Electrical Machines : TECP3622

Chapter 2: Week 3 and 4

Transformer

Dr. Tom Wanjekeche

Email: [email protected]
1.1 Introduction
 1.1 Introduction
Definition The transformer is a stationary device that transfers
electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another electrical
circuit at different volt. The two circuits may be operating at
different voltage levels but always work at the same frequency.
Basically transformer is an electro-magnetic energy conversion
device. It is commonly used in electrical power system and
distribution systems.
Transformer changes voltage levels, i.e.,
• step up transformer and
• step down transformer
• isolated transformer.
Transformer has two ports:
• Primary winding,
• Secondary winding.
 1.1 Introduction Cont’d
Energy is transferred from primary winding to secondary
winding via electromagnetic field.
1.1 Introduction Cont’d
 1.2 Construction and Principle of Operation

It consists of one or more coil(s) of wire wrapped around a

common ferromagnetic core as shown below. In practice,
the windings are wrapped on top of each other to minimize
flux leakage.
 1.2 Construction and Principle of Operation Cont’d
1. Core
The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low
reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the core as
shown in the picture. It is made up of a laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the
losses in a transformer. The factors such as operating voltage, current, power etc
decide core composition. The core diameter is directly proportional to copper losses
and inversely proportional to iron losses.
2. Windings
Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper wires
are used due to:
• High conductivity of copper. This minimizes the loss in a transformer. since
conductivity increases, resistance to current flow decreases.
• High ductility of copper. Ductility is the property of metals that they can be made
into very thin wires.
 1.2 Construction and Principle of Operation Cont’d
There are mainly two types of windings. Primary windings and secondary
windings.
• Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which supply current is feed.
• Secondary winding: the set of turns of winding from which output is taken.
The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using
insulation coating agents.
3. Insulation Agents
Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from shorting the
circuit and thus facilitating the mutual induction. Insulation agents have influence
in durability and the stability of a transformer. Following are used as an insulation
medium in a transformer:
Insulating oil
Insulating tape
Insulating paper
Wood-based lamination
1.2 Construction and Principle of Operation Cont’d

Principle of operation
When AC voltage is applied to the primary of the
transformer, an alternating current flows through the
primary winding setting up an alternating flux ɸ in the
core. This flux which links both primary and secondary.
Therefore an EMF E1 is induced in the primary and E2 in
the secondary,
 1.3 EMF Equation of Transformer

N1 – number of turns in primary. N2 – number of turns in

secondary.
Φm – maximum flux in weber (Wb). T – time period. Time is
taken for 1 cycle.
The flux formed is a sinusoidal wave. It rises to a maximum
value Φm and decreases to negative maximum Φm. So, flux
reaches a maximum in one-quarter of a cycle. The time taken is
equal to T/4.
 1.3 EMF Equation of Transformer Cont’d

Average rate of change of flux = Φm/(T/4) = 4*fΦm

Where f = frequency
T = 1/f
Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn
Form factor = rms value / average value
Rms value = 1.11 * (4*fΦm) = 4.44 fΦm [form factor of sine wave
is 1.11]
RMS value of EMF induced in winding = RMS value
of EMF per turn * no of turns
Primary Winding
Rms value of induced emf = E1 = 4.44 fΦm *N1
1.4 Ideal Transformer
1.4 Ideal Transformer Cont’d
1.4 Ideal Transformer Cont’d
 1.4 Ideal Transformer Cont’d
Properties of Ideal Transformer

Hence for Ideal Transformer:

 1.4 Ideal Transformer Cont’d
Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Transformer at No Load
1.5 Classification of Transformers and their
Applications
Types of Transformers
There are various types of transformers which are classified
based on the following factors;
• The Working voltage range.
• Medium used in the core.
• Winding arrangement.
• Installation location.
• Construction
 1.5 Classification of Transformers and their
Applications
Types of Transformers Cont’d
1. Based on Voltage Levels
• Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power
generator and the power grid. The secondary output voltage is
higher than the input voltage.
• Step down Transformer: These transformers are used to
convert high voltage primary supply to low voltage secondary
output.
2. Based on the Medium of Core Used
• Air core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and
secondary winding is through the air. The coil or windings wound
on the non-magnetic strip.
 1.5 Classification of Transformers and their
Applications
Types of Transformers Cont’d
• Iron core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron
plates stacked together, which provides a perfect linkage path to
generate flux.

3. Based on the Winding Arrangement

• Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a
laminated core. The primary and secondary share the same coil.
4. Based on Install Location
• Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations as they
are suitable for high voltage application (divided in two categories:
unit transformer: connected to the output of generator to step up
voltage to transmission level. Operate at 110 kV and higher)
 1.5 Classification of Transformers and their
Applications
Types of Transformers Cont’d
Substation transformer: a transformer at substation to step down the
voltage from transmission to distribution level (2.3 kV to 34.5kV
• Distribution Transformer: Mostly used at distribution lanes in
domestic purposes. They are designed for carrying low voltages. It is
very easy to install and characterized by low magnetic losses (110V,
220V 240V )
• Measurement Transformers: These are further classified. They are
mainly used for measuring voltage, current, power.
• Protection Transformers: They are used for component protection
purposes. In circuits some components must be protected from
voltage fluctuation etc. protection transformers ensure component
protection
 1.5 Classification of Transformers and their
Applications
Types of Transformers Cont’d

5. Based on Construction
• The core transformer has two magnetic circuits; in this type
transformer both the primary and the secondary windings are
wound outside and surround the core ring means both windings
are placed on the side limbs. Winding surrounds considerable
portion of core. Used for small power transformer.
• The shell transformer has one magnetic circuit; in this type
transformer the primary and secondary winding pass inside the
steel magnetic core which forms a shell around the winding. Core
surrounds considerable portion of winding. Preferred to high
voltage transformer
1.5 Classification of Transformers and their
Applications

Core type

Shell type
 1.5 Classification of Transformers and their
Applications
Applications of Transformer
1. Used to prevent DC from passing from one circuit to another
2. The transformer used for isolate two circuits electrically.
3. Enables us to transmit large amount of power over long distance
with little loss to homes, factory or load centres
4. It can increase or decrease the value of capacitor, an inductor or
resistance in an AC circuit. It can thus act as an impedance
transferring device (Impedance matching).
5. Power transformers are mainly used for AC/DC power
conversion along with voltage maintenance in the intricate and
heavy electrical appliances that are used in mines
6. They provide protection against electrical sparks caused by
humidity/ moisture content within the mines.
7. Large, specially constructed power transformers are used for
electric arc furnaces used in steelmaking
 1.6 Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
In real conditions, in addition to the mutual flux which links both the
primary and secondary windings transformer, has a component of
flux, which links either the primary winding or the secondary, but not
both.
• This component is called leakage flux. The flux which links only
with primary is called primary leakage flux
• The flux which links only with secondary is called secondary
leakage flux.
• The primary leakage flux (which is proportional to I1) causes an
induced voltage, which acts as a voltage drop. Similarly for the
secondary leakage flux. The effect of these induced EMFs are,
therefore, represented as inductive leakage reactances X1, X2.
• The windings of the transformer have resistance R1, R2. These
resistances cause a voltage drop I1 R1 and I2 R2, as also ohmic loss
I12R1 and I22R2 .
 1.6 Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
• This core of the transformer has core resistance (RC) and core
leakage reactance(XM)which causes core losses.
1.6 Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer Cont’d
1.6 Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer Cont’d
1.6 Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer Cont’d
1.6 Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer Cont’d
1.6 Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer Cont’d
 1.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if
the input voltage remains constant. This is because a real
transformer has series impedance within it. Full load Voltage
Regulation is a quantity that compares the output voltage at no
load with the output voltage at full load, defined by this equation:
V 2 ,nl−V2 , fl
Regulation =  100%
V2 , fl
V1
At no load a =
V2
(V / a ) − V2 , fl
Regulation = 1
x 100%
V2 , fl

Ideal transformer, VR = 0%.

 no - load voltage − full - load voltage
Voltage regulation =
no - load voltage
V1 N1
recall =
V2 N 2
N 
Secondary voltage on no-load V2 = V1  2 
 N1 
V2 is a secondary terminal voltage on full load

Substitute we have  N2 
V1   − V2
Voltage regulation =  N1 
 N2 
V1  
 N1 
 1.7 Transformer Phasor Diagram
To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, it is
necessary understand the voltage drops within it.
 1.7 Transformer Phasor Diagram
Ignoring the excitation of the branch (since the current flow through the
branch is considered to be small), more consideration is given to the series
impedances (Req +jXeq).
Voltage Regulation depends on magnitude of the series impedance and the
phase angle of the current flowing through the transformer.
Phasor diagrams will determine the effects of these factors on the voltage
regulation. A phasor diagram consist of current and voltage vectors.
Based upon the equivalent circuit, apply Kirchoff Voltage Law,
V1
= V2 + Req I 2 + jX eq I 2 : paramter to sec onday
a
V1
= V2 '+ Req I 2 '+ jX eq I 2 ': paramter to Pr imary ,

Where V2 ' is aV2

 1.7 Transformer Phasor Diagram
Ignoring the excitation of the branch (since the current flow through the
branch is considered to be small), more consideration is given to the series
impedances (Req +jXeq).
Voltage Regulation depends on magnitude of the series impedance and the
phase angle of the current flowing through the transformer.
Phasor diagrams will determine the effects of these factors on the voltage
regulation. A phasor diagram consist of current and voltage vectors.
Based upon the equivalent circuit, apply Kirchoff Voltage Law,
V1
= V2 + Req I 2 + jX eq I 2 : paramter to sec onday
a
V1
= V2 '+ Req I 2 '+ jX eq I 2 ': paramter to Pr imary ,

Where V2 ' is aV2

1.7 Transformer Phasor Diagram Cont’d
1.7 Transformer Phasor Diagram Cont’d
1.7 Transformer Efficiency
1.7 Condition for maximum efficiency
Example # 1
Example # 1 Cont’d
Example # 1 Cont’d
Example # 1 Cont’d
Example # 1 Cont’d
 Example # 2

A 1.1-kVA, 440/110-V, 50 Hz transformer has the following parameters

as referred to the primary side: Req.1 = 1.5 Ω, Xeq.1 = 2.5 Ω, RC =
3000 Ω, and XM = 2500 Ω. The transformer is delivering full load at
rated voltage when the power factor is 0.707 lagging. Determine the
primary voltage and the voltage regulation of the transformer
Example # 2 Cont’d
 Example # 3

A 20-kVA 8000/277-V distribution transformer has the following

resistances and reactances:
R1 = 32 Ω R2 = 0.05 Ω
X1 = 45Ω X2 = 0.06 Ω
RC = 250 Ω XM = 30 kΩ

3.1 Assume that this transformer is supplying rated load at 277 V and
0.8 PF lagging. What is this transformer’s input voltage? What is its
voltage regulation?
3.2 What is the transformer’s efficiency under the conditions of part 3.1
Example # 3 Cont’d (3.1)
Example # 3 Cont’d (3.2)
 Example # 4

The primary and secondary of a 500 kVA transformer have resistances

of 0.42 Ω and 0.0011 Ω, respectively. The primary and secondary
voltages are 6 600 and 400 V respectively and the iron loss is 2.9 kW.
Calculate:
4.1 The efficiency at full-load and half-load, assuming that the power
factor to the load is 0.8 lagging.
4.2 The output at which the efficiency in 4.1 above is maximum and
also find the value of the maximum efficiency, assuming that the
power factor to the load is 0.8 lagging.
 Example # 4 Cont’d

4.1

4.2
1.8 Transformer Tests

1.8.1 . Open Circuit Test

 1.8 Transformer Tests
1.8.1 . Open Circuit Test Cont’d

Where the Parameters are obtained by equations given below:

2
V P
R = 0C
 = cos −1 0C

X =
V 0C

V XI I sin 
C
P 0C
0C 0C
M

0C
 1.8 Transformer Tests
1.8.1 . Open Circuit Test Cont’d
1.8 Transformer Tests
1.8.2 . Short Circuit Test
 1.8 Transformer Tests
1.8.2 . Short Circuit Test Cont’d

Where the Parameters are obtained by equations given below:

V P
Z = R = X = Z −R
SC 2 2
SC
eq
I SC
eq
I 2
SC
eq eq eq
 1.8 Transformer Tests
1.8.2 . Short Circuit Test Cont’d
Example #5
Example #5 Cont’d
Example #5 Cont’d
Example #5 Cont’d
Example #6
Example #6 Cont’d
Example #6 Cont’d
1.9 Autotransformer
1.9 Autotransformer Cont’d
1.9 Autotransformer Cont’d
1.9 Autotransformer Cont’d
Example #7
Example # 8
Example # 8 Cont’d
 Example # 9
A 5000-VA 480/120-V conventional transformer is to be used to supply
power from a 600-V source to a 120-V load. Consider the transformer to
be ideal, and assume that all insulation can handle 600 V.
(a) Find the kilovoltampere rating of the transformer in the
configuration.
(b) Find the maximum primary and secondary currents under these
conditions.
Example # 9 Cont’d
 Homework

1
.

2
.

3. A 10 KVA transformer has 400 W iron losses and 600 W copper

losses. Determine maximum efficiency of the transformer at 0.8
power factor lagging. Also calculate the load at which the max.
efficiency occurs. [8.165 kVA, 89%]
 Homework
4. The secondary winding of a transformer has a terminal voltage of
V2 (t) = 282.8 sin 377t V. The turns ratio of the transformer is 50:200
(a = 0.25). If the secondary current of the transformer is i2(t) = 7.07
sin 377 − 36.87°A, what is the primary current of this transformer?
What are its voltage regulation and efficiency? The impedances of
this transformer referred to the primary side are: [93%]
 Homework
5

Find:
5.1 The impedance of the approximate equivalent circuit.
5.2 The no-load branch parameters.
5.3 The full-load efficiency for a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
[𝟗𝟒.67 % ]
5.4 The maximum efficiency. [𝟗𝟒.𝟏𝟕 % ]
5.5 The voltage regulation for a leading and lagging power factor
of 0.8. [𝟑.𝟐 % , Leading -2%]