EARTH STRUCTURE

1.Crust/Lithosphere
i) It is made up of two layers:
a) Continental crust- upper part of the crust made up of granitic rocks
-made up of silica and alumina (SIAL)
-It is lighter/ density of 2.7
b) Oceanic crust – lower part made up of basaltic rocks
- made up of silica and magnesium (SIMA)
-It is heavier/ density of 3.0
iii) It varies in thickness (between 5km and 48km in thickness)
iv) It is brittle (easily breakable by earth movements)
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2. Mantle/ Mesosphere
i) It’s a thick layer under the crust (2900km). The boundary between the crust and the mantle is called
MOHOROVICIC or M. DISCONTINUITY. Heat waves from the mantle travel faster when they pass this
boundary making the crust to vibrate hence experiencing earthquakes.
ii) It is made up of very dense rocks rich in iron and magnesium.
iii) It is in a semi- molten state with extremely high temperatures

3. Core/ Barysphere
i) It is the innermost layer of the earth
ii) Has a thickness of about 3476km radius
iii) It is divided into two parts:
a)Outer core (liquid) – consists mainly of iron and nickel
b) Inner core (solid) – consists mainly of iron
The combination of the two minerals is called Nife.

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Iv) Has extremely high temperatures (1927⁰C) and subjected to extreme pressure.

EARTH MOVEMENTS
The earth’s crust is always moving due to the mantle underneath the crust. This causes crustal plates to
move either sideways, towards each other or slide past each other due to convection. Plate movement
and features formed after such movements is referred to as PLATE TECTONICS.

The theory of plate tectonics led to a German meteorologist called Alfred Wegener to come up with the
CONTINENTAL DRIFT theory. In this theory, he explained that continents were once a large continent he
termed PANGAEA. Due to earth movements which started about 200 million years ago in the Mesozoic
era, the Pangaea broke into two major continents namely Gondwanaland (south) and Laurasia (north)
which later broke into several continents as we see today.

The following are some of the points used to support the theory of Continental drift:
i)Similar animals and plants are found on continents far from each other
ii)The jig-saw fit of South America and Africa
iii)Similar rock types can be seen in West Africa and Brazil (South America)
iv)Glacial deposits in Brazil match those in West Africa in age
v)The reversal of magnetic particles are similar in rocks either side of mid oceanic ridges eg. Mid
Atlantic ridge

FEATURES OF EARTH MOVEMENTS

Horizontal (lateral) earth movements cause compressional and tensional movements in the earth’s
crust. Compressional forces cause FOLDING and FAULTING while tensional forces cause FAULTING only.

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The direction of movement determines the type of feature/ landform that will result or form and these
landforms are formed near or along Tectonic plate boundaries/margins. There are three types of plate
boundaries:

a) DESTRUCTIVE PLATE MARGIN/ BOUNDARY : A place where two rock plates move towards each
other and collide due to compressional forces eg. Nazca plate ( oceanic plate) colliding with
South American plate(continental plate), also Indo-Australian plate converging with Eurasian
plate(both continental plates). The major landforms formed here are fold mountains and
trenches along zone of subduction.

b) CONSTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDARY : A place where two rock plates moving away from each
other or diverge due to tensional forces eg. North American plate moving away from Eurasian
plate to form deep sea mountains/mid oceanic ridge called Mid Atlantic Ridge.

How a mid-oceanic ridge is formed

- At the constructive plate boundary,
- plates are moving apart at the ocean bed or sea floor due to tensional forces
- Faulting occurs and pressure builds up
- Molten rock/ magma wells up or erupts to fill in the gap between the plates
- Lava then hardens/ solidifies
- New crust is formed referred to as oceanic ridge

c) CONSERVATIVE PLATE BOUNDARY : A place where two rock plates tend to move alongside each
other. Neither of the plates are destroyed but the movement triggers earthquakes and faults.
eg. Pacific plate moving alongside the North American plate to form San Andreas Fault in
California(USA).

FOLDING
This is the bending of sedimentary rock layers by forces of compression as tectonic plates converge. The
part that bends up is the ANTICLINE or UPFOLD, the part that bends down is the SYNCLINE or
DOWNFOLD. The sides of a fold are called LIMBS and the top of an anticline is called CREST.

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There are four types of folds namely:
1.SIMPLE/ SYMMETRICAL FOLD
-formed due to equal forces of compression causing sedimentary rocks to bend easily

2.ASSYMMETRICAL FOLD
-formed due to unequal forces of compression causing one limb to be steeper than the other.

3.OVERFOLD
-formed due to unequal forces of compression where one limb is pushed over the other.

4.OVERTHRUST/ NAPPE/ THRUST FAULT

-formed when compressional force is so intense that a fault or fracture develops such that one side is
pushed over the other along a line of fracture.

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LANDFORMS OF FOLDING
Fold Mountains formation

-Two rigid plates(oceanic plate and continental plate)

-convection within the mantle,
-Earth/plate movements
-Plates converge/collide along destructive plate boundary
-Continental plate which is lighter, overrides the heavier oceanic plate. Oceanic is subducted/submerged
into the mantle along the subduction zone.
-Scraping of sediments
-Compression
-Trench/ geosynclines are formed
-Accumulation of sediments, sedimentary rocks form,
-Sedimentary rocks uplift/ crumple/squeeze/buckle/fold to form fold mountains eg. Andes, Rockies
mountains

Fold mountains also form when:

-Two continental plates converge/collide
-Original continents are eroded
- Sedimentary rocks/layers form
-Accumulation of sediments
-Geosynclines form
-Subsiding/sagging of floor due to great weight
-downward drag/convection of thick deposits
-continental block becomes resistant
-compression
-less resistant sedimentary strata is buckled/folded
-faulting/shearing
-uplift of rocks to form fold mountains eg. Himalayas, Alps , Atlas mountains

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DISTRIBUTION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS
OLD FOLD MOUNTAINS
Formed during the Hercynian time/era, about 240 million years ago.
-Cape Ranges in SA
-Appalachian Mountains in USA
-Ural mountains in Britain
-Welsh in Britain
-Pennines in Britain
-Harz Mountains in Germany

YOUNG FOLD MOUNTAINS

Formed during the Alpine time, about 30 million years ago
-Himalayas in India
-Andes mountains South America
-Alps in Europe
-Atlas mountains in North West Africa
-Rockies in North America
-Verkhoyansk mountains in North East Asia

There are no young fold mountains in Southern Africa because of the following;
-Area is stable
-It is far away from plate boundaries/ plate margins
-The area is an ancient rocks/brittle rocks or ancient plates

FEATURES OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

-steep sided slopes/ valleys -they have bare rocks
-Have great vertical heights -ice capped
-have peaks/rugged - have cirques
-have Aretes -have cordilleras
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-parallel ranges -forested
-have glaciers -have lakes
-have passes/cols/saddles

HOW FOLD MOUNTAINS INFLUENCE HUMAN ACTIVITIES

-communication barrier
-education/research
-climatic barrier/influence relief rainfall hence water for irrigation/domestic use etc.
-tourism/recreation/sports
-defence
-forests for lumbering
-minerals for mining

FAULTING
This is the cracking or breaking of earth’s crust by both forces of compression and also tension.

-There are three types of faults namely; Normal, Reverse and Tear faults.
i)Normal Fault
It is caused by tensional forces stretching and breaking the earth’s crust. One side of the crustal block
slips downwards leaving the upstanding side as a fault scarp.

ii)Reverse Fault
It results from forces of compression which cause one crustal block to override the other side and the
other remaining down.

iii)Tear/ Transcurrent Fault

-It occurs where blocks scrape/slide past each other horizontally in opposite directions without causing
surface changes.

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LANDFORMS OF FAULTING

-The main features are rift valleys and block mountains/horsts.

RIFT VALLEYS

-These can be formed by compressional and tensional forces as both movements produce faults in the
earth’s crust.
-There are two theories used to explain the formation of rift valleys.

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a)Compressional Theory
-Earth movements occur
-crustal compression
-Parallel, reversed faults develop due to increased compression
-Outer or side blocks rise up until they override the central block which remains lower to form a rift
valley
b)Tensional Theory
-Earth movement occurs
-Crustal tension
-Parallel, normal faults develop due to increased tension
-Middle block sinks forming a rift valley
NB: The Great East African Rift Valley is said to have been formed due to tensional forces

The Great East African Rift Valley

Characteristics
-It is long/ its 5400 km long
-Wide eg.50-60km width
-Has volcanic peaks eg Mt Kilimanjaro(Tanzania), Mt
Kenya(Kenya)
-Has two main rifts/branches
-It is deep
-faults eg. Elgon fault
-Has steep sides/ fault scarps
-rive
-Lakes eg. L. Malawi, L. Mweru etc.
-Has block mountains eg. Ruwenzori Mtns along Uganda/
DRC border

INFLUENCE OF RIFT VALLEY ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES

-fishing from lakes within rift valley
-pastures for pastoral farming
-fertile soils for arable farming
-influence relief rainfall providing water for domestic use
-minerals for mining
-source of water for irrigation, industries
-forestry/ lumbering
-water transport
-tourism
-geothermal power from geysers and hot springs
-hydro-electric power from rivers
-danger/ risk of loss of life due earthquakes along faults

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BLOCK MOUNTAINS/HORSTS
Two theories are used to describe formation of block mountains.

Tension Compression
-Earth movements occur -Earth movements occur
-Tension -Compression
-Two parallel faults develop -Two parallel faults develop
-Block enclosed by faults subsides/sinks -Block enclosed by faults is raised up
-Upstanding block forms horst/block mountain -Raised block forms horst/ block mountain

VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
VOLCANICITY; refers to the various ways by which molten rocks [magma]and gases are forced into the
earth’s crust and onto earth’s surface. It includes volcanic eruptions [forming volcanoes, plateaus and
geysers] and the formation of intrusive features such as [batholiths, sills, dykes etc]

Volcanoes occur in zones of instability within the crust or at certain points of weakness in the crust,
generally where folding and faulting have taken place. The type of volcanic cones formed depend on the
type of lava and types of eruptions [ie. vent/fissure eruptions]

TYPES OF LAVA

BASIC LAVA ACIDIC LAVA

Fluid/ gentle sided cone Viscous/solid/steep sided cone
Less silica and more iron and magnesium More silica and less magnesium and iron
Quiet/silent eruptions Violent eruptions/explosive
Dark in colour Light in colour
Travels fast covering long distances Travels slow covering short distances
Low melting point High melting point
High density Low density

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INTRUSIVE FEATURES/LANDFORMS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Intrusive features are those formed by magma cooling and solidifying within the earth’s crust before
reaching the surface [indogeneous features]

1.SILL; formed when magma intrudes along sedimentary bedding planes.

2.DYKE; formed during intrusion of magma across the sedimentary bedding.
3.LACCOLITH; formed during intrusion of magma into the crust forming a large blister/igneous mound
with a dome shaped upper surface and a level base.
4.BATHOLITH; A very large mass of magma which accumulates in the crust sometimes forming the root
of a mountain. It is also deep seated.

EXTRUSIVE FEATURES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

There are features formed by lava on the earth’s surface. [Exogeneons features]

1.VOLCANOES
A volcano is a cone-shaped mound/ mountain formed by explosion of hot molten rocks on the crust
through a pipe or vent.

FORMATION OF VOLCANOES
-Earth movements occur/ plate boundary
-compress ion or tensional movements
-Build up of pressure/ convection currents
-Fissures/cracks develop in the crust and pressure is reduced.
-Magma/hot molten rocks and gases under intense pressure from the mantle rise through the
cracks/fissures/pipe/vent.
-Explosive eruptions occur releasing ashes, cinders/broken rocks and lava
-Lava flows/accumulates on the earth’s surface forming conelets/subsidiary or parasitic cones.

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There are 3 types of volcanic cones;

1.ASH AND CINDER CONE

It is formed from small fragments of lava and volcanic ash after they are blown up in an eruption eg.
Teleki and Likaiyu cones[Kenya]

2.LAVA CONES
Slopes of a lava cone depend on whether the lava is fluid or viscous.

i) Fluid lava usually produce gentle sloping cones and flattened tops called BASIC LAVA
CONE/SHIELD CONE eg. Nyamlagira cone[DRC].

ii) Viscous lava produce steeply sloping cones called ACID LAVA CONE. Sometimes lava is so
viscous that it forms a PLUG DOME which may block the vent of a volcano [an opening of
the volcano] eg. Hoggar mountains in Algeria.

HOW BASIC LAVA VOLCANOES DIFFER FROM VISCOUS LAVA VOLCANOES

BASIC LAVA VOLCANOES ACIDIC LAVA VOLCANOES

Have gentle slopes due to fluid lava Have steep slopes due to viscous/ thick lava
Has broad base as lava travels long distance Has narrow base as lava travels short distance

Short height due to fluid lava Tall in height due to thick/ viscous lava
Shield cone formed due to fluid lava Conical shape as lava is viscous

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3.COMPOSITE CONE
-It is formed by alternate layers of lava and ash. Lava streams may pour out from the sides of the
composite cones forming conelets or parasitic cones.
-It is formed from acidic lava and the cones are steep sided e.g Mt Cameroon ,Mt Kenya and Mt
Kilimanjaro.

CALDERA
-This is a huge crater/depression formed by a violent explosion which will blow off the crater of a
volcanic cone or through subsidence.

a) VIOLENT EXPLOSION
-Pressure builds up
-Violent eruption takes place
-Top of cone blown off
-Crater enlarged

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b) SUBSIDENCE
-Major eruption takes place
-magma is depleted
-huge vacuum/chasm is formed beneath volcano
-weight of cone causes faulting
-Cone then collapses or subsides to fill the vacuum underneath.
e.g Longonut Caldera in Kenya].

NB :Water may collect inside a Caldera to form Caldera lakes eg. L. Bosumtwi in Ghana and L. Eboga in
Cameroon.

STAGES OF VOLCANO
There are 3 stages of volcano in terms of its life cycle.
1.ACTIVE VOLANO; It is a volcano which erupts frequently or we can say it is where the eruption has
occured recently.

2.DORMANT VOLCANO; A volcano which erupts frequently or a volcano or which has been known to
erupt less frequently [sleeping volcano]

3.EXTINCT VOLCANO; A volcano which has not erupted in historic/prehistoric times but still retain
features of a volcano. It is also expected not to erupt in future.

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
-along plate boundaries/ edges of plates
-areas of instability/lines of weakness/subduction zones
-Western coast of South America
-Western coast of North America
-Pacific Ring of Fire/ Pacific
-East African rift valley/ Eastern parts of East Africa
-Mid Atlantic Ridge
-South East Asia/ East of Asia
-Carribean Islands

EVIDENCE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY IN AFRICA

-volcanic mountains eg. Mt Kilimanjaro, Mt Kenya
-caldera lakes
-geysers and hot springs
-intrusive and extrusive features eg. batholiths ,dyke, crater etc.

NEGATIVE INFLUNCE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY ON THE ENVIRONMENT

-pollution -acidic/thin soils

-fires -mudflows/lahars
-acid rain -landslides
-destruction of vegetation
-loss of wild animals

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INFLUENCE OF VOLCANOES ON HUMAN BEINGS

NEGATIVE
-destroy buildings
-forces relocation of people
-loss of life/ risk of injuries
-Acidic soils/ rainfall destroy crops and natural vegetation
-destroys infrastructure
POSITIVE
-source of water/ caldera lakes for fishing/irrigation/domestic use
-fertile volcanic soils for arable farming
-geothermal power from geysers
-settlement creation on gentle slopes
-forests for forestry/lumbering
-tourist attractions eg. Mt Kilimanjaro
-minerals for mining
-pastures for pastoral farming
-influence relief rainfall on windward slopes for water supply

WHY PEOPLE LIVE ON SLOPES OF SOME VOLCANOES WHILE OTHERS ARE FREE FROM SETTLEMENT

FREE SLOPES/NO SETTLEMENTS LIVE ON SLOPES

-steep – difficult to settle on -forests for lumbering/forestry
-cold – unfavourable weather -fertile soils for farming
-rarefied /thin air – difficulty in breathing -gentle slopes – easy settlement creation
-thin soils/acidic soils – not suitable for crops -minerals for mining
-active – dangerous to people -tourism
-infertile/poor soils – not suitable for farming -extinct – poses no danger to people
Little rain on leeward side – limited water -climate is favourable for settlement
supply -water supply from caldera lakes
-pastures for pastoral farming

SOLUTIONS THAT COULD BE USED TO REDUCE IMPACTS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

-Evacuation
-Predictions/monitoring/early warning
-Education on rescue and safety measures during eruptions
-Research

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EARTHQUAKES
These are a series of rapid vibrations in the earth’s crust caused by sudden movement along major faults
at a great depth in the earth’s crust.

MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES
-The intensity of earthquakes is measured by an instrument called a SEISMOGRAPH.
-INTENSITY: refers to the effect produced by an earthquake. It varies from place to place but lessens as
one moves away from the epicentre.
-MAGNITUDE: refers to the total amount of energy released by an earthquake. The scale which gives the
magnitude of an earthquake is the RICHTER SCALE.
The scale ranges from 0-10 and increases with multiples of ten. ie. Magnitude of 2.0 is ten times
greater than 1.0 and 3.0 is 100 times greater than 1.0 etc.

THE NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES

-FOCUS : The origin of an earthquake/ The point in the earth’s crust where shockwaves originate.
-EPICENTRE : The point directly above the focus on the earth’s surface( where shockwaves first hit the
surface).
-There two types of shockwaves:
1.Body waves : travel through the crust from the focus and are of two types:
a)Primary waves-cause crustal rocks to move back and forth in wave movement direction.
b)Secondary waves- cause crustal rocks to move side to side(at right angle) to the wave
movement direction.
2.Surface waves : travel through surface rocks. They have two types:
a)Love waves- cause surface rocks to move side to side to the wave movement direction.
b)Rayleigh waves- cause surface rocks to have a vertical-circular movement( like sea waves).

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HOW EARTHQUAKES OCCUR
-Pressure build up within the mantle
-movement of plates/ earth movements/tension/compression along zones of instability
-Faulting/folding
-Energy/pressure release at the focus
-Shockwaves radiate outwards towards epicenter
-Vibrations felt on the earth’s surface (minor vibrations cause tremors and major ones cause
earthquakes)

DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
-occur along plate boundaries
-Mid Atlantic ridge
-Western coast of South America
-Western coast of North America
-Pacific Ring of Fire/New Zealand/Hawaii
-South East Asia/Phillipines

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES ON PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT

PEOPLE
-loss of life/ injuries
-destruction of infrastructure/roads/railways
-displacement of people/ relocation of people
-Break out of fires
-Destruction of farmland/crops
-Destruction of buildings/people become homeless
-Expensive to rebuild the structures
-Cause tidal waves/tsunami/floods
-Outbreak of diseases

ENVIRONMENT
-Displacement of the crust/Raise or lower sea bed
-Cause landslides/mud flows
-Deep cracks on the crust/faulting
-Destruction of natural vegetation

WHY IMPACT OF EARTHQUAKES VARY FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER

-Population density
-Clustered buildings
-Technology [to predict]
-Distance from sea/ continentality /influence of tsunamis
-Type of building materials used
-Time of year
-Resources available
-Preparedness of an area/Resource teams
-Time of the day
-Remoteness of an area/takes time to get help
-Strength/magnitude
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-Distance from the epicentre
-Types of rocks/nature of surface rocks/soft rocks are flexible or mobile

SOLUTIONS TO MINIMISING/REDUCING EFFECTS OF EARTH QUAKES

-Education on safety measures during earthquakes
-Build steel framed buildings/use flexible building materials
-Use early warning systems/forecasting/establishing seismic stations
-Evacuate people/reduce teams e.g. Red Cross
-Enforcing earthquake- proof building laws.

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