Why is our earth unstable?

(A) What is hazard?

- A natural hazard is an unusual natural phenomenon or process that could cause loss of life and damage to

property.
- The following table is the summarization of different types of hazards:
Types Examples of natural hazards
Tectonic hazards (caused by earth movement) Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis
Climatic hazards (caused by climate extremes) Typhoons, blizzards, floods
Geomorphic hazards (caused by slope changes) Avalanches, landslides, mudflows
Biological hazards (caused by living things) Pests, bacteria, diseases

(B) What is the structure of the earth?

- Summarization of the characteristics of the different layers of the earth:

lighter
Continental
crust

denser

lithosphere

Mantle
Asthenosphere

Inner core
(C) What are plates?
- Plates are large pieces of solid landmass floating on the asthenosphere.
- Examples of plates which contain both continental crusts and oceanic crusts:
 Eurasian plate  South American plate
 Indo-Australian plate  African plate
 North American plate  Caribbean plate
- Examples of plates which contain only oceanic crust:
 Pacific plate  Philippine plate
 Nazca plate  Cocos plate
 Antarctic plate
 Summarization of characteristics of plates:
Size Vary in size
Shape Irregular in shape
Thickness Vary in thickness
Nature - Some carry both continent and oceanic crusts (Eurasian Plate)
- Some carry oceanic crust only (Nazca Plate)
Movement Move slowly in different directions

(D) Why do plates move?

- According to the plate tectonics, heat in mantle produces powerful convection currents in the magma.
- The convection currents cause the plates to move in different directions, bringing about different endogenetic

processes.
- Process of how plates move:
 In the asthenosphere, the decay of radioactive element releases great heat.
 As rocks are under high temperature and great pressure, they are in molten form.
 The intense heat energy generates convection currents of magma which make the plates move.

(E) What types of plate boundaries are there?

- Summarization of characteristics of three types of plate boundaries:

- Distribution of these three types of plate boundaries:

 What are the major internal forces and processes affecting the earth? What

are the resultant landforms/features?

(A) What are the major internal forces at different plate boundaries?
- Summarization of different types of internal forces:

compressional force tensional force shearing force

(B) What are the major internal processes and the resulting landforms/features?
 Folding
- Folding refers to the process by which rock layers are folded up due to compressional force.

 Rock strata that under compression crumple into bends and are called folds.
 There are small-scale and large-scale folds.
 Rocks are bent and pushed up to form round-top mountain, known as fold mountains.
 Most of the world's largest mountain ranges are fold mountains.
 Examples: The Alps, the Himalayas, the Andes
 In Hong Kong, only small-scale folds can be found.
  The arches are called anticlines and troughs are called synclines.
1. Small-scale fold
- Types of small-scale folds:

Types of fold Symmetrical Asymmetrical Overfold Recumbent Overthrust fold

fold fold fold
Strength of equal stronger at one much stronger very strong at enormous force at
compressiona side at one side one side one side
l forces at two
sides
Axis of fold vertical titled titled titled None, because the
rock layers are
broken and some
slide over the
others
Steepness of equal one limb is one limb is the limbs are one limb is broken
limb steeper pushed over almost parallel
another to each other

2. Large-scale folds
- Along destructive plate boundaries, compressional forces cause the plates to converge. This results in
folding, faulting and vulcanicity.
- These plate boundaries occur mostly on land or along land margins.
- In the Asian-Pacific region, a major destructive plate boundary is found along the Circum Pacific Belt
and the Alpine Himalayan Belt.
3. Types of fold mountain:
- Distribution of types of fold mountains:

- Comparison between young and fold mountains:

Young fold mountain Old fold mountain
higher in elevation lower in elevation
rugged in relief lower in relief
tectonically and volcanically unstable regions tectonically and volcanically stable regions
made up of sedimentary rocks made up of sedimentary rocks
elongated in shape irregular in shape
parallel and adjacent to plate boundaries far away from plate boundaries
example: the Rockies example: the Appalachians
- Characteristics of young fold mountains:
 Fold mountain ranges are elongated in shape. For example, the Himalayas stretch 2900 km long.
 It is found at the destructive plate margins.
 The range is parallel to the plate boundary.
 It has rugged and steep relief
 It rises to great height. (6000 m)
 It is unstable. Earthquakes are common. Volcanoes are found.
 It is composed of sedimentary rocks which are often stratified. The rock strata are folded.
- Uses of fold mountains:
 Rich energy resources and timber resources are found.
 There are valuable wildlife and wildness for recreation and education.
 It is a cooler place for settlement in tropical regions.
 It acts as climatic barriers which block cold winds on the leeward slope. It also benefits from
moderate or onshore winds which bring relief rain on the windward slope.
 It provides good sites for building reservoirs and HEP.
 It provides good sites for offence and defense.

 Faulting
1. Definition of faulting
- It is the displacement of rock strata along a fault plane by internal forces.
- Rock masses fracture when pressure is put to them by the movement of plate.
- When displacement on either side of a fracture occurs, a fault forms.
- Structure of a fault:
2. Types of faulting
3. Landforms produced by faulting
horse / block mountain rift valley / graben
Central and elevated block with rift valley on Elongated and flat-floored valley with block
both sides mountain on both sides
Flat-topped and steep-sided mountains Uniform width of valley
Formed either by tension or compression Formed either by tension or compression
e.g. Deccan Plateau in India, Lu Shan in China e.g. East African Rift Valley

 Vulcanicity / Volcanism
1. Definition
- It refers to all the processes related to the occurrence and movement of magma. It takes place
above and beneath the earth’s surface.
 Extrusive volcanism: When magma escapes from the mantle and reaches the earth’s surface.
 Intrusive volcanism: When magma cools and solidifies before it reaches the earth’s surface.
2. Process of vulcanicity
- There are lines of weakness in the crust. They are resulted from
 faulting at constructive and conservative plate margins
 intense folding and faulting at destructive plate margins
- Magma beneath the crust is under great pressure. Cracks may develop in the crust. When they
extend downwards and reach the hot magma below, they will release the pressure of the magma. This
allows the magma to rise through the crust along cracks.

3. Resultant landforms formed by extrusive volcanism

a. Vent eruptions (volcanoes)
- During an eruption, lava, gases, volcanic ash and pyroclastic materials erupt through a vent in the
earth’s surface. The lava then cools and solidifies into rocks around the vent. As these rocks and other
erupted materials build up in height, a volcano forms.
- A volcano usually appears as a cone, with a vertical vent at the center and symmetrical slopes for sides.
At the top of a volcano, there is a circular depression called a crater. When the crater is filled with
rainwater, a crater lake is formed.
 Structure of a volcano:
- Violent eruptions may empty the magma chamber under the volcano. The emptied magma chamber will
not be able to support the weight of the volcano above. The top of the volcano then collapses into the
magma chamber, forming a large depression called a caldera, which are usually roughly circular in
shape and have a diameter larger than 1 km.

- Volcanoes can be classified in terms of frequency of eruption and material that erupted:
 Frequency of eruption:
 Active volcano: may erupt at any time
 Dormant volcano: inactive for a long period of time
 Extinct volcano: all eruptions presumed to have stopped completely.
 Material that erupted:
 Mainly lava: acid lava cones / basic lava cones
 Mainly ash and pyroclastic materials: ash and cinder cone
 Alternate layers of ash and lava: composite cone

b. Fissure eruptions (Lava plateau)

- A fissure eruption refers to the process by which lava wells out through a linear crack or fault on a
surface. Lava flows in a sheet form, forming lava flow. As the flow continues, sheets of lava pile up,
forming a lava plateau, which can reach several hundred meters thick.
4. Resultant landforms formed by intrusive volcanism
- It takes place deep underground.
- Intrusive volcanic landforms form when the magma cools and solidifies inside the lines of
weaknesses.
- These landforms may be exposed to the earth’s surface by erosion.
- Landform features formed by intrusive volcanism:
Laccolith

Dyke

Sill

Batholith

Landform features Characteristics

Laccolith - It is a dome-shaped feature found parallel to the bedding plane.
- If the magma is stopped by a certain structure when entering the bedding
plane, the magma may push up the rock layers above. It then cools and
solidifies to form a laccolith.
Dyke - It is also an underground sheet-like feature, usually vertical or titled.
- Unlike sill, dyke runs across rock layers.
- It is formed when magma enters the cracks which at the bedding planes
at an angle then cools and solidifies.
Sill - It a sheet-like feature found parallel to the rock layers.
- Magma enters the bedding planes of rocks and solidifies to form sheets
of rock.
Batholith - It is a large intrusive rock formed deep underground.
- It is formed in a deep domed-shaped chamber.
- It can have an area of several thousand km2.
- Summarization of landform features formed from volcanism
 What are the major landforms found at the plate boundaries?
(A) What are the landform features found at divergent (constructive) plate boundaries?
1. Distribution of divergent plate boundaries:

2. Divergent plate boundaries under the sea

a. Mid-oceanic ridges
- Along divergent plate boundary, there are rising convection currents in the mantle, which creates
tensional forces.
- Two plates therefore move apart along the plate boundary.
- Divergence causes a spreading/divergence zone and forms many lines of weakness in the crust. This
releases the pressure in the mantle.
- Magma from the mantle rises along the lines of weakness to the ocean floor. When it cools and
solidifies, it produces new oceanic crust along the plate boundary.
- The rising convective currents in the mantle are strong enough to push up the ocean floor, a low rising
ridge is formed, it is called an oceanic ridge.
- Examples: East Pacific Rise / Mid-Atlantic Ridge
b. Rift valley
- On both sides of the oceanic ridge, there are parallel faults. Under tensional forces, faulting happens as
the center of the ocean ridge, central blocks sink to form a rift valley.
- As shear force also happens, the mid-oceanic ridge breaks to form a transform fault.
 Formation of a mid-oceanic ridge and a rift valley
 A close-up view of the mid-oceanic ridge:
c. Submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands
- As two plates move apart, tension forces form lines of weaknesses. Pressure is then released. Magma
rises rapidly and volcanism occurs.
- Volcanic eruptions produce active submarine volcanoes near the plate boundary.
- Repeated volcanic eruptions increase the height of the volcanoes above sea level. They then become
volcanic islands.
- Example: Easter Island

- Formation of submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands along the divergent plate boundary:
3. Divergent plate boundaries on land
- When continental crusts diverge along the constructive plate boundary on land, tensional forces will
cause divergence which pull apart the blocks of land. The central block sinks to form rift valley and
block mountains.
- Example: Great Rift Valley in east Africa / Black Forest Mountain in Germany
- Formation of the East African Rift and volcanoes:
(B) What are the major landform features found at convergent plate boundaries?
1. Distribution of convergent plate boundaries
- Distribution of convergent plate boundaries:

Mediterranean
The African Plate
The Arabian Plate
Indian The Indo-Austrailian Plate

North American
Caribbean

South American

Eurasian
2. Landform features formed along the convergent plate boundaries
a. Himalayas
- Due to sinking convective current in the mantle, there are compressional forces causing two
continental plates with continental crusts crushed together along convergent plate boundary.
- For example, Eurasian plate collides with Indo-Australian plate.
- Before collision, there was a big ocean between two plates.
- Sedimentary from erosion on the land deposited there to form sedimentary rock.
- When two plates collided, sedimentary rock in between was compressed and folded up to form fold
mountain range, which is Himalayas.
- Due to compressional force, folding may also happen to form a lot of lines of weaknesses, pressure is
released and resulted in vulcanicity.
- There may also be earthquakes due to folding.
- Caution to the following points!
 There is no more sea in between two plates as the sedimentary rock covered it.
 There are no active volcanoes on the Himalayas due to the lack of magma supply after the end
of subduction.
 Himalayas are young fold mountains and the Himalayas continue rise today.
- Formation of the Himalayas:
b. Islands of Japan and Japan Trench
- Owing to the sinking convective current in the mantle, one continental plate collides with one oceanic
plate along convergent plate boundary.
- For example, along east coast of Asia, the Pacific plate collides with the Okhotsk plate.
- Pacific plate being denser and thinner, is subducted under the Okhotsk plate into the mantle and
melted.
- In the subduction zone, a deep ocean trench is formed. The ocean trench of the east coast of Japan is
called the Japan Trench.
- At the subduction zone, there are faulting and produce a lot of lines of weaknesses in the crust.
- There will be a release of pressure so magma may rise along lines of weaknesses and results in
volcanic eruptions to produce chains of volcanic islands, called a volcanic island arc. The arc is
closely parallel to the ocean trench.

c. Mariana Islands and Mariana Trench

- Owing to the sinking convective current in the mantle, one oceanic plate collides with another oceanic
plate along convergent plate boundary.
- For example, along east coast of Asia, the Philippine Plate collides with the Pacific Plate.
- Pacific plate being denser and thinner, is subducted under the Philippine plate into the mantle and
destroyed.
- In the subduction zone, a deep ocean trench is formed. It is called the Mariana Trench, the deepest
ocean trench in the world (11 km deep).
- At the subduction zone, there are earthquakes and produce a lot of lines of weaknesses in the crust.
- There will be a release of pressure so magma may rise along lines of weaknesses and results in
volcanic eruption to produce a chain of volcanic islands, called a volcanic island arc. The arc is closely
parallel to the ocean trench.

d. The Andes and Peru-Chile Trench

- Owing to the sinking convective current, one continental plate collided with one oceanic plate along
convergent plate boundary.
- For example, the South American Plate collides with the Nazca Plate.
- The Nazca plate being thinner and denser, is subducted under the South American plate into the
mantle and melts.
- In the subduction zone, a deep oceanic trench is formed. The ocean trench off the coast of Chile is
called the Peru-Chile Trench.
- In time, the trench is filled with sediments from land. They then compressed to form sedimentary rock.
- When two plates continue to collide, the sedimentary rock in between will be folded up and crumpled to
form fold mountains called the Andes.
- Moreover, subduction also causes earthquakes and produces lines of weaknesses in the crust.
- There will be a release of pressure so magma may rise along lines of weaknesses and results in
volcanism.
- Volcanoes are formed.
- The processes involved in the collision of the Nazca plate and the South American Plate:
e. Other examples of oceanic trenches and volcanic island arcs in the Asian-Pacific region
 Ryukyu Trench Ryukyu Islands

Mariana Trench Mariana Islands

Pacific Plate

(C) What are the major landform features formed at conservative plate boundaries?
1. Distribution of conservative plate boundaries
2. Major landform features formed at conservative plate boundaries
- At conservative plate boundaries, there is neither construction nor destruction of plate materials. Usually,
joints are found where plates slide past each other.
- When two plates slide past each other laterally, shear stress builds up along the plate boundary. If the
stress is too great, the plates will fracture and produce a transform fault.
- Example: San Andreas Fault, where many earthquakes occur.
- The location of San Andreas Fault:

Caution: Although there is San Andreas Fault in between North American plate and the Pacific plate
(conservative plate boundary), TWO PLATES MOVE IN THE SAME DIRECTION.
 How do plate movements create tectonic hazards?
(A) How do plate movement create earthquakes?
1. What an earthquake is?
- An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the land. It is caused by the sudden release of energy stored
in the rocks beneath the earth’s surface.
- When the stress is applied to the rocks, energy builds up in the rock layer and a fracture is formed. When
the energy exceeds the strength of the rock, the rock suddenly breaks and displaces along the
fracture.

- The energy released from the breaking of rock transmits as shockwaves, also known as seismic waves.
They move outward in all directions and shake the ground. Seismic waves are generated from a focus.
The point on the crustal surface directly above the focus is the epicenter. It is nearest to the source of
seismic waves. Thus, it is the point on the surface where earthquake is most strongly felt.
2. Ways of measuring earthquakes
- The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in terms of both intensity and magnitude.
- Intensity is based on the damage caused by an earthquake. It is measured in Modified Mercalli
Intensity Scale. The scale ranges from I (not felt at all) to XII (total destruction).
- Magnitude is related to the amount of energy released at the focus. It is measured in Richter Scale,
which is recorded by a seismograph. The scale ranges from 1 to 9 or above.

3. Where earthquakes occur

- Earthquakes are most common found around the Pacific Ocean (i.e. the Circum-Pacific Belt) and in a
zone extending from northern India and across to the Mediterranean Sea (i.e. the Alpine-Himalayan
Belt). Both these zones are near to the plate boundaries.
- Distribution of earthquakes:

a. At plate boundaries
- In general, earthquakes are found at all types of plate boundaries. However, strong earthquakes occur
more frequently at convergent and conservative plate boundaries. At these plate boundaries, plates
collide and slide past each other, both create great friction and stress. Energy is thus built up more
easily and rapidly.
- Earthquakes can occur at various depths in the earth’s crust. Most earthquakes occur at shallow depths,
especially those occurring at divergent and conservative plate boundaries. However, at convergent plate
boundaries, shallow to deep earthquakes occur. In general, deep earthquakes tend to be less
damaging than shallower ones. This is because seismic waves from deep earthquakes lose energy as
they travel a long distance from focus to the surface.

b. At hot spot
- Some earthquakes may be triggered by volcanic eruptions at hot spot.
- Example: in places near the Hawaiian Islands
c. Intraplate earthquakes
- Intraplate earthquakes are earthquakes which occur within the interior part of plates.
- They are less common than interpolate earthquakes, accounting for only 1% of all earthquakes.
- Intraplate earthquakes are the result of fault rupture or displacements in fault zones. In fact, many
plates are fractured and divided into individual blocks which may move relative to each other. This
creates stresses between the blocks. When the stresses are great enough to rupture the fault,
displacement occur and causes the intraplate earthquakes.
- Example: the Tangshan Earthquake in 1976, the Wenchuan Earthquake in 2008

4. Why they occur?

a. Tectonic movement
- The plates are stuck because there is great friction between the rock masses of the two crusts due to
tectonic movement. Great pressure is then built up in the rock masses. When stress is greater than the
strength of rock masses, rock masses fracture. Pressure is then released. This releases stored energy and
produced seismic waves. These wave move put in all directions and cause ground to shake, resulting in
earthquakes.

b. Volcanic eruptions
- Volcanic eruptions may also result in vibration, causing earthquakes.

c. Human activities
- Human activities may trigger earthquakes due to exertion of pressure of land.
- Example: Artificial structures / Heavy weight of water stored in large reservoir / Underground nuclear
test / Collapse of large underground mines

d. Development of new convection currents of magma in asthenosphere

- New convection currents of magma in the asthenosphere may develop. A plate can crack and break
up further along new plate boundaries. There are some uncertain plate boundaries associated with
earthquake.

(B) How do plate movements create volcanic eruptions?

1. What volcanic eruptions are
- Volcanic eruptions occur when lava, gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide), ashes
and pyroclastic materials are ejected or emitted from an opening in the earth’s surface.
2. Types of volcanic eruptions

3. Where and why volcanic eruptions occur?

a. At convergent and divergent plate boundaries
- More than 90% of volcanic eruptions are found at convergent and divergent plate boundaries. The line of
active volcanoes which roughly surrounds the Pacific Ocean tends to produce the most violent
eruptions. It is known as the Pacific Ring of Fire.
- The distribution of volcanoes:

- Comparisons of volcanic eruptions in convergent and divergent plate boundaries:

b. Above a hot spot

- Some volcanic areas such as the Hawaiian Islands and the Yellowstone in the USA are located above a
hot spot. A hot spot is a location where a mantle plume rises from between the core and the mantle.
A mantle plume is long, narrow column of upwelling hot mantle material. When the plume head
touches the lithosphere, the heat facilitates the melting of rock into magma. Magma pushes through
cracks in the crust and erupts at the earth’s surface. This forms volcanoes, submarine volcanoes or
volcanic islands.

- The Hawaiian Islands are the most famous volcanic islands found over a hot spot within the Pacific
plate. here, a mantle plume rises roughly in the center of the Pacific Ocean and forms a hot spot there.
Magma rises and erupts at the sea floor of the Pacific Ocean. After repeated eruptions, the submarine
volcano grows in height until it finally rises above the sea level to form a volcanic island.

- As the Pacific plate moves northwestwards, this volcanic island is carried away from the hot spot. The
volcano on the island is being cut off from the source of magma. Volcanism ceases and volcano
becomes extinct. A new submarine volcano and eventually a volcanic island is subsequently formed
above the hot spot. The cycle is repeated and results in a line of extinct submarine volcanoes or
volcanic islands. They lie to the northwest of the active volcano. Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii,
which is currently located directly above the hot spot.
(C) How do plate movements create tsunamis?
1. What tsunamis are
- Tsunami is a word describes a series of big sea waves. It is caused by the sudden vertical movement of
the ocean floor. Most tsunamis are secondary hazards from earthquakes of magnitude 7.0 or above
with shallow focus.
- Tsunamis can travel at a speed of 700 km/h or more. They are not easy to notice in open seas because
they are only about 1 m high. But when they reach the shallow seas at the coast, they slow down and
can tower up into huge waves over 30 m high.

2. Where and why tsunamis occur

- Tsunamis can be generated at different types of plate boundaries. However, they are more actively
generated at convergent plate boundaries than the others. This is because the causes of vertical
movement of the ocean floor are most active at convergent plate boundaries. Over 95% of all
tsunamis occurred around the Pacific Ocean, which is almost entirely encircled by unstable
convergent plate boundaries.
- Once a tsunami is generated, the islands in the Pacific Ocean are often affected because tsunamis travel
in all directions. They hit these islands first before they arrive at the opposite coast. The Hawaiian
Islands in the Pacific Ocean were hit by tsunamis more than 40 times in the last 200 years.
- In contrast, tsunamis generated at divergent plate boundaries are less frequent and not as serious.

- Formation of a tsunami during an earthquake:

- Graph regarding route of the tsunami (Taking 2011 Tohoku tsunami as example):
 What impact do tectonic hazard cause? How can we deal with them?
(A) What are the effects brought by earthquakes? How can losses be minimized?
1. Types of earthquakes
- Earthquakes can be classified in terms of depth of focus and the time of occurrence:
 Depth of focus:
 Shallow earthquakes (0 – 70 km)
 Intermediate earthquakes (70 – 300 km)
 Deep earthquakes (> 300 km)
 Time of occurrence:
 Foreshock (minor shock comes earlier than mainshock)
 Principal shock (shock of the highest magnitude)
 Aftershock (followed by the principal shock, sometimes is destructive)

2. Difference between primary shock and secondary shock

- Secondary waves are generally larger than primary waves and are often responsible for the damage
that an earthquake may cause. Since the particles move up and down in a secondary wave, they move
the earth around them with greater force, and are able to actually shake the surface of the earth.
3. Factors affecting the magnitude of an earthquake
- Depth of focus is shallow
- Amount of crustal movement at focus is great
- Distance from epicenter is short
- Rock through which the seismic waves pass through is rigid

4. Factors affecting the destruction of an earthquake:

- The magnitude of an earthquake is great
- It occurs during midnight or rush hour
- The duration of the earthquake is long
- The population density in the area is high
- The construction material used are not shock-proofed
- Earthquake-proof measures are insufficient or unavailable
- It occurs in a developing country (less developed country)
- It has insufficient capital and technology
- It has insufficient of ineffective relief work
- The monitoring and forecast systems are poor
- The economic development of the affected area is good
- People’s awareness of earthquakes is low

5. Impact brought by earthquakes

a. Secondary hazards
- Flooding may occur due to tsunamis / huge waves / breached dams
- Land subsidence, ground cracks or faulting may occur
- Landslides / avalanche occur on steep slopes
- Fire may occur due to broken gas pipes

b. Damages
- Casualties
- Loss of property
- Collapse of buildings
- Interruption of communication and transport, as well as water, gas and electricity supplies
- Widespread of infectious disease because of the contaminated water

c. Positive influences
- Increase social cohesion
- Increase people awareness of problems caused by earthquakes
- More resources may be used to do precautionary measures and works
6. Measures to minimize losses caused by earthquakes
a. Monitoring, predicting and warning systems
- In order to try to predict the time and place that an earthquake may occur, and the magnitude, scientists
analyze past records of earthquakes. They also use seismographs to measure seismic waves. In
addition, they rely on satellites to detect slight movements in the ground.

- By applying the above measures, scientists have successfully predicted the occurrence of some strong
earthquakes, such as the one near Sumatra, Indonesia in March 2005. This helps reduce the number of
deaths.
- Japan implemented a nationwide earthquake early warning system, which programs its high-speed
trains to slow down or stop if the warning system detects an earthquake is about to occur. This reduces
the risk of derailment.
b. Hazard-proof designs
- Earthquake-proof designs for buildings help prevent the collapse of structures. This is very important
in reducing the number of injuries and deaths in earthquakes.

c. Land-use planning
- Careful land-use planning lessens potential losses in areas already occupied and guides future
development away from hazard zones. Areas can be mapped according to the level of risk to produce
a ‘hazard-prone map’. This can help the government plan and formulate policies for reducing the
impact of these hazards.
- In earthquake-prone areas, the following land-use policies should be implemented:
 Avoid building facilities with potential dangers
  Impose laws governing the height and the structure of buildings
 Establish an evacuation route with adequate road signs at urban planning stage
 Large open spaces are designated as safety evacuation areas
 Schools & indoor stadiums are also designated as evacuation / shelter centers.

d. Education and drills

- Since earthquakes may strike suddenly without warning, it is essential that everyone be prepared.
Education and drills have proven to be very successful in reducing losses. For example, in Japan,
students are taught what should do before, during and after a hazard. Regular large-scale earthquake
drills for the general public are also held. As people are educated and become more aware of
earthquakes, potential losses can be minimized.

e. Rescue teams
- Well-trained and well-equipped rescue teams can increase the number of lives saved. Rescue teams can
help reduce the number of people killed by disease, dirty water, starvation, etc., after earthquakes.
 Equipment for rescue work includes advanced life detectors, helicopters, medicines and wireless
communication network.

f. Disaster aid and insurance

- Disaster aid helps reduce losses during hazards. The American government, for example, sets up
emergency funds for various hazards. These funds are usually used to strengthen the equipment
available for rescue work.
- In some spaces, insurance is provided against earthquakes. Governments in Japan, New Zealand and
the USA encourage private companies to provide this service with government-support scheme.
This helps rebuild homes and the economy.

(B) What are the effects brought by volcanic eruptions? How can losses be minimized?
1. Factors affecting degree of destruction of volcanic eruptions
- Damage is generally serious when:
 Eruption is explosive and violent
 Distance from settlements to the volcanoes is short
 Eruption occurs at night when most of the residents are sleeping
 Duration of eruption is long
 Population density is high
 It is a developing country
 It has insufficient or inefficient relief work
 It has inadequate precautionary measures, like education
 It has insufficient capital and technology
 The economic development of the affected area is good
  People’s awareness of volcanic eruption is low

2. Negative impacts of volcanic eruptions

- Some eruptions cause great loss of life and property.
- Some eruptions may cause interruption of communication, water, gas and electricity supplies.
- Ash fall may damage buildings.
- Lava flows cause fire hazards and destruction of vegetation cover.
- During violent eruptions, the large amount of steam ejected usually speeds up condensation and causes
heavy rain. This results in mudflows and flooding.
- Some volcanic gases, such as sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide, may form acid rain.
- Volcanic eruptions also cause earthquakes, tsunamis, snow avalanches and landslides.
- Submarine volcanic eruption causes tsunamis.

3. Positive impacts of volcanic eruptions

- Weathered basic lava produces fertile soil for farming.
- Volcanic activities sometimes result in the formation of precious stones and minerals, such as
sulphur.
- In volcanic areas, hot water and steam can be used to generate electricity. This is known as geothermal
power.
- Some hot springs are used for heating and supplying hot water to buildings, such as New Zealand.
- Beautiful volcanic features can also attract tourists and thus increases income.
- The hot water is usually rich in dissolved minerals and has high medical value. Thus, hot springs can
be developed into health resorts.
4. Measures to minimize losses caused by volcanic eruptions
a. Monitoring, predicting and warning systems
- There are usually signs of imminent activity from a volcano before it erupts. Instruments are installed
to detect
 seismic activity
 changes in temperature, pressure levels and magma in the volcanoes
 composition of gases emitted
 tilting and swelling of volcano
 groundwater levels
- The above observations, together with the study of the history and geological structure of the volcano,
helps scientists predict the occurrence of volcanic eruptions. For example, the success in predicting all
the 14 eruptions of Mount St Helens in the USA between 1980 and 1982 helped minimize casualties.

b. Hazard-proof designs
- Where the direction of potential flow is known, barriers can be erected to slow down the flow, while
the lava diversion channel can be built to divert the flow away from densely populated areas. This
can minimize deaths and loses.
- Volcanic ash on a roof, especially when it is wet, can be heavy enough to cause the roof to collapse.
Therefore, roofs are built with strong structures and steep-sloping sides. This helps shed ash and
prevent the roofs from collapsing.

c. Land-use planning
- In volcanic areas, volcanic hazard-prone maps are prepared to show the areas that may possibly
affected by lava flow and mudflow during volcanic eruptions. This helps prepare emergency
evacuation plans according to their risk levels and avoids having important structures constructed
on the evacuation routes.
- A volcanic hazard-prone map for the island of Hawaii:

d. Education and drills

- People living in eruption-prone areas are urged to learn about the evacuation route, make an emergency
plan and prepare an emergency kit.
- In addition, disaster drills help increase people’s awareness of volcanic eruptions and teach them how to
react to the hazard. For example, in Japan, disaster drills are held to prepare for a potential eruption of
Mount Fuji.
e. Other measures
- Like earthquakes, well-trained and well-equipped rescue teams and disaster aid help reduce further
losses caused by volcanic eruptions. In addition, insurance helps rebuild the economy.

(C) What are the effects brought by tsunamis? How can losses be minimized?
1. Ways of measuring tsunamis?
- As with earthquakes, there is a scale to measure the magnitude of tsunamis:
2. Factors affecting degree of destruction of tsunamis
- Damage is generally serious when:
 Location of tsunamis generated is near to coast. Warning time is short.
 Magnitude of earthquakes or volcanic eruption is high.
 Depth of focus is shallow.
 Seafloor topography is smooth and the offshore water is shallow.
 The affected area is a narrow V-shaped bay.
 Height of wave is high.
 The speed of wave is fast.
 It occurs at night when most of the residents are sleeping.
 Duration of the occurrence is long.
 Its population density is high.
 It is a developing country.
 Building materials and designs are poor.
 It has insufficient capital and technology.
 It has inadequate precautionary measures
 It has insufficient or inefficient relief works.
3. Effects brought by tsunamis
- Coastal flooding – when the huge wall of water rushes towards coastal areas, low-lying areas are
inundated.
- Destruction of infrastructure – the force of rushing water crushes buildings and highways.
- Washing away of beaches, uprooting of trees and sweeping away of heavy objects further inland.
- Changes to the coastline – coastline may retreat and become irregular.
- Disruption to the local ecosystems – vegetation will be washed away / Animals lost their habitat
- It may bring fire inland if the pipelines were broken by earthquake, causing injuries / loss of property.
- Spread of infectious disease: cholera

4. Measures to minimize losses caused by tsunamis

a. Monitoring, predicting and warning systems
- As a tsunami is often triggered by submarine
earthquakes, scientists can look at the size and
type of such earthquakes that may cause
tsunamis. However, since not all submarine
earthquakes trigger tsunamis, open-sea tsunami
buoys and ocean-bottom tsunami gauges are
installed. When the buoys detect vibrations on
the sea floor, or when the gauges detect
abnormal changes in the height of sea waves
in the oceans, data is sent to tsunami warning
centers.
- When a tsunami is expected in the Pacific
region, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
will issue warnings to countries in the region.
After the disastrous tsunami in December 2004,
the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System
was set up in 2006 to provide warnings to
people living in countries around the Indian
Ocean. Some individual countries such as
Chile, Peru and Japan have also set up local
warning systems.

b. Hazard-proof designs
- To minimize the damage caused by huge waves, coastal structures should be reinforced with concrete
and built on a foundation designed well enough to withstand the force of the waves.
- Moreover, lower floors of coastal structures should be used for non-living purposes to minimize
possible casualties. They should also provide vertical evacuation routes.
- To protect coastal structures, sea walls or coastal levees can be built along the shore. They help
reflect and dissipate wave energy, thus reducing the force of waves and their power to destroy
structures.

c. Land-use planning
- In tsunami-prone areas, a coastal belt is designed for beaches or woodland reserves in order to reduce
potential losses. Short evacuation routes leading to higher ground are created along these coasts.

d. Education and drills

- Carry out tsunami evacuation drills periodically can strengthen people’s awareness and
preparedness for tsunamis. In addition, conducting talks and campaigns can educate people about
evacuation routes.

e. Other measures
- Again, well-trained and well-equipped rescue teams should be set up. Disaster aid and insurance should
be provided to reduce losses and rebuild economy.

(D) Examples of tectonic hazards

1. Earthquakes
2. Tsunamis

3. Volcanic eruptions
(E) How effective are the measure in minimizing losses caused by tectonic hazards?
1. Monitoring, predicting and warning systems
- It depends on the inputs of capital and
technology.
- Not everyone has the access to a radio in the
rural areas of poor countries.
2. Hazard-proof structures
- It depends on the availability of capital and
technology.
- In countries where corruption is common, the
building laws are not effectively enforced.
- Housing built by inferior materials may have
a lower resistance.

3. Land-use planning
- The effectiveness of land-use
planning depends on how
accurate we identify the
high risk areas.
- Wrong decisions may lead to
more loss of life and
property.

4. Rescue teams
- In LDCs, rescues are always
delayed because of buried
roads, collapse
communication systems,
corrupt management or
even political barriers.

5. Education and drills

- It is effective when most people are able to get prepared before hands, and protect themselves
during and after hazards. However, people tend to forget them that happened long ago.
(F) Factors affecting a place’s vulnerability to tectonic hazards
1. What factors cause a place to be more vulnerable to tectonic hazards?
a. Factors concerning the affected area
b. Factors concerning the tectonic hazards
2. What makes LDCs suffer more damage from tectonic hazards?
a. Level of economic development
- LDCs lack two key resources that can reduce potential losses during hazards: capital and technology.
- Since these countries are poor, they do not have enough money to conduct adequate research, develop
warning systems and improve rescue equipment. When there are hazards, people are not warned
beforehand, and the governments often cannot afford rescue work.

b. Transport network
- The transport network in LDCs is often poorly developed. Rescue work is often hindered because
of inefficient transport.

c. Strength of buildings
- Many buildings are built with stones, bricks or wood. They cannot withstand the heavy shaking or
the fires which can occur after an earthquake. Moreover, due to poor housing laws and
maintenance, substandard buildings easily collapse during earthquakes.

d. Population density
- The population density is usually higher in cities in LDCs than in MDCs. The death toll during
tectonic hazards is often higher in LDCs.
e. Social value, education and awareness of people
- Many people in LDCs do not have access to education. Poor education often results in a low level of
preparedness for hazards.
- In addition, strong traditional values and old-fashioned ideas make people feel reluctant to change the
way they live. They are less likely to participate in drills and evacuation plans.
- Little education means that there are few experts to master advanced technology or provide training
to relevant parties.

f. Government efficiency
- Government of LDCs may not respond quickly enough to help victims of tectonic hazards. They
often rely heavily on foreign rescue teams and aids. For example, since the strong earthquake
stuck in Haiti in 2010, 2.5 Haitians are still in need of assistance and around 55000 people are still
living in temporary settlement camps. Recovery is slow. In some cases, corruption prevents many
resources designated for relief efforts from reaching the needy.
- Some government are bureaucratic and inefficient. This hinders the enforcement of relevant hazard-
proof policies and regulations. For example, height should be restricted and the use of hazard-
proof is a must in construction site, especially in hazard-prone areas, but no officers are
responsible for the rules that the height of building should be restricted.

3. What can LDCs do with limited resources?

- LDCs are taking a more active role in dealing with hazards nowadays. In addition to receiving disaster
aid and relief work from international voluntary groups such as the Red Cross, they are seeking
ways to improve their infrastructure and increase their resistance with their limited resources.
- Characteristics and differences in various aspects of tectonic hazards:
 Is it rational to choose to live in hazard-prone areas?
- The more risks the people receive, the less likely they will choose to stay. However, different people
have different perceptions of hazard risk.
- Factors affecting people’s perceptions:
 differences in their education level
 past experiences
 religious background
 character of the person

(A) Why do people choose to stay in hazard-prone areas?

1. Geothermal power
- The hot water and steam found in volcanic areas can be used to generate geothermal power. It is
renewable and clean. Therefore it is a preferred energy resource. In Iceland and New Zealand, it is
used to heat homes and generate electricity. About 25% of Iceland’s electricity is generated by
geothermal power.
- Moreover, the development of geothermal power can attract foreign investment and provide more jobs
and business opportunities.
2. Favor the development of the mining industry
- When magma cools and solidifies below the earth’s surface, it may form rocks concentrated with
metals and minerals. Many metals and minerals have great economic value to people. For
example, iron ore serves as raw material for steel making. Some minerals such as diamonds are
valuable as precious stones.
- World distribution of major metals and precious stones:
3. Favor the development of farming
- Volcanic ash ejected from volcanoes are rich in minerals. The weathering of solidified lava also
produces fertile soil. Both provides nutrients for crop growth and attracts farmers. In Indonesia,
the population density near intense volcanic activity is usually higher.

4. Favor the development of the tourism industry

- Many volcanic areas and areas with folds and faults are scenic spots. For example, Iceland and the
Hawaiian Islands are famous for their beautiful volcanic scenery. The fold mountains of the Alps
with their magnificent peaks attract many tourists to central Europe.
- Hot springs and geysers are both heated groundwater that rises or erupts to the earth’s surface in
volcanic areas. The water from hot springs usually contains minerals that are said to be good for
our health. In Japan and Iceland, hot water spas are set up in volcanic areas. Geysers, in
Yellowstone, are spectacular natural fountains that attract tourists.
- By developing tourist spots in these areas, local people can have more job opportunities, higher
incomes and a better living standard.

5. Good climate
- Hazard-prone area in tropical and subtropical regions
 have mild climates and plenty of rainfall
 good for farming, and comfortable and economical places to live

6. High level of economic development

- Some high-risk areas are well-developed with good infrastructure and modern facilities.
- The high living standard and good job opportunities attract people to stay there.
- These cities usually have developed strong mechanisms to manage tectonic hazards.
- Hence, people feel less need to move to other places.

7. Underestimation of the risks of natural hazards

- They believe that the probability of a disastrous hazard is very low during their lifetime.
- They have confidence in their governments.
- They believe that they can respond promptly and effectively.

8. Not able or not willing to move

- Many people are not able or not willing to leave hazard-prone areas for personal or economic reasons:
 They are too poor to move to other places, especially LDCs such as Haiti and Indonesia.
- They don’t want to give up their jobs.
- They afraid cannot adapt to a new environment.
- Their ties to one’s motherland and ancestors, and their own culture prevent people from moving
away, especially when the tradition is a long one.
 They consider weakening of social bond as a great loss.
 It will be impossible for some people to re-establish new social links in a new cultural
environment.

9. Limitations on migrations
- Political barriers: there are strict population controls and immigration policies for some countries.
Migration is not free among, or sometimes even within, countries.
- Physical constraints: many places in the world are free of tectonic hazard. However, they are sparsely
populated because they are not suitable for people to settle. For example, the polar and alpine
areas are too cold, the deserts are too dry, and the rainforests are too wet for people to live. The
cost of opening up the land is high, and the effort needed is too great.

(B) Why do people choose to leave hazard-prone areas?

1. Past experience of hazards
- People who have experienced a major disaster in the past may be psychologically upset and scared of
having a similar one in future.
- They may choose to leave the place and move to a new location where they feel safer to avoid facing
the frightening experience.

2. Information mastery
- With the help of advanced technology and past hazard records:
 people can identify high-risk locations
 choose to move so that they can reduce expose to future tectonic hazards

(C) Is it a rational choice to leave or to stay?

- Whether people’s decisions are rational on the issue of living in hazard-prone areas depend on subject
but careful evaluation of following:
 Perceived risk of hazards happening in the area
 Possible gains from opportunities offered by tectonic processes
 Possible gains or losses if one leaves the hazard-prone areas