAS

1. Eastern areas
- High rainfall
- Fertile soils
- Disease free
- Pastures of better quality
- Developed infrastructure
- Employment opportunities

EFFORTS MADE BY STAKEHOLDERS TO CURB RAPID POPULATION

GROWTH

GOVERNMENT

- Provides awareness/education on family planning

- Provides free contraceptives
- Formulate policies e.g paid maternity leave only for the 3
children, one child policy
- Immunization to reduce infant mortality so lesser children will
be born as few die
- More job opportunities for women
- Improved status of women
- provision of incentives for small families
- migration laws e.g use of visas
- Discourage illegal settlements e.g shanty houses

CHURCHES

- Preach abstinence
- Provide awareness on family planning
- Promote sex after marriage
- Promote celibacy

NGOs
- Provides education on family planning

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 - Implement government policies

COMMUNITIES
- Later marriages therefore fewer child bearing years
- No children before marriage

POPULATION MOVEMENT

Migration
It is the movement of people from one area to another

Emigration
Moving out of a country

Immigration
Movement into a country

Voluntary movement
When people choose to move from one area to another

Involuntary movement
When people are forced to move..Ususllyits due to:
- Famine/lack of food
- Wars creating large numbers of refugees
- Racial discrimination
- Natural disasters e.g floods, earthquakes
- Slavery/slave trade
- Resettlement
- Government policy

Permanent migration
When people leave their place of origin without the intention of coming
back

Temporary migration
When people leave for a short period of time and return to original place

Internal migration
Movement of people within the country

External movement
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Movement of people outside the country

Local migration
Movement within locality e.g from school to home

Regional migration
Movement of people within the region e.g from Gaborone to Mochudi

International movement
Movement of people outside boundaries of the country e.g from Gaborone
to Harare

TYPES OF MIGRATION WITHIN BOTSWANA

- Rural – urban
- Urban – rural
- Rural – rural
- Urban – urban

FACTORS FOR MIGRATION

Push factors/negative

o starvation
o natural disasters e.g floods, droughts, earthquakes etc
o unemployment
o political instability/ persecution
o lack of development e.g educational facilities , health etc
o overcrowding/poor housing in rural areas
o low wages in agricultural work

Pull factors/positive

o higher employment opportunities

o better entertainment
o better medical facilities
o better transport
o political stability

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 o better education
o marriage
o better market
o better shopping facilities
o better standards of living
o higher wages

CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION

Negative effects on source areas / place of origin

o de-population/under population
o declining agricultural production/ agriculture left in the hands
of the inexperienced
o age-sex imbalance structure e.g. there may be more women
than men
o leads to marriage breakdown/separation of families
o family lives changes because women have to play a role of
being both mother and father/juvenile delinquency
o brain drain

Positive effects on source areas / place of origin

o it creates employment opportunities for the remaining

population
o pressure is reduces on resources of land
o decline in birth rates
o migrants may bring new skills
o migrants send money home to improve living standards

Negative effects on the receiving area

o overcrowding
o unemployment
o lack of housing
o poor sanitation
o increased crime rate
o traffic congestion
o pollution (noise and water)
o lack of social services e.g hospitals
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 o development of squatter camps
o racial tension/tribalism

Positive effects on receiving areas

- overcomes labour shortage

- brings specialized skills
- prepared to work dirty unskilled jobs and long hours
- cultural advantages and links

WAYS OF SOLVING RURAL – URBAN MIGRATION

o Establishment of industries to create employment

o Improvement of infrastructure e.g roads,schools,hospitals etc
o Use of youth empowerment programmes
o Decentralization of government offices
o Improvement in the agriculture sector e.g. NAMPAAD
o Increase of services in rural areas

HIV AIDS IN BOTSWANA

The acronym HIV stands for Human Immuno-deficiency Virus. The HIV
causes Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

Impacts of HIV/AIDS in Botswana

Social
- Increase psychological support
- Increased absenteeism from work
- Increased number of orphans
- Labour shortage on farms
- Stigma against the infected and the affected
- Loss of bread winners
- More children headed families
Economic
- Decline in family income
- Increased terminal benefits
- Low productivity
- Increased poverty
- Low Gross Domestic Product growth
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 - Increased dependency ratio
- Shortage of skills

SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS OF HIV/AIDS

- education on the dangers of unprotected sex e.g through
theater groups
- provision of free condoms
- Prevention of Mother To Child Transition
- Encouraging abstinence
- Free provision of Anti Ritro Viral (ARV) drug
- Provision of food basket to the terminally ill
- Provision of home based car

SETTLEMENTS
Settlement – it is an area where people leave
Site – refers to the actual ground on which settlements stand
Hamlet – a settlement with few houses and not more than 100 people.
It has very few basic services e.g tuck shop, mobile clinic etc
Village – a settlement of up to 2000 people. It has a variety of
services e.g. clinics, shops and library
Town – a settlement of a population of about 1000 000 people. It has
many different services.
City – a settlement of with population of more than 1000 000 people
Conurbation – when towns join together to form a large city
Megapolis – when towns and cities join together to form a very large
city
Morphology – the study of the form and structure of settlements
Sphere of influence – the extent to which a town and its surrounding
regions interact
Settlement hierarchy- ranking of settlements according to size
(population), variety of services etc
Situation – position of a settlement in relation to other settlements
around it
Function of a settlement – role played by a settlement in economic
use e.g. recreational, educational, commercial, industrial,
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administrative, health, and religious center.
Urbanization- the growth of an urban area
Sphere of influence – how a settlement and its surrounding regions
interact

RURAL SETTLEMENTS

A village is the most prominent form of rural settlements in Africa.

The houses are generally unplanned and there are few services
compared to towns. Agriculture is the main economic activity.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN BOTSWANA

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 Dispersed settlements
The dwellings are scattered and are usually a walking distance from
each other. In Botswana, such settlements are common in the NE
District, Ngamiland, Barolong farms and the Kgalagadi

Describe places where dispersed settlements are likely to develop

-cattle posts
-lands
-ranches

REASONS FOR DISPERSED SETTLEMENTS in Botswana include:

- Plenty of space
- Lack of water so people must spread
- Flat land so there are no restrictions on size
- Improved transport makes it easier to get to market
- Cattle posts often covers large area of land
-
Describe places where nucleated settlements are likely to develop
-on plantations

148
 -where there are mineral deposits for mining
-where there are fertile soils for crop production
-at a road junction for easy transport
-at the mouth of a river for easy accesse to water

Advantages Disadvantages
- Space to extend the - Lack of social contact
farm and community help
- Farmers can use new - A farmer must have
technology as there is his/her own machines
plenty of space. - Difficult and expensive
- Pressure on resources to provide social
and environmental services
impacts are reduced - Difficult to mobilize
- Land and resources are people for community
shared equally without projects
much competition - Difficulty in
administration by local
chief since people are
scattered over a wide
area

Nucleated settlement
Buildings are usually close to each other. Usually the buildings are often
clustered around a water source or route focus.

REASONS FOR NUCLEATED SETTLEMENT

- Limited water supplies e.g. houses are built around a waterhole

- Defence against enemies e.g. clustering in hills e.g. the old site
of Molepolole
- Culture – the chiefs could easily control many people in a
nucleated settlement so they preferred this pattern
- Mineral deposits e.Sowa
- Nearness to shops, schools, health facilities

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 Advantages Disadvantage
- Short distance for - Long distances to lands
services and grazing
- Network of - This makes intensive
roads/accessibility farming and high yields
- Easy administration difficult
- Social cohesion - Overgrazing near the
- Easy provision of village
services - Firewood may run out
- Security/neighborhood near the village
watch - Sewerage disposal is
more difficult for a large
number of people
- Traffic congestion in the
settlement center

Linear settlement

Buildings form a line that may be straight or curved along a road, river or
railway line.
7 lines

Describe places where linear settlements are likely to develop.

-along the coastline for fishing
-along transport lines for easy movement
-fertile land along the river banks to grow crops

Advantages Disadvantages
- Easy provision of - vulnerable to natural
services which are linear disaster like floods
in nature e.g. electricity, - Prone to vehicle
telephone line, water accidents and drowning
reticulation, - Residents on the far end
- Accessibility to water of the village travel long
(use same river) distance for services on
- People easily connect the other side of the
with main settlement
communication network

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 i.e. road or internet line

FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION/SITING /EVOLUTION OF A

SETTLEMENT

 Availability of rangelands/pastures
 Availability of water supply
 Availability of fertile soils
 Availability of fuel wood
 Availability of raw m materials e.g. reeds, clay etc
 Availability of high lands for protection/relief
 Nearness to valuable resources e.g. minerals
 Historical sites
 Availability of good communication links e.g. roads

URBAN SETTLEMENT

They are different from rural settlements by size and function. Urban
centers have thousands of people and their major function is industrial. An
urban centre can be defined as a settlement whose major activities are:
manufacturing, mining, administration, commercial and tourism.

Internal structure of urban areas

1. Central Business District (CBD)

This forms the city center. It is made up of commercial
activities of the city. A CBD is characterized by:
 A variety of shops
 Tall, multistory buildings
 Banking and financial institutions
 Central government headquarters
 Buildings with glass walls
 Has a mixture of old and new buildings
 Has offices of private companies
 The buildings have elevators
 High day time population
 Low night time population

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 2. Industrial Areas
These are built far away from the CBD, where land is cheap
and infrastructure is accessible e.g roads and railway lines.
There are light industries (e.g textile industries) and heavy
industries (e.g. motor vehicle industries).

It is characterized by:
- Factory shells/warehouses
- Railroad
- Big trucks
- Smoke/pollution
- Noise (factories and trucks)
- Large land

They are found in the outskirts of the cities because:

- There is enough space for expansion

- There is need to avoid pollution in the inner city
- To avoid traffic congestion
- The land there is cheaper

3. Residential areas
a) Low density areas
It is made up of medium and high cost houses. They are usually
found next to the CBD or in the outskirts of the city. They are
owned by people with a good financial background. People
living in such areas commute to work every day and most of
them own cars.
b) High density areas
These are low cost houses. They are far away from the CBD and
the houses are usually small and they are built in small plots.
People living in these areas are usually semi-skilled workers,
labourers etc

4. Twilight Zone
This is a region of decaying industries and housing. It is usually
close to the CBD. It is in this zone that the problems of the city
are at its worst e.g crime rates
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5. Shanty Towns/squatter settlement
This is where many people live and the houses are built from
anything one can find e.g. metal sheets, plastics, tins, boxes etc
it usually found in the outskirts of the city because:

They are usually found in the outskirts of settlement because:

- Land in the inner city is expensive

- It is near industries
- There’s empty land/available land
- There is lack of accommodation
- It is near industries

They are characterized by:

- Houses made of waste material

- Small houses
- Houses clustered/closely packed
- Litter
- Bad smell
- Poor sanitation
- Noise pollution
- Poor ventilation/no windows
- Temporary building/flimsy structures

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MODELS OF URBAN MORPHOLOGY

LAND USE PATTERNS

This refers to the way land is used and situated in a particular place.
In a city, usually there is a certain pattern which is followed when
structuring settlements e.g residential areas, the CBD and industries
are all in different areas. Geographers have tried to come up with
theories on how land use patterns should be in a city:

 Concentric model
 Sector model
 Multi-nuclei model

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a) Concentric Model (Burgess Model)
He believed that cities and towns grow out as a series of rings
around the CBD

b) Sector Model (Hoyt and Homer model)

They said that regions in a city occur in sectors, extending from
the CBD along major routes such as roads and railway lines.

155
 c) Multi-nuclei model (Harris and Hullman)
They believed that any important place in the city can cause
the growth of houses and offices around. There are a number
of important sectors in cities surrounded by different sectors.

SERVICES THAT PEOPLE IN THE SURROUNDING AREAS CAN GET

FROM TOWNS/CITIES

 Postal services
 Educational services
 Health services
 Shopping facilities
 Recreational services

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  Banking services etc

URBANISATION

It occurs in both modern and indigenous towns in Botswana. It is

caused mainly by people moving from the rural areas into towns and
cities (rural – urban migration) as well as through natural population
increase.

PROBLEMS OF URBANISATION

- Shortage of jobs causing unemployment

- Lack of cheap housing, so people build squatter camps
- High rents causing overcrowding
- Lack of clean piped water leading to diseases
- Traffic congestion
- Pollution e.g. due to lack of proper sewage disposal
- Lack of medical facilities
- Lack of educational facilities leading to low literacy rate
- Social ills e.g. prostitution, juvenile delinquency etc

BOTSWANA NATIONAL SETTLEMENT POLICY

In Botswana there is a National Settlement policy which has the

following aims:

- To promote proper use of land

- Provide long term strategy for human settlement
- Regulate establishment of settlements
- Promote conservation of natural resources
- Help reduce rural – urban migration
- Provide guidelines on transport and utility networks
- Serve as guideline for development of various regions of the
country
- Promote balanced development
- Facilitate orderly transition from rural to urban settlements

157
 PAPER 3

RESEARCH SKILLS
Research is an activity where one finds out about something that interests
him/her. It is task carried out with the intention to discover new ideas, facts
or gather information that will help answer your questions. It begins with an
inquisitive mind. It is process of finding out more information about a
specific problem or topic. Research is said to be systematic because there is
an acceptable way of conducting it.ie there are certain stages or steps to be
followed when conducting a research. The following are common stages of
research process:
 Identification of a problem

 Formulation of a research topic

 Formulation of a hypothesis
 Statement of aims and objectives
 Literature review

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  Methodology
 Data analysis
 Conclusion
 Recommendation
 Acknowledgement
 Bibliography
A research should be as objective as much as possible.
WHY DO WE RESEACH
 To gather new facts
 Answer contemporary issues of concern
 To improve existing facts
Research methods can be classified as qualitative and quantitative research
1 .QUANTITATIVE METHOD
These are methods of investigating whereby the researcher emphasis
numerical methods describing situations. These methods are therefore
scientific or mathematical nature. They require a lot of statistical data in
terms of numbers, addition, measurements, calculations etc, various scales
are used to ensure accuracy and precise description of situations.

ADVANTAGES
 More accurate and precise

 Deals with facts not options

 Help the researcher to acquire scientific skills
 Can be repeated many times to verify findings

DISADVANTAGES
 Difficult to qualify people`s behavioural attributes

 Expensive equipment may be needed in laboratories

159
  Suitable for literate people only since it involves calculations
 Do not allow the researcher to add his/her opinion
2. QUALITATIVE METHOD
These are methods of investigating a problem whereby the researcher uses
other means of describing situations other than scientific or statistical data.
Qualitative research is done by researchers in the social and behavioural
science, as well as by practitioners in the field that concerns themselves
with issues related to human behaviour and functioning. These methods
involve collecting of people`s opinions, feelings, views, ideas etc. Example of
qualitative includes; students` views towards teachers, causes of teenage
pregnancy and effects of poverty on children. Some of the data may be
qualified as with census data but analysis itself is a qualitative one.
ADVANTAGES
 Offer more in-depth understanding of issues

 Presents a true picture of a way of life e.g people`s opinion,

experiences, ideas etc
 Allow researcher to add his/her opinion
 Generally cheaper because it needs led equipment than qualitative
methods.
DISADVANTAES
 Less accurate because it is prone to researcher bias

 Not easily repeatable as it deals with people`s opinion and views

GENERAL PROBLEM THAT MAYBE ENCOUNTERRED DURING A RESEARCH
 Lack of cooperation by respondents
 High transport or travelling costs
 Long distance to the area of study
 Lack of transport to the area of study
 Lack of security in the area
 Lack of accessibility to the area of study
 Research cab be a time consuming exercise
160
  Disruption by unpredictable events such as bad weather
CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC
A research topic is a topic of investigation at hand and should describe in
clear terms what the researcher is trying to find out. When selecting a topic
of research the researcher should consider the following:
 Decide what it is you want to find out (e.g the reason for the increase
in rape in your village, reasons why young people are leaving your
village, or how the cell phone has changed the way people
communicate)
 Topic must be researchable i.e. it satisfies the ways and methods
used in collecting data
 Topic should not violate constitutional laws
 Set the length of time the research would last and make sure the
research problem can be investigated within the time frame
 It must have a local flavor i.e. the topic should be something that
people in the area know well. This is important since they would be
your main source of data or information.
 It must have a point of focus. This refers to the exact facts the
researcher wants to find out about. The use of verbs such as causes,
impacts, effects and rate will help direct the researcher to focus.
Researchable topics in Geography
1. Causes and effects of passion killing in Tlokweng
2. Effects of HIV&AIDS on low income earning families in Mahalapye
3. Impacts of fuel wood collecting in Marapong lands.
4. Importance of fuel wood collection in Mogoditshane
5. An investigation in the effects of paper littering in schools
AIMS/OBJECTIVES
A research topic must have aims or objectives. Objectives are statement
of intention, i.e. what is the researcher intending to find out. They should
be clear and to the point.

161
 TOPIC: Causes and effects of littering in ST Joseph`s College
e.g.
 To find out the main causes of littering in ST Joseph`s College

 To find out what students and teachers can do to keep the school
clean
 To find out why there is littering in the school
 To find out why some areas have more litter than others
HYPOTHESIS
 It is an idea that can be tested

 It is an intelligent guess
A good hypothesis
 Does not contradict existing knowledge
 Predicts relationship between variables

e.g.
 Paper littering is only caused by students
 The only sources of littering in the school are the duplicating room
and the kitchen
 The rate of teenage pregnancy is highest in Tlokweng.
 Population migration in Metsimotlhabe is the main cause of slow
development
 The only type of litter in the schools are bottles and plastics
SOURCE OF DATA
 Published and unpublished books
 Government and private newspapers
 Radio programmes
 Journals

162
  Magazines
 Internet
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
1. QUESTIONNAIRE
The term questionnaire simply means a form, which is used for collecting
information from the respondent i.e person who is giving the information.
This method involves sending out a set of questions either by post or
directly and physically carrying them to the people to answer. The
respondents will send the questionnaires back to the researcher after filling
them.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO NOTE WHEN PREPARING QUESTIONNAIRES

 Remember to make a polite start and finish
 Always start with a brief, persuasive statement stating the purpose
and value of the research exercise.
 The first question must tackle the simpler and easier items which will
not irritate your respondents
 Phrase your questions clearly and courteously
 Make questions to the point
 Avoid questions which seek other people’s secrets
 Make the questions as few as possible
 Questions should target the aims of the course work or research
problem
 The questionnaire should have bio-data e.g sex,age,occupation,
education etc (name may be made optional)
 Make all questions end with a question mark.
 Remember to conclude by thanking your respondent for their
contribution.

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How to collect data using questionnaires
 Prepare a set of questions
 Make a sample of responses
 Send or give questionnaires to the target group
 Collect back questionnaires
 Compile the information
A questionnaire on Shoppers
Gender:
Age:
Nationality:
1.Where do you live?
In Town
Outside the Town
2.How have you travelled here today?
Bus Car Walk Bicycle
Other
3.How long did it get you to get here?
>10 minutes 10-20 minutes
between 20-30 minutes
<30 minutes Other, please specify
4.How long is it since you last visit here?
Yesterday The day before less than a week
1-2weeks ago
5.What type of goods do u usually buy when you come to this shopping
center?
Food and drinks Clothes and shoes
Electrical goods Jewellery Furniture
Books

ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
 It has wide coverage because one can ask people from a number of
locations or places.
 Respondents can answer at their own time
 There is privacy or anonymity on the part of respondents. This means
they may not be required to show their identity.
 Respondents have plenty of time to think about the questions before
164
 answering
 Respondents can consult other sources.
 Questionnaires can be mailed to far places.
 Saves researchers time because he/she is not required to be always
present

DISADVANTAGES
 Low response rate as some people may ignore the questionnaire

 Questionnaire get lost due to respondent`s carelessness or even in

the mailing process
 Lack of clarity as the researcher will not be there when the
respondents answer the questions
 Delayed response/time consuming. Some respondents may delay to
send the response and this may delay the whole research project.
 Language barrier as only people who understand the language used
can answer the questionnaire
 Lack of flexibility, respondent is confined to questions
 Non-verbal behaviour cannot be observed
 It is suitable for the literate only
 It can be costly e.g when posting questionnaires

2. INTERVIEW
It involves the discussion or talking or exchanging words with individuals or
group of people.
How to collect information using interview method:
 Relevant questions to the study are set in advance.
 Choose a sample of respondents who will take part
 Appoint with respondents at a time and location that is suitable and
convenient to them.

165
  Send or take copies of the questionnaire to the respondent.
 Sit with respondents and ask questions
 Avoid being judgemental during the interview
 Write down responses
 Keep the interview short not to bore and tire the respondent
 Compile information

ADVANTAGES

 Allows researcher to ask follow up questions

 Clarify of the information as the researcher will be present
 There is flexibility as it allows the interviewer to make changes where
possible
 Suitable for both non-literate and literates
 High response rate because of the research`s presence
 Non-verbal behaviour can be observed

DISADVANTAGES
 Time consuming as the researcher has to spend time with the
respondent who take a long time to answer even simple questions
 Presence of researcher may make the respondents uncomfortable and
may withhold some information
 High costs involved, e.g transport to the respondents
 The respondent may give misleading answers just to please the
interviewer
 Respondents may be uncooperative by not honour appointment

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 3. DOCUMENTAY STUDY
In this method the researcher reads written materials such as books,
newspaper, magazines, internet etc related to the topic.
How to collect data using documentary study
 Visit library
 Read written materials related to the topic
 Take notes
 Compile information
ADVANTAGES
 Materials can be re-visited

 Detailed and specific information e.g, numbers

 Wider coverage by different sources
 Saves time as it provides already analysed information
DISADVANTAGES
 Available information might not be specific to the study

 Information might be outdated or old

 Pages maybe missing
 Researcher my repeat mistakes done by previous researchers
 Suitable for literate people only

4. OBSERVATION
This is where the researcher goes into the field to examine or see things
with his/her eyes. E.g, one can go and observe traffic flow at the main mall
during lunch hours.
How to collect data using observation:
 Visit the area

 Examine
 Write down notes

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  Compile data
ADVANTAGES
 It gives first hand information
 It is a direct method of studying therefore there is no distortion of
information

DISADVANTAGES
 Travelling costs

 Can be easily disrupted by unpredictable events, e.g rain

 It is highly subjective tan objective
Below is an example of an observation sheet used for collecting data:
An observation sheet
Place of observation; _____________________ Time ___________________
Date of observation: _____________________

SKETCH MAP

Vehicle Morning rush Lunch rush Evening rush

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observed
Buses
Trucks
Taxis
Private
sedans

5. SIMPLE SURVEY
The researcher goes into the field and gathers some information. Normally
samples are used. Surveys are good for topics where one wants to:
 Assess the impacts of development in an area

e.g Impacts of an open cost mine in Orapa

 investigating about something
e.g the best place to build another university in the central district
 compare different things, concepts or ideas
e.g performance of teachers in private schools with those in
government schools
ADVANTAGES
 Gives first hand information

 Quick methods as sample are used to represent a whole

 It is flexible as the researcher determines the sample size
DISADVATAGES
 Travelling costs

 Can be time consuming

 Sample maybe un representative (too small)
 Biased information

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 6. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
This is a way of collecting data through carrying out experiments under
conditions. It is mainly confined to laboratories and involves the use of
apparatus which may sometimes be complicated. A lot of care and patience
is needed for results to be valuable.
Advantages
 Results are reliable if all the necessary steps were followed
 It is a direct method of study
 First hand information is obtained
 It can be repeated if necessary

Disadvantages
 It needs people with skills
 It is expensive since the equipment may be sophisticated
 Accidents are common when handling dangerous materials
 It may yield wrong result if wrong method is used

METHOD OF DATA PRESENTATION

 Bar chart/graph

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 Pie chart

 Pictogram/pictograph

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 Line-graph/ linear-graph

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 Histogram

 Triangular gram
 Maps
 Written report
 Flow charts
10 lines

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  Statistical tables

WHAT TO REMEMER WHEN PRESENTING DATA

 Title
 Label axis properly
 Do not use abbreviations (if so provide key)
 For bar graph and histograms, the width of the bars should be equal
 For linear graphs, line should start and end where they are suppose
to
 For pie charts use protractor, sharp pencil and eraser

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRENTATION

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  Analyse/interpret
 Conclude/summarise
 make recommendations
 submit to relevant authorities
 compile a report
 present
 evaluate
 publish
 test hypothesis
RESEARCH ETHICS
 Confidential and privacy assured
 Anonymity
 Honesty
 Informed consent
 Right to discontinue
 Show courtesy

PAPER 1

MAP READING
GRID
In order to locate features on the topographical maps, reference need to be
made to grid lines. These are the numbered lines crossing the map from
West to East and from South to North. Vertical grid lines are known as the
Eastings because they are numbered from West to East. The horizontal grid
lines are known as Northings and they are numbered from South to North.
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A grid reference gives the location/position of a feature on a map. In all grid
references the Eastings are given before the Northings.

4 grid references 6 grid

references
A=1406
A=148069
B=1405
B=145058
DIRECTIONS
Direction on a topographic map may be given by using;
a) CAMPUS DIRECTION: here reference is made to the main campus
points of North, South, West, and East. Other points in between give
directions in more detailed and include NE, SE, NW, SW. Even more
precision can be given if reference is made to points in between
these, such as NNE etc

EXAMPLE
Skip 15 lines
Finding directions between features.
1. Make a North line where it says from
2. Join the two points or features
3. Write the other cardinal point from the North line
4. Note direction

b) GRID BEARINGS
The direction is obtained using bearings from Grid North. These
bearings are known as grid bearings. They are given in degrees
working clockwise from zero degrees or Grid North

Finding directions using grid bearings

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 1. Make North line where it says from
2. Join the two points or features together
3. Measure the angle from the North line to the line joining the two
points in a clockwise direction (using a protector)
4. Note the grid bearing
NB: Remember to indicate units and start with a zero then the angle is 2
digits e.g 090 degrees
MEASURING DISTANCE
Maps are drawn to scale. The actual size of features o the ground and the
distances between them can be reduced in proportion, in order to show
them on topographical map.
Straight line distance
1. Place ruler or straight edge of a piece of paper on the map and
measure or mark off distance along or between the two locations.
2. Transfer the map measurement to the scale line provided below the
ap oe use the ratio scale also provided in the map. E.g

If map distance is 5cm and the scale is 2cm:1km

2cm: 1km
5cm: X
X=2.5km or 2500m

Curved distance
1. Divide the length of the line to be measured into a straight sections
2. Place a corner of a straight edge of paper where the line begins and
mark on the paper the first bend line measured
3. Keeping the mark you have made firmly fixed rotate the straight edge
of paper until it follow straight line
4. Continue with the procedure until the end of the line
5. When you have completed the measurements use the scale to
convert the measurement to actual distance or ratio
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DETERMINING HEIGHTS
Heights are shown in three ways on a topographical map.
1. SPOT HEIGHT: these are spots marked on maps with the heights
given in (m)

2. TRIGONOMETRICAL STATION: They are given on maps by a

triangular symbol with the height given in (m)

3. CONTOURS: They are lines joining places of the same height. On a

topographical map they are shown as brown lines. The spacing
between contours is known as the contour vertical interval.

CALCULATING GRADIENT
A gradient is the steepness of slopes between two points. It is calculated
using the horizontal distance and the difference in heights. Slopes differ in
their steepness and you can determine how steep a slope is by referring to
the height and distance details in the map. The gradient is usually given as
ratio. E.g 1:200

STEPS OF CALCULATING GRADIENT

1. Find difference in heights between the two points given (VI)
2. Measure the horizontal distance either as straight line or a curved line
3. Make sure that both the height and horizontal distance are in the
same units, namely (m)
4. Use these formula
Vertical interval = VI
Horizontal interval HD
And give the gradient as a ratio

AREA
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  Count the number of whole squares
 Count the number of part squares and divide the number by 2
 Add the number of whole squares and part squares (i.e. total
number of squares)
 Find the area of 1 square using the scale
 Multiply area of 1 square by the total number of squares

E.g. If the total number of square is 5

Area of 1 square is 1km x 1km which is 1km
Therefore: the area of the total number of squares is :
1km x 5
ANSWER = 5km²

LAND FORMS

VALLEY
This is a narrow lowland surrounded by highlands. The highest contour lines
are on the outside. Therefore the V`s of the valley points to the highlands.
Skip 7 lines

SPUR
This is a narrow part of highland cutting out from the sides of a mountain
over hill. It points towards the low land. The lowest contour lines are on the
outside.
Skip 7 lines
PLATEAUS
Skip 7 lines
RIDGES
Skip 7 lines
KNOLL
Skip 7 lines
CONICAL HILL

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Skip 7
RANGE
Skip 7 lines
GORGE
Skip 7 lines
SADDLE

TYPES SLOPES
1. GENTLE SLOPE
The contours are widely spaced. For a uniform (regular) gentle slope,
the contours are more or less an equal distance apart.

2. A STEEP SLOPE
The contours are close together
3. UNEVEN
Skip 10 lines
4. A VERTICAL SLOPE OR CLIFF
The contours are close together that they almost merge into one. For a
vertical cliff, all the contours form one line.
Skip 7 line
5. A CONVEX SLOPE
The contours are closely spaced, showing a steeper slope along the
lower part of the slope; and more widely spaced, showing a gentler
slope in the upper part.
6. A CONCAVE SLOPES
The contours are widely spaced showing a gentler slope on the lower
part of the slope; and more closely spaced, showing a steeper slope
in the upper part. The dictionary tells us that concave means “curved
like the inside of circle”
Skip 15 lines

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7. STEPPED OR TERRACED
Skip 7 lines

SERVICES
Hospital -health services
School- education
Post office - communication
Police station – security services
Dam – water supply
Roads - communication
Power lines – power supply etc

HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Dip tank – pastoral farming
Quarry – quarrying, mining
Farming etc
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
Linear
Nucleated
Concentric

OTHER CALCULATIONS TO LOOK AT

 Temperature statistics i.e. mean, range
 Relative humidity
 Population statistics

CALCULATING TIME
INTRODUCTION
The earth rotates in two ways:
1. It rotates around an elliptical orbit around the sun. This kind of
rotation takes one year (365.25 days) to complete and brings about
the seasons i.e. winter, springs, summer and autumn
2. It rotates about its axes. This rotation takes one day (24hours) to
complete and brings about:
i. The deflection of winds and ocean currents

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 ii. The daily rising and falling of the tides
iii. Nights and days in places around the earth
iv. A difference of one hour between two meridians 15ᵒ apart
CALCULATION OF TIME
As indicated above, the second type of earth rotation brings about a time
difference of one hour between two meridians 15ᵒ apart. This is in an
anticlockwise direction and it is described as being from west to east. This
means that all the areas that are in the east experience sunrise before those
in the west. The areas in the east are thus said to be ahead in time.
For this reason, when we travel in an easterly direction we add time or gain
time. For every 15ᵒ we add 1 hour or for every 1ᵒ we add 4 minutes.
On the contrary, when we travel in a westerly direction we subtract time or
lose time. For every 15ᵒ we subtract 1 hour or for every 1ᵒ we subtract 4
minutes.
Using these basic facts, we can calculate time for any place, given the
necessary information.
Example 1:
If it is 12:00 noon at the Greenwich Meridian (0ᵒ), what time will it be at a
place
(i) 45ᵒE
(II) 30ᵒW
There are two ways of calculating these times.
Method one: counting directly from meridians
(i) between 0ᵒ and 45ᵒ , there are 3 intervals of 15ᵒ, so we add 1 hour
three times beginning from 12:00 noon. This gives a time of 15:00 or
3:00pm at 45ᵒE
(II) between 0ᵒ and 30ᵒ , there are 2 intervals of 15ᵒ, so we subtract 1
hour two times beginning from 12:00 noon. This gives a time of 10:00 or
10.00am at 30ᵒW
Calculating time difference between lines of longitude.
Method two: using ratio
(i) 1ᵒ : 4ˊ
45ᵒ : Xˊ cross multiplying
1ᵒ x Xˊ = 45ᵒ x 4ˊ
X = 180ˊ = 3hours this is the time difference
between 0ᵒ and 45ᵒ
We then add 3 hours to 12:00 noon giving a time of 1500hours at 45ᵒ
(ii) 1ᵒ : 4ˊ
30ᵒ : Xˊ cross multiplying
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 1ᵒ x Xˊ = 30ᵒ x 4ˊ
X = 120ˊ = 2hours this is the time difference
between 0ᵒ and 45ᵒ
We then subtract 2 hours from 12:00 noon giving a time of 1000hours
at 30ᵒ
Example 2:
The time at meridian 30ᵒE is 1420 hours. What time is it at meridians
(i) 90ᵒE
(ii) 60ᵒW
Method 1: counting off the meridians we get
(i) 1820 hours at 90ᵒE
(ii) 0820 hours at 60ᵒW
Method 2: using ration
(i) Since 30ᵒE and 90ᵒare both on the east of Greenwich Meridian, we
first calculate the meridian difference between them:
90ᵒ - 30ᵒ = 60ᵒ then use ration
1ᵒ = X cross multiplying
1ᵒ x X = 60ᵒ X 4ˊ
X = 240ˊ = 4 hours time difference
So adding 4 hours to 1420 hours gives a time of 1820 hours at 90ᵒE
(ii) Since 30ᵒE and 60ᵒW are on opposite sides of the Greenwich
Meridian, we add them up to get the meridian difference between them.
30ᵒ + 60ᵒ = 90ᵒ Then use ratio
1ᵒ : 4ˊ
90ᵒ : X cross multiplying
1ᵒ x X = 90ᵒ x 4ˊ
X = 360ˊ = 6 hours time difference
So, subtracting 6 hours from 1420 hours gives a time of 0820 hours
at 60ᵒW.
TIME ZONE AND STANDARD TIME
If each town were to keep the time of its own meridian, there would be
much difference in local time between one town and the other.
For example Ghanzi is approximately 6ᵒ west of Francistown, so there is a
time difference of 24 minutes between them. There is also a time difference
of about 16 minutes between Gaborone and Ghanzi: 8 minute difference
between Gaborone and Francistown and so on. This means that people
travelling between these towns (cities) will have to adjust their watches from
time to time- a great inconvenience!
To avoid this inconvenience, the world is divided into 24 belts, each 15ᵒ of
longitude wide and the local time of the central meridian for each belt is

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applied to that belt which is called a time zone. The local time of the central
meridian is called standard time.
A country of limited longitudinal width has only one standard time which is
based on its central meridian e.g the standard time for Nigeria is set by
meridian 15ᵒE and Botswana by 30ᵒE which means that these countries are 1
hour and 2 hours ahead of the GMT respectively.
A country of great longitudinal width or west-west stretch has several time
zones e.g the former U.S.S.R which has longitudinal width of 165ᵒ has 11 time
zones for practical purposes.
INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
This is a line that follows the 180ᵒ meridian except where it crosses land
surfaces. It is a line where a day is lost or gained depending in which
direction one is travelling. If a traveller crosses the line from east to west he
loses a day and while crossing the line from west to east he gains a day
Example 1:
If the GMT is 1800hrs on a Monday, what time would it be at:
(i) 180ᵒE
(ii) 180ᵒW
Method 1: counting directly from meridians.

Method 2: using ratio

1ᵒ : 4ˊ
180ᵒ : X
1ᵒ x X : 180ᵒ X 4
X : 720ˊ = 12 hours time difference
So, the time at 180ᵒE will be 1800
+ 1200
= 3000
We subtract 24hrs from our answer which means that we have crossed to
another day. This means that we are no longer on Monday but Tuesday. The
time will be 0600 on Tuesday.
The time at 180ᵒW will be 1800
-1200
=0600
Answer 0600 Monday

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From the examples above it can be seen that crossing the date line from
west to east one will gain a day

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