STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

CHARACTERISTICS EARTH’S CRUST MANTLE (MESOSPHERE) CORE (BARYSPHERE)

(LITHOSPHERE)
Thickness Outer-most layer Beneath the crust – with radius of
from 10 the depth of 2 900 km about 3 500 km
to 70 km
Composition Continental and semi Inner (solid) and the
oceanic crust liquid or molten rocks- outer core(liquid)
magma
Rock type (elements) sedimentary, iron and iron and nickel
igneous and magnesium
metamorphic
Temperature 1 000C 3 000oC to 5 0000oC
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OCEANIC AND CONTINENTAL
CRUSTS
OCEANIC CRUST (SIMA) CONTINENTAL CRUST (SIAL)

Forms the base of oceans Holds the continents

Contains silica and magnesium Contains silica and aluminum

Consist of basaltic rocks Consist of granite rocks

Heavier with a density of 3.0 Lighter with a density of 2.7

Dark in colour Light in colour

Very young rocks Very old rocks

6-10 km thick 35-70 km thick

Forces of compression and tension

Compression force – this is when 2

plates move towards each other.
E.g. folding

Tension force – this is when 2

plates move apart/ towards each
other. E.g. faulting
PLATE BOUNDARIES
Plate tectonics
 TYPES OF FOLDS

-
1. SIMPLE OR SYMMETRICAL FOLD This type of fold has two limbs of equal
steepness. It results when the two opposing forces moving towards each other are
of equal strength.
2. ASYMMETRICAL FOLD - This fold has one limb steeper than the other. It results
when one opposing force is greater than the other.
3. OVERFOLD - This fold has one limb pushed over the other limb, until the axis of
fold is almost horizontal and the two limbs are almost parallel. This is formed when
one opposing force is very much greater than the other.
4. OVERTHRUST FOLD – one limb is pushed over the other limb until the axis of the
fold is almost horizontal and the two limbs are almost parallel
Formation of fold mountain
What are fold mountains?
• Fold mountains are mountains formed from the folding of the earth's
crust.
How are fold mountains formed?
Fold mountains are formed when two plates move together (a
compressional plate margin). This can be where two continental plates move
towards each other or a continental and an oceanic plate. The movement of
the two plates forces sedimentary rocks upwards into a series of folds. Fold
mountains are usually formed from sedimentary rocks and are usually found
along the edges continents. This is because the thickest deposits of
sedimentary rock generally accumulate along the edges of continents. When
plates and the continents riding on them collide, the accumulated layers of
rock crumple and fold like a tablecloth that is pushed across a table.
There are two types of fold mountains: young fold mountains (10 to 25
million years of age, e.g. Rockies and Himalayas) and old fold mountains
(over 200 million years of age, e.g. Urals and Appalachians of the USA).
THE IMPACT OF FOLD MOUNTAINS ON THE HUMAN ACTIVITIES

POSITIVE
• They can be used as recreation centres for such sports as skiing and mountain
climbing. Many climbers have tried to conquer Mount Everest, the tallest mountain
in the world.
• Some mountains may contain valuable minerals such as copper, tin and iron.
• Fold Mountains may stand on the way of warm and moist air coming from the sea
forcing it to rise. As the warm air rises, it produces torrential rain. The mountain
may also have snow at the top. This rain and snow may provide water for rivers
that bring this valuable resource to the lowlands.

NEGATIVE

• Mountains are barriers to communication and make the construction of

communication lines difficult, for this reason communities living in mountainous
areas are often isolated from the rest of the world.
• Mountain settlements often suffer from landslides and erosion
• It is difficult to cultivate on steep slopes
Anticline and syncline

Anticline

syncline
OVERTHRUST FOLD
TYPES OF FAULTS

NORMAL FAULT
• This occurs when rocks move away from each other due to the land
moving apart.
• When the rocks move apart, the side with the less stable tectonic plate
drops below the side with the more stable plate.
• On the top right is the movement of a normal fault. A picture is also
shown below. Notice the displacement of the different types of rock on
each side of the fault.
REVERSE FAULT
• Reverse faults are the opposite of normal faults. Rocks are compressed
such that one plate moves up while the other descends below it.
• When plates compress and crack, usually the more dense one is forced
under the less dense one. This is similar to the action of the continental
crust colliding with the oceanic crust. Here the more dense crust, being
the oceanic crust is forced under the continental crust.
• To the right is an animation of a reverse fault. Below that is a real picture
of what a reverse fault looks like.
TEAR FAULT
• A tear fault, also known as a transform fault, occurs when two tectonic
plates slide in a lateral motion past each other.
• This type of fault causes the most severe earthquakes because they grind
against each other. These earthquakes can either be shallow or deep and
cause tremors over a short or long period of time.
• Tear faults can occur frequently, especially along the coast of California.
 RIFT VALLEY
• A rift valley is when two normal faults occur parallel to each other and the land
sinks between the faults. A rift valley is also known as a graben.
• Rift valleys are thought to have been developed either from the action of tensional
forces in the crust or from the action of compressional forces.
• There are two major examples of this; the Great Rift Valley in North Africa and the
other, the San Andreas Fault in California.

San Andreas Fault

AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY
THE IMPACT OF RIFT VALLEY ON THE HUMAN ACTIVITY

POSITIVE

• The beautiful scenery attracts tourists

• Lakes in the Rift valley provide fish. E.g. L. Tanganyika, L. Albert.

• Rift valley lakes provide water for domestic and agricultural use

• Lakes help in navigation (water transport).

• Forests on the slopes are sources of timber

• Gentle slopes are used for crop farming and settlement due to fertile soils

• Rift valley lakes are used for mining for example soda ash from L. Magadi

• Areas of little rainfall (rain shadow) provides pasture for grazing|

• Study purposes or research

• Wildlife conservation. For example game parks in rift valley areas

PROBLEMS FACED BY THE PEOPLE LIVING IN THE RIFT VALLEY AREAS OF EAST AFRICA.

• High temperatures lead to shortage of water

• Earthquakes (tremors) which destroy property

• Little rainfall or drought in the Rain shadow areas

• Poor means of transport and communication because of the steep

escarpments

• Salty lakes because of high temperatures and high evaporation rates

• Soil erosion and land slides especially on the steep slopes

 HORST FAULT OF BLOCK MOUNTAIN

• A Horst is the opposite of a rift valley. The land between the parallel faults is
forced upward because the two faults are being pushed together.
• A block mountain is also known as a Horst. It is formed when the middle block
which is bounded by more or less parallel faults is made to rise or is uplifted by the
compressional forces. The best example of a block mountain in East Africa is
mount. Rwenzori ranges, also known as the mountains of the moon. Others
include Mathews ranges and Nyiru Ndoto in Northern Kenya.
• This process can take a long time to occur because the average plate movement is
one inch per year
 DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes
Millions of tiny earthquakes happen everyday, but
we only manage to notice the bigger, major ones.
• Found along the tectonic plate boundaries/
margins
• Around Pacific Ocean
• Along the Indo-Australian plate boundary
• Along the Eastern side of Eurasian plate
• Western side of North American plate