18ARC53: BUILDING SERVICES - II

ELECTRICAL SERVICES AND ILLUMINATION

MODULE 1

Electrical Services - Electricity Generation; Transmission and Distribution

1. Introduction to Electrical Services: Introduction to commonly used terminology – Voltage, Current, Power, Connected
Load, Max. Demand, Load Factors, Diversity Factor Etc.; Importance of Electrical Services and Its implications on building
design; Introduction to Codes and Standards like National Building Code, National Electric Code, IS Rules, State Electricity
Board and Chief Electrical Inspectorate Guidelines.

2. Supply and distribution of electricity to buildings: Brief introduction to various Sources for Electricity generation.
Introduction to Transmission and Distribution system (from generation to Building’s main) - Cables–HT/LT, Voltage Levels,
Sub-Stations, Ring Main Units, Metering Panels, HT Panel, Transformers.
Building services are those essential services which are needed for the adequate functioning and performance of a building. They mostly
compose of Electrical and mechanical services which are responsible for the timely execution of building activities and maintenance that benefit
the people residing in the building. They include: energy supply , electricity, water, heating and air conditioning, drainage, plumbing, natural and
artificial lighting, escalators and lifts, ventilation, refrigeration, communication lines, telephones networking, security and alarm systems, fire
detection and protection , etc
MECHANICAL & ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN BUILDING
Modern buildings are built to create better, consistent, and productive environments in which to work and to live. Buildings must be
designed with features to provide better lighting comfortable space temperature, humidity and air quality convenient power and
communication capability high quality sanitation; and reliable systems for the protection of life and property.

Mechanical system, Any building service using machines. They include plumbing, elevators, escalators, and heating and air
conditioning systems.

Plumbing systems Elevator systems Escalator systems HVAC Systems

What are Electrical services?
Electrical services is an mode which provides us the electricity that is required by us to run electrical appliances. In industries it is needed to provide
electricity to run the machineries , in commercial places to run the mechanical services.
Use of electricity in Residential Building: Lights , Fans, Heaters, Television, Refrigerators etc.
Use of electricity in Industrial Buildings: Machineries, Welding, Electroplating etc.
Use of Electricity in Commercial Buildings: Lifts, Escalators, Alarm Systems, Advertising Displays etc.
Power Systems
Normal energy source – For a normal energy source, the electrical services include Utility power or on-site power (location and capacity); power characteristics (phase and
voltage); service entrance (overhead, underground); service requirements (substations, transformer vaults)
Emergency power source – For an emergency energy source, the services require Separate utility service or on-site standby generators (location and capacity)
Interior power distribution – For the power supply inside the building, the services include Primary or secondary voltages, unit substations, distribution panels, etc.
On-floor distribution – For floor distribution, the services require Floor boxes, under-floor ducts, integrated cellular floors, raised floors, ceiling-cavity conduit network, etc

Normal Energy source in small building/Large building Emergency energy source

Lighting Systems
Basic light source – Lighting systems within a building include a basic lighting source like Incandescent, fluorescent, high intensity discharge (HID),
etc.
Illumination – Electric services require to maintain a certain illumination within a building which include Lighting levels, colour rendering, controls, etc
Lighting fixtures – In offices and other work spaces certain light fixtures may be need for providing artificial lighting.
Introduction of daylight – Daylighting needs to be specifically addressed by using Fenestration, skylights, controls, etc.
Exit lighting – These include signages in the form of Exit signs, exit way (evacuation route) light
Exterior lighting – The electrical services required in providing Site, landscape, building façade lights. etc

Lighting fixtures: Interior Exterior Fixtures Lighting for Industries/Warehouses Lighting for office spaces

Lighting fixtures: Exterior Fixtures for Building Facades Exit Lighting Evacuation Lighting
The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered Process of Power Generation, and Distribution
during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael
Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity is generated by
the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of a
magnet.

For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to

consumers. The other processes, electricity transmission, distribution,
and electrical power storage and recovery using pumped-storage
methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry.

Electricity is most often generated at a power station by

electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by
chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as
the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources
include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.
Wind Energy power Generation
Hydro electric power Generation
 Connected Load vs Demand Load (Maximum Demand)
What is connected Load?
As we discussed above the CL is the sum of all the loads that are
Definition
connected to the power system as a whole.
The connected load is the sum of the continuous ratings of
The maximum demand or peak load of a power station can be
all the equipment connected to the supply system.
found in the load curve is defined as the greatest of all the
In other words, the connected load is the sum of all the
demands which have occurred in the power station during a
nameplate ratings of the equipment within the consumer
given period.
installation.
The figure below shows the maximum demand in a daily load
Calculation of Connected Load
curve.
Here is an example to illustrate what is the connected load
on a power station and how it is calculated. Consider a
power station supplying loads to 1000 consumers. In every
consumer’s home, there is certain equipment installed.
“Connected load” of a consumer is the sum of the
continuous ratings of all the equipment of the consumer’s
premises.
For example, if each consumer of the power station has the
following connections
•Five 100-watt lamps
•Two 60 watt fans
•Power socket point of 500 watts
Then the connected load of one consumer is 5×100 + 2×60
+ 500 = 1120 watts.
This is the CL of one consumer. Similarly, every consumer
has their own connected load depending on the electrical
equipment used in their house.
When you add up the connected loads of all the consumers,
you get the connected load for the power station.
CL for the power station = 1120 × 1000 = 1120000 W =
1120 kW.
Demand Factor
Demand Factor is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load.
Demand factor = Maximum demand/Connected load
The value of the demand factor is usually less than 1. It is expected because the maximum demand (peak load)
on the power station is generally less than the CL.
If the maximum demand on the power station is 80 MW and the connected load is 100 MW, then the demand
factor = 80/100 = 0·8.
The knowledge of the demand factor is vital in determining the capacity of the plant equipment.

In the electrical power industry, a demand factor is a ratio used

to calculate the amount of a system's total demand that is being
generated by different portions. The calculation divides the
system's maximum demand by the load factor of the part of the
system that is being examined. The ratio must have a numerical
DEMAND FACTOR OF APPLIANCES
value of less than 1, though the demand factor is usually
expressed as a percentage.

Engineers and power managers can use the demand factor to

re-route electrical loads on a power grid system. For example, if
there is a sudden surge in demand, managers can route some
of the load to portions of the system that are not near capacity.
This helps prevent failure along sections of the grid and causes
the system to work more efficiently. Projected energy demand
can be used in conjunction with known load factors to plan out
how electricity will be routed throughout the system.
PROBLEM QUESTION SOLUTION

What is Load Factor?

Load factor is defined as the ratio of average load to the maximum demand for a given period of time. Thus mathematically,
load factor may be written as

Load Factor = Average Load / Maximum Demand

Load factor is generally calculated for a day, month or year. If we calculate the load factor for a day then average load as well
as maximum demand for the day shall be considered. Similarly, load factor for a month or year is calculated considering
average load and maximum demand for month or year. As maximum demand is always more than the average load, therefore
load factor is always less than 1.

Thus a higher value of load factor means, less maximum demand. Less maximum demand can be catered by a low capacity
power plant. As the capacity of plant is less, this means the initial as well as running cost will be low. Thus the cost per unit power
generation will be less.
Again, in other sense higher value of load factor means higher Average Load. This means the plant is operating near its rated
capacity. Therefore the cost of per unit power generation will be less.
What is Diversity Factor?
A power plant normally supplies load to different kinds of consumers. These consumers have their own maximum demand and
they differ. The interesting thing is that, individual consumers have their maximum demand at different point of time like one
consumer may have maximum demand in morning while the other have in evening. Thus the maximum demand is diversified
among the consumers. Therefore it will be wiser to choose a capacity of plant to best fit for the demand at different point of time
rather than choosing capacity based on the sum of individual maximum demands. Thus a power plant with lower capacity can fit to
supply loads having maximum demands at different point of time. This is why the term Diversity Factor came into picture.
Diversity Factor is defined as the ratio of sum of individual maximum demand to the maximum demand on the plant.

Mathematically,

Diversity Factor = Sum of Individual Maximum Demand / Maximum Demand

Note that, diversity factor is always more than 1 as Sum of Individual Maximum Demand > Maximum Demand

What is Capacity Factor?

Capacity factor is a key parameter in determination of performance of the power plant. More the value of capacity factor better is
the performance of plant.
Capacity Factor is defined as the actual electrical energy generated by the plant to the maximum energy that could be generated.

Thus,

Capacity Factor = Actual Energy Generated / Maximum Energy that could be Generated
Importance of a good electrical service provision for building design.
A Good electrical service provider will always cater to the following requirements in order to provide an energy efficient solution for the building. It is
important for the building to have a practical solution for electrical service which will be beneficial and economic in the longer run. The requirements
include:
• Review of client requirements including reliability, redundancy, and efficiency.
• Establishment of the design criteria and develop functional services brief based on location and specifications. .
• Investigate interface requirements with existing buildings and equipment.
• Establish hazardous area classification if applicable.
• Review preliminary fire safety report.
• Review applicable authority codes and standards.
• Establish contacts with utility companies.
• Calculate Total load estimates (W/m2).
• Assign Main supply methodology.
• Assign Standby power requirements.
• Assign Main plant space requirements.
• Assign Emergency lighting concept.
• Assign Earthing methodology.
• Review concepts for significant and unusual health and safety risks relevant to the design.
NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE 2011- SP 30 : 2011
Electrical installations require adequate planning right from concept stage to layout and designing, selection of proper equipment, their
installation and their maintenance. Fundamental aspects of installation practice are common for most of the types of electrical installations.
Part 1 of the National Electrical Code covers these aspects under its various Sections. An account has been taken of the Indian Standards
existing on different aspects of electrical installation practice. However, some practices have changed over time and corresponding Codes of
practice either do not exist or are yet to be modified. An attempt has been made through this Code to refer to the present good practices. A
reference has also been made to product standards in order to inform the user of the Code about the availability and desirability to use them.

The National Electrical Code covers the following:

a) Standard good practices for selection of various items of electrical equipment forming part of power systems;
b) Recommendations concerning safety and related matter in the wiring of electrical installations of buildings or industrial structures, promoting compatibility
between such recommendations and those concerning the equipment installed;
c) General safety procedures and practices in electrical work; and d) Additional precautions to be taken for use of electrical equipment for special
environmental conditions like explosive and active atmosphere.

The Code applies to electrical installations such as those in:

a) Standby/emergency generating plants and building substations;
b) Domestic dwellings;
c) Office buildings, shopping and commercial centres and institutions;
d) Recreation and other public premises;
e) Medical establishments;
f) Hotels;
g) Sports buildings;
h) Industrial premises;
j) Temporary and permanent outdoor installations;
k) Agricultural premises;
m) Installations in hazardous areas; and
n) Solar photovoltaic installations
In the field of electrical engineering, engineers and other professionals get exposed to electricity indirectly during generation,
transportation, installation and usage. Such conditions might cause hazards if accurate safety measures are not taken.
To promote the safety and the right usage of equipment, there are certain rules and regulations formulated by the Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS). BIS follows the following five principles −
•Safety
•Ease of use and adaptability
•Simple technology
•Value for money products
•Energy efficiency and environment

BIS has published the following code of practice for public safety standards in order to promote the right to information,
transparency and accountability in a proper manner to the public.

Code of Practice for Electrical Wiring Installation

•IS − 732 (1989)
•Section − Electrical Installation
•Application − Design of installation, selection and erection of equipment, inspection and testing of wiring system

Code of practice for Earthing

•IS − 3043 (1987)
•Section − Electrical Installation
•Application − Design, installation and calculation of Earthing system
Lightening arrester for Alternating Current System
•IS − 3070 (1993)
•Section − Electro technical: Surge Arresters
•Application − Identification, ratings, classification and testing procedure of Arrester
Bureau of Indian standards have laid down some important IS Codes for Electric wiring, Layouts and Lighting systems which
are as follows.

Application: Electrical Wiring and Layout

IS: 732 – 1989 Code of practice for electrical wiring installations.
IS: 4648 – 1968 Guide for electrical layout in residential buildings.
IS: 8061 – 1976 Code of practice for design, installation, and maintenance of service lines up to and including 650V
IS: 8884 – 1978 Code of practice for installation of electric bells and call system.
IS: 5578 – 1985 Guide for marking of the insulated conductor.
IS: 11353- 1985 Guide for a uniform system of marking and identification of conductors and apparatus terminals.
IS: 5728 – 1970 Guide for short-circuit calculations.
IS: 7752(Part-1)-1975 Guide for improvement of power factor in consumer installation: Low and medium supply voltages.
Application: Lighting Systems
IS: 3646(Part-1)-1966 Code of practice for interior illumination: Principles for good lighting and aspects of design.
IS: 3646(Part-2)-1966 Code of practice for interior illumination: Schedule of illumination and glare index.
IS: 2672 – 1966 Code of practice for library lighting.
IS: 10118(Part-1)-1982 Code of practice for selection, installation, and maintenance of switchgear and control gear: General.
EVOLUTION OF THE POWER SECTOR IN INDIA
GROWTH OF POWER SECTOR IN INDIA
THERMAL POWER
HYDRO POWER
 NUCLEAR POWER
Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India after
thermal, hydroelectric and renewable sources of electricity.
As of 2012, India has 20 Nuclear reactors in operation in six nuclear power
plants, having an installed capacity of 4780 MW and producing a total of
29,664.75 GWh of electricity while seven other reactors are under
construction and are expected to generate an additional 6,100 MW.
India's first research nuclear reactor and its first nuclear power plant were
built with assistance from Canada. The 40 MW research reactor agreement
was signed in 1956, and achieved first criticality in 1960
There are two nuclear corporation in india
1. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is a
government-owned corporation of India based in Mumbai. NPCIL was
created in September 1987.Nuclear Power and electricity generation
and distribution
2. The Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited(BHAVINI) is a
government-owned corporation of India based in Chennai. Bhavini was
established on 2004.
• India has a flourishing and largely indigenous nuclear power program and
expects to have 14,600 MWe nuclear capacity on line by 2020. It aims to
supply 25% of electricity from nuclear power by 2050.
• Because India is outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty due to its
weapons program, it was for 34 years largely excluded from trade in
nuclear plant or materials, which has hampered its development of civil
nuclear energy until 2009.
• Due to these trade bans and lack of indigenous uranium, India has
uniquely been developing a nuclear fuel cycle to exploit its reserves of
thorium.
RENEWABLE POWER
POWER TRANSMISSION IN INDIA
Transmission forms a critical link in the power sector value chain.
India's power generation capacities are unevenly dispersed across
the country creating an imbalance between the distribution of
power demand and supply centres. The country has been
demarcated into five electrical Regions:
• Northern (NR)
• Eastern (ER)
• Western (WR)
• Southern (SR)
• North Eastern (NER)

All the regional grids are synchronously interconnected and

operating as single grid known as Central Grid or National Grid.
 Introduction to Transmission and
Distribution system (from generation
to Building’s main)

Electric power transmission is the bulk movement

of electrical energy from a generating site, such as
a power plant, to an electrical substation. The
interconnected lines which facilitate this
movement are known as a transmission network.
The combined transmission and distribution
network is known as the "National Grid".
Power System
The generation, transmission and distribution of
electric power is called power system. A power
system has the following stages:

• Generation of electric power

• Transmission of electric power.
• Distribution of electric power.

Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-

phase alternating current (AC).
High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) technology
is used for greater efficiency over very long
distances (typically hundreds of miles).
Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (115
kV or above) to reduce the energy loss which
occurs in long-distance transmission
 Power Station- The bulk power is generated at the power station by 3- phase, 3 wire system employing several alternators in parallel. The usual
generation voltage is 11kV. Due to economic consideration , the generation voltage(i.e.; 11kV ) is step up to 220kV or 132kV at the power
station with the help of step up transformers

Primary Transmission- High voltages of the order of 66 kV 132 kV 220 kV and 400 kV are used for transmitting power by 3 phase 3 wire
overhead system. This is supplied to substations usually at the out skirts of major distribution centre or city.

Secondary Transmission- On the outskirt of the city, there are sub- station which step down the primary transmission voltage to 66kV or 33kV
and power is transmitted at this voltage. This forms the secondary transmission system. 3 phase wire system is used.
Primary Distribution - The transmission lines or inner connectors terminate at large main
substations from which the power is distributed to small secondary substations scattered
throughout the load area. The voltage may range from 11 kV to 132 kV.

Primary Distribution
Secondary Distribution - This consists of the low- voltage network laid along the streets,
localities and over the rural areas. From these sources connections to individual
customers are provided. The circuit used for this purpose is 3 phase 4 wire, 440 V/220 V
from which either 3 phase 440 V or single phase 220 V supply to the consumers may be
provided.

Secondary Distribution
INTRODUCTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Distribution of electric power is an important part of power system. The important requirement of a distribution system is that the power
should be distributed to various consumers economically and efficiently . The electric energy is made available for use in a factory or a
residential building by distribution system which can be subdivided into three distinct parts.
Feeders
Distributors
Service mains

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The arrangement of conveying electric power from bulk power sources (generating stations or major substations) to the various consumers is
called distribution system.
Distribution is of two types. –
• High voltage or primary distribution - High voltage distribution is carried out at voltages of the order of 33kv,66kv or,11kv.
• Low voltage or secondary distribution - Low voltage distribution which is carried out at 400/230 volts (in three phase 4 wires system)

Important terms of distribution system

• Feeder
• Distributor
• Service mains
CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
1. According to Nature of Construction :
a. Overhead distribution system
b. Underground distribution system

Overhead system is cheaper than underground system. However, underground system is used in thickly populated areas where overhead system
may not be practicable.

2. According to nature of current :

a. D.C distribution system
b. A.C distribution system

A.C distribution is universally adopted due to many advantage of A.C. power over D.C. power.

3. According to number of wires :

a. 2-wire D.C. system
b. 3-wire D.C. system
c. Single phase, 2-wire A.C. system
d. 3-phase, 3-wire A.C. system
e. 3-phase, 4—wire A.C. system

4. According to the system of connection:

(a) Radial system
(b) Ring main system
(c) Interconnected system
INTRODUCTION OF SUBSTATIONS
• A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or
the reverse, or perform any of several other important functions.

• Between the generating station and consumer, electric power may flow through several substations at different voltage levels.

• A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at
the interconnection of two different transmission voltages.
TYPES OF SUBSTATIONS
1. Transmission substation- A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all transmission
lines have the same voltage. In such cases, substation contains huh-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault
clearance or maintenance.

A transmission bus is used to distribute electric power to one or more transmission lines. There can also be a tap on the incoming
power feed from the generation plant to provide electric power to operate equipment in the generation plant.

A substation can have circuit breakers that are used to switch generation and transmission circuits in and out of service as
needed or for emergencies requiring shut-down of power to a circuit or redirection of power.
The specific voltages leaving a step-up transmission substation are determined by the customer needs of the utility supplying
power and to the requirements of any connections to regional grids.
2. Distribution substation - A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of
an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the main transmission network, unless they use large
amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local distribution.

A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system

to the distribution system of an area.
The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two
transmission or sub transmission lines.
Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 and 33
kV depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the
local utility.
Besides changing the voltage, the job of the distribution substation is to
isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems.
Distribution substations may also be the points of voltage regulation,
although on long distribution circuits (several km/miles), voltage
regulation equipment may also be installed along the line. Complicated
distribution substations can be found in the downtown areas of large
cities, with high-voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on
the low-voltage side.
3. Collector substation- In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation may be required. It
resembles a distribution substation although power flow is in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into the
transmission grid. Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV and the collector substation
steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid.

In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation may be required, which is similar to a distribution substation
although power flows in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into the transmission grid.
For economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, and the collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission
voltage for the grid.
The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it is needed, metering and control of the wind farm.
Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of comparable output power are in proximity
4. Underground distribution substation
• Underground Distribution Substation are also located near to the end-users. Distribution substation transformers change the sub
transmission voltage to lower levels for use by end-users. Typical distribution voltages vary from 34,500Y/19,920 volts to 4,160Y/2400
volts.
An underground system may consist of these parts:
• Conduits
• Duct Runs
• Manholes
• High-Voltage Underground Cables
• Transformer Vault
• Riser
• Transformers
Main Electrical Panel
Main panels come in scores of sizes and configurations. A panel might be
mounted on the outside of the house, either separate from or combined with
the electric meter, or on an inside wall, behind the meter.
A contemporary main panel receives three incoming electrical service wires and
routes smaller cables and wires to subpanels and circuits throughout the house.

Power lines connect to the two top lugs of the meter mount. The main circuit
breakers pull electricity from the two bottom lugs when the meter is in place to
complete the circuit. The main breakers deliver electricity to the two bus bars,
which in turn pass it along to the secondary circuit breakers.

Panel metering is key to understanding energy consumption in homes, buildings,

and facilities. This is often undertaken by either metering the whole panel at the
source, or by metering individual circuits for more refined results (branch circuit
monitoring).
Panel meters offer a wide array of features including data logging, internal
memory, time-of-use, power quality and more. Additionally panel meters can
also feature a variety of communication options which allow for the collection of
data remotely. This offers convenient access to an array of power and energy
readings remotely, and the ability to produce detailed reporting.
Branch Circuit Monitoring
Branch circuit metering or dense circuit metering is a form of monitoring multiple circuits together in
close proximity. This allows for the segregation of multiple users, tenants, or devices with the
convenience of using a single device while maintaining the integrity of each individuals measurement.

Monitoring DC Circuits
DC circuits are becoming increasingly common in renewable energy applications and microgrid
technology, leading to a greater demand for DC monitoring. DC power meters are ideal solutions for
metering solar panels, wind turbines, light rail transit, and much more.

Remote Metering
Remote metering is possible through a variety of communications options typically found in most
power and energy meter options, but is typically achieved through ethernet connection. This remote
monitoring offers flexibility in project location, ease-of-access, and improved ability to integrate with
other devices and more importantly energy management software.

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems

CADA systems are industrial/facility based systems for monitoring and controlling processes in real
time. Comprised of PLCs, RTUs, communications networks, HMIs and a database to offer complete
building management.
HT Panel
Definition – HT panel is a metal enclosure fitted with HT Circuit Breakers, relays &metering that is used to receive 11KV/33KV
supply (from one or more source) & distribute the power through its outgoing feeders. Outgoing feeder may be one or more
it depends on the load of the building. HT panel is installed in substations of Commercial complexes, residential colonies,
factories, schools, hospitals etc. to receive & distribute HT supply.

Main functions of HT panel –

• To make & break HT supply (or switch on or switch off
supply),
• To receive & distribute HT supply,
• To provide protection against faults,
• To provide metering to monitor various parameters.

Features of HT panel (for 11KV or 33KV) –

•HT panel receives electrical Supply 11KV or 33KV) from H – poleby 3 core HT
cable & then it distributes power through one or more outgoing feeders.
•These outgoing feeders are connected with distribution transformers which
convert HT supply into 415V, 3-phase 4 wire AC supply.
•To measure electrical power consumption, Energy Meter is installed in it,
•Meters are installed to measure electrical Voltage, Current, frequency, power
factor etc.
TRANSFORMERS
The transformer in the simplest way can be described
as a thing that steps up or steps down voltage. In a
step-up transformer, the output voltage is increased
and in a step-down transformer, the output voltage is
decreased. The step-up transformer will decrease the
output current and the step-down transformer will
increase the output current for keeping the input and
the output power of the system equal.

What is a Transformer?
A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The transmission current is AC. It is commonly
used to increase or decrease the supply voltage without a change in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer
works on basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

Transformer Types
Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution sector, transmission and electric energy
consumption. There are various types of transformers which are classified based on the following factors;

• Working voltage range.

• The medium used in the core.
• Winding arrangement.
• Installation location.
Based on Voltage Levels
Commonly used transformer type, depending upon voltage they are classified as:
•Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the power grid. The secondary output voltage is
higher than the input voltage.
•Step down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high voltage primary supply to low voltage secondary
output.

Based on the Medium of Core Used

In a transformer, we will find different types of cores that are used.
•Air core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary winding is through the air. The coil or windings
wound on the non-magnetic strip.
•Iron core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked together, which provides a perfect linkage path
to generate flux.

Based on the Winding Arrangement

•Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core. The primary and secondary share the same
coil. Auto also means “self” in language Greek.
The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.
There are usually two coils primary coil and secondary coil on the transformer core. The core laminations are joined in the
form of strips. The two coils have high mutual inductance. When an alternating current pass through the primary coil it creates
a varying magnetic flux. As per faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux induces an emf
(electromotive force) in the secondary coil which is linked to the core having a primary coil. This is mutual induction.

Overall, a transformer carries the below operations:

1.Transfer of electrical energy from circuit to another

2.Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
3.Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
4.Two circuits are linked with mutual induction

The figure shows the formation of magnetic flux lines around a current-
carrying wire. The normal of the plane containing the flux lines are
parallel to normal of a cross-section of a wire.
Net metering, also called net energy metering or NEM, is a utility rate
program that requires your electric company to purchase the excess solar
energy your solar panels produce at the full-retail rate of electricity.

This means when your solar energy system produces more electricity
than your home needs, the excess electricity is sent to the power grid
and your utility pays you for it. Net metering is what makes rooftop solar
panels such a great way to save money!

What are the benefits of net metering?

Utility bill savings
The greatest benefit of net metering to solar homeowners are
the utility bill savings. Net metering can result in tens of
thousands of dollars in savings over the lifetime of your solar
panel system.
As we said earlier, solar panel systems can be designed to
offset all of a solar customers’ energy use costs within a
billing cycle. However, most electric bills include some fixed
charges that net metering can’t eliminate.
Shorter payback periods
Areas that offer full retail net metering will have much shorter
payback periods than places that don’t. This is because solar
homeowners will be saving more on their electricity bills, and
thus recouping their investment costs faster.
MODULE 2

Electrical Services - Internal Electrical distribution systems and Renewable Energy Systems

3. Residential Building internal electrical distribution system & Commercial Building internal electrical distribution system:
Power Requirement, Incoming Power Source Voltage, RMU, Transformers, HT Metering & Sub Metering Panels, LT Panels,
Rising Mains, Sub-Mains, Circuit-Mains, Generators, UPS requirements, Server power requirements, Point Wiring, Point
Matrix, Utility Loads, Wiring Systems, Wiring Installation systems.

4. Introduction to Renewable Energy Systems (On-Site and Off-Site): Solar, Wind, Bio-Mass, Achieving Net Zero Building
design through utilization of above natural resources; Energy Conservation techniques in Electrical systems.
DOMESTIC ELECTRIC SUPPLY IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

ENTRY IN THE BUILDINGS

In Urban areas electrical cables are Usually underground and are brought up to entry
point at ground level or into basement service cable cannot be bent to small radius and
this should be borne in mind when considering point of entry.

In small buildings the cable run is kept as short as possible, terminating in a distribution
board at the first convenient position.

In these buildings the distribution board will be fitted with a seal box to prevent
moisture from entering the insulation of the service cable, a main fuse for the premises
in a box sealed by the supply authority and the consumer unit or other switch and fuse
gear belonging to the building.

The position chosen for the distribution board should be readily accessible both for
meter reading and for replacing fuses. In some cases special glasses are provided so that
meter can be read without entering the premises.
Domestic Supply
Domestic electricity supply usually effected through distribution system and describe as single and three phases.
Normally small buildings are supplied with electricity by two wires, one phase wire and the other neutral. This is known as
single phase supply and gives a voltage for the premises of 240 volts.

The loading of the supply wiring is balanced between the phases by using the phases in rotation so that each one services
every third building.

In three phases, four wire bring 420/ 240 volts, 50 cycle per second. The voltage. The voltage between any two of the
phases wires is 415 Volts. And between any phase wire and the neutral is 240 volts. The balancing of load is then achieved
by serving different areas of the building by different phases. Electric motor are usually designed for three phase
operation.
Power Distribution in Small Buildings

Small commercial or residential buildings have a very simple

power distribution system.

The utility will own the transformer, which will sit on a pad
outside the building or will be attached to a utility pole.

The transformer reduces the voltage from 13.8kV down to

120/240 or 120/208 volts and then passes the electricity to a
meter, which is owned by the utility and keeps a record of
power consumption.
After leaving the meter, the power is transmitted into the building at which point all wiring, panels, and devices are the
property of the building owner.

Wires transfer the electricity from the meter to a panel board, which is generally located in the basement or garage of a house.

In small commercial buildings, the panel may be located in a utility closet. The panel board will have a main service breaker
and a series of circuit breakers, which control the flow of power to various circuits in the building.

Each branch circuit will serve a device (some appliances require heavy loads) or a number of devices like convenience outlets
or lights.
Power Distribution in Large Buildings

Large buildings have a much higher electrical load than small

buildings; therefore, the electrical equipment must be larger and
more robust. Large building owners will also purchase electricity at
high voltages (in the US, 13.8kV) because it comes at a cheaper
rate. In this case, the owner will provide and maintain their own
step-down transformer, which lowers the voltage to a more usable
level (in the US, 480/277 volts). This transformer can be mounted
on a pad outside the building or in a transformer room inside the
building.

The electricity is then transmitted to switchgear. The role of the

switchgear is to distribute electricity safely and efficiently to the
various electrical closets throughout the building. The equipment
has numerous safety features including circuit breakers, which
allow power to be disrupted downstream - this may occur due to a
fault or problem, but it can also be done intentionally to allow
technicians to work on specific branches of the power system.
Electric Power Transmission –
The process by which large amounts of electricity produced are transported over long distances for eventual use by consumers.
Energy – The amount of work that can be done by electricity, typically measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh) or megawatthours
(MWh).
Transmission forms a critical link in the
power sector value chain. India's power
generation capacities are unevenly
dispersed across the country creating an
imbalance between the distribution of power
demand and supply centres. The country has
been demarcated into five electrical Regions:
Northern (NR) Eastern (ER) Western
(WR) Southern (SR) North Eastern
(NER)

All the regional grids are synchronously

interconnected and operating as single grid
known as Central Grid or National Grid.

In six years from 2007 to 2013, the power

transmission sector registered a growth of
4.37% CAGR
What is a Transformer?
A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The transmission current is AC. It is commonly
used to increase or decrease the supply voltage without a change in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer
works on basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction. The figure
shows the formation of magnetic flux lines around a current-carrying wire. The normal of the plane containing
the flux lines are parallel to normal of a cross-section of a wire.
Parts of a Single-phase Transformer
The major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of;

1. Core
The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux.
It is made up of a laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the losses in a transformer. The factors such as operating voltage,
current, power etc. decide core composition.

2. Windings
Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper wires are used due to:
The high ductility of copper is the property of metals that allows it to be made into very thin wires.
There are mainly two types of windings. Primary windings and secondary windings.

3. Insulation Agents

Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from each other and to avoid short circuit. This facilitates mutual
induction. Insulation agents have an influence on the durability and the stability of a transformer.

Following are used as an insulation medium in a transformer:

Insulating oil
Insulating tape
Insulating paper
Wood-based lamination
Transformer Related Solved Examples
1. A transformer has 600 turns of the primary winding and 20 turns of the secondary winding. Determine the secondary voltage if
the secondary circuit is open and the primary voltage is 140 V.

Given
Total number of turns of the primary coil (N1) = 600
turns
Total number of turns of the secondary coil (N2) = 20
turns
Primary voltage (V1) = 140 V
Solution:
The voltage on the primary coil = N1V1
The voltage on the secondary coil = N2V2
The voltage on one turn
2. A transformer has a primary coil with 1600 loops and a secondary coil with 1000 loops. If the current in the
primary coil is 6 Ampere, then what is the current in the secondary coil.

Given:

Primary coil (N1) = 1600 loops

Secondary coil (N2) = 1000 loops

The current in the primary coil (I1) = 4 A

Solution :
Step-down transformers
If the first coil has more turns that the second coil, the secondary voltage is smaller than the primary voltage:

This is called a step-down transformer. If the second coil has half as many turns as the first coil, the secondary
voltage will be half the size of the primary voltage; if the second coil has one tenth as many turns, it has one
tenth the voltage.

In general:
Secondary voltage ÷ Primary voltage = Number of turns in secondary ÷ Number of turns in primary
The current is transformed the opposite way—increased in size—in a step-down transformer:
Secondary current ÷ Primary current = Number of turns in primary ÷ Number of turns in secondary
Step-up transformers

Reversing the situation, we can make a step-up transformer that boosts a low voltage into a high one:

This time, we have more turns on the secondary coil than the primary. It's still true that:
Secondary voltage ÷ Primary voltage = Number of turns in secondary ÷ Number of turns in primary
and
Secondary current ÷ Primary current = Number of turns in primary ÷ Number of turns in secondary
What is HT and LT Power Distribution System?

An HT power distribution system simply means a high

voltage distribution system while an LT is a low voltage or
tension power distribution system. LT power supply can be
around 230 Volts for a single-phase connection and 400
Volts for a three-phase connection.
On the other hand, the HT distribution system can even
reach 11Kilo-Volts, meaning it is highly used by bulk
power purchasers like industries, hostels, big offices, and
colleges.

Domestic LT is most applicable for residential areas, including those in rural and urban regions. On the other hand,
domestic HT mostly entails a bulk supply for residents. At most times, the connected load usually differentiates the
categories because commercial units can be located in the housing society and the rates can increase if the
connected load is high
Voltage drops in LT cables can be high because lines are long and have small conductor sizes. HT power distribution
systems usually have the voltage drop for the distribution of power to be less than 1% compared to that in low
voltage systems. This makes sure there is a good voltage profile for the average consumer.
Utility sub-metering is a system that allows
a landlord, property
management firm, condominium association, homeowners
association, or other multi-tenant property to bill tenants for
individual measured utility usage. The approach makes use of
individual water meters, gas meters, or electricity meters.

Sub-metering may also refer to the monitoring of the electrical

consumption of individual equipment within a building, such as
HVAC, indoor and outdoor lighting, refrigeration, kitchen
equipment and more.

In addition to the "main load" meter used by utilities to determine

overall building consumption, submetering utilizes individual
"submeters" that allow building and facility managers to have
visibility into the energy use and performance of their
equipment, creating opportunities for energy and capital
expenditure savings.
SERVICE MAINS:
The transmitted electric power is stepped down in substations,
for primary for distribution purposes.

This stepped down electric power is fed to the distribution

transformer through primary distribution feeders. Overhead
primary distribution feeders are supported by mainly
supporting iron poles (preferably rail poles).

Different consumers are fed electric power by means of the

service mains.

These service mains are tapped from different points of

distributors. The distributors can also be re-categorized by
distributors and sub-distributors. Distributors are directly
connected to the secondary distribution transformers whereas
sub-distributors are tapped from distributors. Service mains of the consumers may be either connected to
the distributors or sub-distributors depending upon the
position and agreement of consumers
Radial Electrical Power Distribution System
In the early days of the electrical power distribution system, different feeders radially came out from the substation and
connected to the primary distribution transformer.

But radial electrical power distribution system has one major drawback that in case of any feeder failure, the associated
consumers would not get any power as there was no alternative path to feed the transformer.

In the case of a transformer failure, the power supply is interrupted. In other words, the consumer in the radial electrical
distribution system would be in darkness until the feeder or transformer was rectified.
Ring Main Electrical Power Distribution System
The drawback of a radial electrical power distribution system can be overcome by introducing a ring main electrical power
distribution system.

In this network topology, one ring network of distributors is fed by more than one feeder.

In this case, if one feeder is under fault or maintenance, the ring distributor is still energized by other feeders connected to it.
In this way, the supply to the consumers is not affected even when any feeder becomes out of service.
In this way, supply to the consumers connected to the healthy
zone of the ring can easily be maintained even when one
section of the ring is under the shutdown. The number of
feeders connected to the ring main electrical power
distribution system depends upon the following factors.

1.Maximum Demand of the System: If it is more, then more

numbers of feeders feed the ring.

2.Total Length of the Ring Main Distributors: Its length is more,

to compensate for the voltage drop in the line, more feeders to
be connected to the ring system.

3.Required Voltage Regulation: The number of feeders

connected to the ring also depends upon the permissible
allowable, voltage drop of the line.
Alternating Current (AC) Generators
In an AC generator, the electrical current occasionally reverses
direction.
This is due to the design of the generator, with the north and
south poles of the magnet causing the current to flow in opposite
directions.
AC generators are typically used in homes.
They enable you to power small motors and electrical appliances
like food mixers, juicers, and vacuum cleaners.
Direct Current (DC) Generators
The current flows in just one direction in a DC generator.
This is because the coil through which the current flows is rotating
in a fixed field.
DC generators are used for powering large electric motors like
those used in subway systems.
Portable Electric Generator
Unlike the standby generator which is permanently installed in the
backyard, a portable generator is compact and mobile enough to
be brought to various places.
It is also cheaper than a standby generator, It can provide power
for only a few hours, and for a handful of appliances, not like its
bigger counterpart.
Generators

In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts

motive power (mechanical energy) into electrical power for use
in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy
include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal
combustion engines, wind turbines and even hand cranks.
Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power
grids.
Unlike a portable generator, a backup generator is permanently
installed on a concrete part of your yard and can give uninterrupted,
backup energy for as long as the fuel source last. It is connected
directly to the electrical panel of the home and powered by fuel
supply like diesel, liquid propane, and natural gas.

When there is a power failure, an automatic transfer

switch disconnects your home from the utility. It then starts up the
generator and transfers its power to the electrical panel of your
home. The system is powered by an internal combustion engine
often fueled by natural gas, or liquid propane, or diesel.
Once power is restored, the automatic transfer switch shuts down
the generator. It will automatically reconnect your house to the utility
grid. The automatic transfer switch prevents back-feeding energy to
the utility grid. This feature helps prevent fires and accidents to utility
personnel working to restore power in your area.
Working out UPS Power Requirement – Watts or VA
In order to correctly select UPS you need to know how much power the UPS needs to
deliver. UPS are generally rated in Volt-Amps (VA), however they will also have a
WATTS rating. Note that Watts and VA are different. VA is always equal to or greater
than the Watts. The relationship between the two is called the power factor. Since,
without power measuring equipment it is not easy to determine the power factor, it is
wise to assume that Watts is the same as VA. This way you will never undersize your
UPS.

Rating Plate
Every device connected to your electrical wall outlet should have a rating plate which
identifies the amount of power required. Note however, that this is usually over
specified. Manufacturers tend to err on the side of caution and sometimes specify fuse
size rather than the actual power requirement.
If this rating is in Watts, all well and good. Make a note and move onto the next device.
If the rating is in VA, then assume that this value is Watts.
If the rating is in Amps and has a voltage rating of between 220V and 240V then take
the Amps rating and multiply this by 230V to get the Watts rating.
If you have a device with a DC transformer and the rating is, for example 12V, 2A, then
multiply these two number together to get the Watts. In this case 12×2 = 24W.
Now add up all the individual Watt rating of everything you want to connect to the UPS.
When selecting a UPS this number must not be exceeded in the rating specifications
of the UPS.
What is Electrical Wiring?

Electrical Wiring is a process of connecting cables and wires to the related devices such as
fuse, switches, sockets, lights, fans etc to the main distribution board is a specific structure to
the utility pole for continues power supply.

Methods of Electrical Wiring Systems w.r.t Taking Connection

Wiring (a process of connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from
supplier’s meter board to home appliances such as lamps, fans and other domestic
appliances is known as Electrical Wiring) can be done using two methods which are

Joint Box or Tee or Jointing System

In this method of wiring, connections to appliances are made through joints. These joints are made in joint
boxes by means of suitable connectors or joints cutouts. This method of wiring doesn’t consume too
much cables size.
You might think because this method of wiring doesn’t require too much cable it is therefore cheaper. It is of
course but the money you saved from buying cables will be used in buying joint boxes, thus equation is
balanced. This method is suitable for temporary installations and it is cheap.

Loop-in or Looping System

This method of wiring is universally used in wiring. Lamps and other appliances are connected in
parallel so that each of the appliances can be controlled individually. When a connection is required
at a light or switch, the feed conductor is looped in by bringing it directly to the terminal and then
carrying it forward again to the next point to be fed.

The switch and light feeds are carried round the circuit in a series of loops from one point to
another until the last on the circuit is reached. The phase or line conductors are looped either in
switchboard or box and neutrals are looped either in switchboard or from light or fan. Line or phase
should never be looped from light or fan.
Different Types of Electrical Wiring Systems

The types of internal wiring usually used are

•Cleat wiring
•Wooden casing and capping wiring
•CTS or TRS or PVC sheath wiring
•Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
•Conduit wiring
There are additional types of conduit wiring according to Pipes
installation (Where steel and PVC pipes are used for wiring
connection and installation).
•Surface or open Conduit type
•Recessed or concealed or underground type Conduit
Advantages of Cleat Wiring:

•It is simple and cheap wiring system

•Most suitable for temporary use i.e. under construction building or army camping
•As the cables and wires of cleat wiring system is in open air, Therefore fault in
cables can be seen and repair easily.
•Cleat wiring system installation is easy and simple.
•Customization can be easily done in this wiring system e.g. alteration and
addition.
•Inspection is easy and simple.
Casing and Capping wiring
Casing and Capping wiring system was famous wiring system in the past but, it is considered obsolete this days
because of Conduit and sheathed wiring system. The cables used in this kind of wiring were either VIR or PVC or
any other approved insulated cables.
The cables were carried through the wooden casing enclosures. The casing is made up of a strip of wood with
parallel grooves cut length wise so as to accommodate VIR cables. The grooves were made to separate opposite
polarity. the capping (also made of wood) used to cover the wires and cables installed and fitted in the casing.

Advantages of Casing Capping Wiring:

•It is cheap wiring system as compared to sheathed and
conduit wiring systems.
•It is strong and long-lasting wiring system.
•Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
•If Phase and Neutral wire is installed in separate slots,
then repairing is easy.
•Stay for long time in the field due to strong insulation of
capping and casing..
•It stays safe from oil, Steam, smoke and rain.
•No risk of electric shock due to covered wires and cables
in casing & capping.
Batten Wiring (CTS or TRS)
Single core or double core or three core TRS cables with
a circular oval shape cables are used in this kind of wiring.
Mostly, single core cables are preferred. TRS cables are
chemical proof, water proof, steam proof, but are slightly
affected by lubricating oil. The TRS cables are run on well
seasoned and straight teak wood batten with at least a
thickness of 10mm.
The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of
tinned brass link clips (buckle clip) already fixed on the
batten with brass pins and spaced at an interval of 10cm
for horizontal runs and 15cm for vertical runs.
Advantages of Batten Wiring

•Wiring installation is simple and easy

•cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems
•Paraphrase is good and beautiful
•Repairing is easy
•strong and long-lasting
•Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
•less chance of leakage current in batten wiring system
Lead Sheathed Wiring
The type of wiring employs conductors that are insulated with VIR and covered with an outer sheath of lead aluminum alloy
containing about 95% of lead. The metal sheath given protection to cables from mechanical damage, moisture and atmospheric
corrosion.

The whole lead covering is made electrically continuous and is connected to earth at the point of entry to protect against
electrolytic action due to leaking current and to provide safety in case the sheath becomes alive. The cables are run on wooden
batten and fixed by means of link clips just as in TRS wiring.
Conduit Wiring

There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation

•Surface Conduit Wiring

•Concealed Conduit Wiring

Surface Conduit Wiring

If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit wiring. in this
wiring method, they make holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and
conduit is installed then with the help of rawal plugs.

Concealed Conduit wiring

If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is
called concealed conduit wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system
inside wall, roof or floor with the help of plastic or metallic piping is called
concealed conduit wiring. obliviously, It is the most popular, beautiful,
stronger and common electrical wiring system nowadays.
Types of Conduit
Following conduits are used in the conduit wiring systems (both concealed and surface conduit wiring) which are shown in the
above image.

•Metallic Conduit
•Non-metallic conduit

Metallic Conduit:
Metallic conduits are made of steel which are very strong but costly as well.
There are two types of metallic conduits.
•Class A Conduit: Low gauge conduit (Thin layer steel sheet conduit)
•Class B Conduit: High gauge conduit (Thick sheet of steel conduit)

Non-metallic Conduit:
A solid PVC conduit is used as non-metallic conduit now a days, which is flexible and easy to bend.

Size of Conduit:
The common conduit pipes are available in different sizes genially, 13, 16.2, 18.75, 20, 25, 37, 50, and 63 mm (diameter) or 1/2,
5/8, 3/4, 1, 1.25, 1.5, and 2 inch in diameter.

Advantage of Conduit Wiring Systems

•It is the safest wiring system (Concealed conduit wring). Appearance is very beautiful (in case of concealed conduit wiring). No risk of mechanical
wear & tear and fire in case of metallic pipes.
•Customization can be easily done according to the future needs. Repairing and maintenance is easy.
•There is no risk of damage the cables insulation. it is safe from corrosion (in case of PVC conduit) and risk of fire.
It can be used even in humidity , chemical effect and smoky areas. No risk of electric shock (In case of proper earthing and grounding of metallic
pipes). It is reliable and popular sustainable and long-lasting wiring system.
Types of Electrical Wiring
We know that electrical circuit is a closed path through which electricity flows from phase or hot wire
to the device or apparatus and then back the source though neutral wire.
Along the way, the electricity path may consist of fixtures, switches, receptacles, junction boxes, etc.
So, the wiring may be routed through these elements before actually making connections with
apparatus or device.
Majorly, the wiring is divided into two types depending on the way the devices are powered or
connected to the supply.

They are:
•Parallel Wiring
•Series Wiring
Parallel Wiring
In Parallel Wiring, several devices on the installation are powered on a single circuit. It is the most
accepted wiring in homes and industries, in which devices are connected in parallel with the supply
source as shown in figure.
In this, both phase (or hot) and neutral cables are routed through the electrical boxes (junction boxes)
from which individual receptacles, fixtures, and devices are branched.

The Series Wiring is the rarely used wiring in which hot wire is routed through the several devices and
then last device terminal is connected to the neutral wire. It is like an old Christmas lights or serial
lights wiring in which one light burnout leads to the shutdown of the entire network.

Series Wiring
Single Bulb (or any other load) Controlled by a One Way Switch
In this, hot wire is connected to the one terminal of the switch and other terminal of the switch
is connected to the bulb positive terminal, then bulb negative terminal is connected to the
neutral wire as shown in figure.

Two Blubs Controlled by a One Way Switch

In this, two bulbs are connected in parallel with the supply wires (phase
and neutrals), which are routed by single one-way switch as shown in
figure.

Single Blub Controlled by Two Way Switches

This wiring is also called as Staircase Wiring. In this, a light bulb / lamp is controlled from two different
places / sources by using two two-way switches. This type of wiring is used in bed rooms to switch ON/OFF
the lamp from two sources (at the bed side and at switchboard). The connection of switches with the lamp
is shown below.
Warehouse Wiring
This type wiring is used in big godowns, long passages, warehouses and tunnel like structures
having many rooms or portions. It follows the linear sequence for switching the lights from one
end to the other.
When a person leaves one room and enters the next, turning the light switch makes previous
room’s lamp to be switched OFF, while the present room lamps to be switched ON. It turns OFF
one lamp while switching ON the another. The schematic wiring diagram for warehouse wiring is
shown in below.

Fluorescent Lamp Controlled by a One-Way Switch

The switching of fluorescent lamp with single one-way switch through ballast and capacitor is
shown in below figure. In this, phase wire is connected to the one end of the switch and another
end of the switch is connected to the choke (or ballast). One electrode of the lamp is connected
to the choke and other to neutral terminal as shown in figure.
Socket Outlet Wiring
The outlet holds a plug and passes the current through it when the
power is routed to the socket through a switch. The single socket
connection and radial socket connection are shown in below figure.

Control Switch Board Wiring

The schematic diagram for a control switch board is shown in
the below figure. In this, a ceiling fan, a fluorescent lamp and a
light bulb are controlled by appropriate switches.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS: A renewable energy system can be used to supply some or all of your electricity needs, using technologies like:
•Small solar electric systems
•Small wind electric systems
•Microhydropower systems
•Small hybrid electric systems (solar and wind).

Planning for a home renewable energy system is a process that includes analyzing your existing electricity use (and considering energy efficiency measures to reduce
it), looking at local codes and requirements, deciding if you want to operate your system on or off of the electric grid, and understanding technology options you have
for your site.

Analyzing Your Electricity Loads- Conducting a load analysis involves recording the wattage and average daily use of all of the electrical devices that are plugged
into your central power source such as refrigerators, lights, televisions, and power tools.

Local Codes and Requirements for Small Renewable Energy Systems- The state electricity boards have there own set of codes and regulations that you will need
to follow to add a small renewable energy system to your home or small business. These regulations can affect the type of renewable energy system you are allowed to
install and who installs it. We must also look at the other requirements like:
•Building codes
•Easements
•Local covenants and ordinances
•Technology-specific requirements
Local Covenants and Ordinances- Some communities have covenants or other regulations specifying what homeowners can do with their property. Sometimes
these regulations prohibit the use of renewable energy systems for aesthetic or noise-control reasons. However, sometimes these regulations have provisions
supporting renewable energy systems.

Grid-Connected or Stand-Alone System- Some people connect their systems to the grid and use them to reduce the amount of conventional power supplied to
them through the grid. A grid-connected system allows you to sell any excess power you produce back to your power provider.
For grid-connected systems, One will need to purchase some additional equipment (called "balance-of-system") to safely transmit electricity to your loads and comply
with your power provider's grid-connection requirements. This equipment may include power conditioning equipment, safety equipment, and meters and
instrumentation.

Choosing the Right Renewable Energy Technology

To begin choosing the right small renewable electric system for your home, you will need a basic understanding of how each technology works, as well as:
•Renewable energy resource availability
•Economics and costs
•System siting
•System sizing
•Codes and regulations
•Installation and maintenance considerations.
Technology options include solar, wind, microhydropower, and hybrid electric systems (solar
and wind).
•Small solar electric systems -- A small solar electric or photovoltaic system can be a reliable and
pollution-free producer of electricity for your home or office. Small photovoltaics systems also
provide a cost-effective power supply in locations where it is expensive or impossible to send
electricity through conventional power lines.
•Small wind electric systems -- Small wind electric systems are one of the most cost-effective
home-based renewable energy systems. They can also be used for a variety of other applications,
including water pumping on farms and ranches.
•Microhydropower systems -- Microhydropower systems usually generate up to 100 kilowatts of
electricity, though a 10-kilowatt system can generally provide enough power for a large home,
small resort, or a hobby farm.
•Small “hybrid” solar and wind electric systems -- Because the peak operating times for wind and
solar systems occur at different times of the day and year, hybrid systems are more likely to
produce power when you need it.
MODULE 3:
Electrical Services - Protection System-
Concepts of Switchgear & Protection Devices – Fuses, Breakers: Miniature Circuit Breakers; Earth Leakage Circuit
Breakers; Moulded Case Circuit Breakers & Air Circuit Breakers

Earthing & Lightning Protection System:

Introduction to the lightening protection systems, Types of Earthing Systems, Factors affecting selection and system
specification - Type of Soil, water table, soil resistivity etc.

Brief about new advances in earthing systems. Lightning system design - Factors affecting the system specification, basic
rules as per NBC and other relevant codes.
Fundamentals of Power System Protection

The purpose of an Electric Power System is to generate and

supply electrical energy to consumers.

The power system should be designed and managed to deliver

this energy to the utilization points with reliability

The capital investment involved in power system for the

generation, transmission and distribution is so great that the
proper precautions must be taken to ensure that the
equipment not only operates as nearly as possible to peak
efficiency, but also must be protected from accidents

The normal path of the electric current is from the power

source through copper (or aluminium) conductors in
generators, transformers and transmission lines to the load and
it is confined to this path by insulation.
Any abnormal operating state of a power system is known as FAULT. Faults in general consist of short circuits as well as open
circuits. Open circuit faults are less frequent than short circuit faults, and often they are transformed in to short circuits by
subsequent events.

Consequences of occurrence of Faults

Faults are of two types
Short circuit fault- current
Open circuit fault- voltage
In terms of seriousness of consequences of a fault , short
circuits are of far greater concern than open circuits,
although some open circuits present some potential
hazards to personnel

Classification of short circuited Faults

• Three phase faults (with or without earth connection)
• Two phase faults (with or without earth connection)
• Single phase to earth faults

Classification of Open Circuit Faults

• Single Phase open Circuit
• Two phase open circuit
• Three phase open circuit
Importance of Switch gear and Protection devices:

Switchgear protection is very important in any modern power

system network. From power generation to distribution,
switchgear helps run the electrical appliances in a streamlined
manner and protects the equipment from overload Short-
Circuit damage.

When the power in terms of Current & voltage are escalated

at a rapid pace, the Switchgear comes under the action &
quickly controls the damage of electrical circuit.

From this is where the inception of switchgear and protection

devices happened in the newest form.

Switchgear can be defined as a basic way that it is

combination of Switching device & controlling device which is There are two types of switchgear i.e. high voltage and
associated to current interruption device including control low voltage. i.e High Tension(HT) & Low Tension(LT), High
circuit, measuring instrument, metering, regulation & others voltage switchgear is used for electrical supplies such as
associated equipments of electrical power system. motors and large capacity electrical equipment requiring
upwards of more than 1000V AC. Low voltage switchgear
runs electrical equipment under 1,000 volts AC
Functions of a Switchgear and protection devices:
The three basic functions of switchgear power systems are – electrical protection, electrical isolation, and control.

• It helps to protect the electrical machines and appliances. It interrupts the circuit that is experiencing overload while still allowing currents
to flow through the unaffected circuits.

• It also provides isolation of circuits and the part of the system that is energized. This provides protection to the person who is repairing the
power system/equipment.

• It enhances system availability by allowing more than one source to feed a load.

One of the most essential components of switchgear is a current interruption

(switching) device i.e. circuit breaker. The circuit breaker can be operated
manually when required but is also designed to ‘trip’ automatically in the
event of an overload or any type of fault in the system. It detects the fault
through a protection relay and triggers before damage can occur.

The switchgear and protection devices feature state-of-the-art design,

environmentally friendly and meet the RoHS compliance defined by the
European Standards. Also, the power loss values are much lower than the
specified value of IS/IEC making the protection devices the most energy
efficient and high performance.
Switchgear and Protection

We are all familiar with low voltage switches and re-wirable fuses in
our home.

The switch is used to manually open and close the electrical circuit in
our home and electrical fuse is used to protect our household
electrical circuit from over current and short circuit faults.

In same way every electrical circuit including high voltage electrical

power system needs switching and protective devices.

But in high voltage and extra high voltage system, this switching and
protective scheme becomes complicated one for high fault current
interruption in safe and secure way.

In addition to that from commercial point of view every electrical

power system needs measuring, controling and regulating
arrangement.

Collectively the whole system is called switchgear and protection of

power system. The electrical switchgear has been developing in
various forms.
The power system parameters are:
current, voltage, frequency, phase angle etc.

The circuit breaker senses the faulty condition of system through protection
relays and these relays are again actuated by faulty signal normally comes from
current transformer or voltage transformer.

The switchgear has to perform the function of carrying, making and breaking
the normal load current like a switch and it has to perform the function of
clearing the fault in the power system.

In addition to that, it also has the provision of metering and regulating the
various parameters of electrical power systems.

Thus the switchgear includes circuit breakers, current transformers, voltage

transformers, protection relays, measuring instruments, electrical switches,
electrical fuses, miniature circuit breaker, lightning arresters or surge arresters,
electrical isolators and other associated pieces of equipment.
However, the switchgear detects the fault and disconnects the unhealthy
section from the system. (For more details visit working of a circuit breaker and
protective relays.)
Components of Switchgear

During normal operation, switchgear permits to switch on or off generators, transmission lines, distributors and other
electrical equipment. On the other hand, when a failure (e.g. short circuit) occurs on any part of the power system, a heavy
current flows through the equipment, threatening damage to the equipment and interruption of service to the customers.
Important Switchgear Components
The following are some of the important components common to most of the circuit breakers:

• Bushings
• Circuit Breaker Contacts
• Instrument Transformers
• Bus-bars and conductors
Bushings of Switchgear

When a high voltage conductor

passes through a metal sheet or
frame which is at earth
potential, the necessary
insulation is provided in the form
of the electrical bushing. It is
one of the major switchgear
components.
Circuit Breaker Contacts
The circuit breaker contacts are another switchgear component which are
required to carry normal as well as short-circuit current.

In carrying the normal current, it is desirable that the temperature should

not rise above the specified limits and that there should be a low voltage
drop at the point of contact. Therefore, the design of contacts is of
considerable importance for the satisfactory operation of the circuit
breakers.

There are three types of circuit breaker contacts viz.

Tulip type contacts

Finger and wedge contacts
Butt contacts

1) Tulip type contacts

It consists of moving contact which moves inside the fixed contacts. At contact separation, the arc is generally
established between the tips of the fixed contacts and the tip of the moving contact.

The advantage of this type of contact is that arcing is confined to the regions which are not in
contact in the fully engaged position.
2) Finger and wedge contacts

This type of contact is largely used for low-voltage oil circuit breakers owing to the general
unsuitability for use with arc control devices.

3) Butt contacts

The butt type contact and is formed by the springs. It possesses two advantages.

• Firstly, the spring pressure is available to assist contact separation. This is useful in single-
break oil circuit breakers and air-blast circuit breakers where relatively small “loop” forces
are available to assist in opening.

• Secondly, there is no gripping force so that this type of contact is especially suitable for
higher short circuit rating.

In modern vacuum interrupters, three contact designs dominate. The first is the butt
contact, the second is the transverse magnetic field (TMF) contact, and the third is the axial
magnetic field (AMF) contact.
Bus-Bars and Conductors

The current-carrying members in a circuit breaker consist of fixed and moving contacts and the conductors connecting these
to the points external to the breaker.

Outdoor Switchgear

If the switchgear is of the outdoor type, these connections are connected directly to the overhead lines. In case of indoor
switchgear, the incoming conductors to the circuit breaker are connected to the busbars.
What Is A Miniature Circuit Breaker?
MCB is an automatic switch that opens when excessive current flows through the circuit. MCB returns to normal
automatically when the regular flow of current starts. It can be reclosed without any manual replacement. In the case of a
fuse, once a fuse has been operated, it must be replaced or rewired, depending on the type of the MCB. Hence, fuse is
known as one of the sacrificial devices. This is the main reason why MCBs are used as an alternative to the fuse in most of the
circuits. Also, whenever there is a fault in the circuit, the switches in the MCB automatically shut down and the fault of the
device can be easily detected.

Handling MCB is quite safe and it quickly restores the supply. MCB – Miniature Circuit Breaker can be reset quickly and does
not demand more maintenance costs. MCB works on a bi-metal respective principle that protects against overload current
and solenoid short circuit current.

Types of Miniature Circuit Breaker

MCB trip curve decides the type of MCB that has to be used for
different types of appliances or devices. There are 6 types of
MCBs, they are:

A Type
B Type
C Type
D Type
K Type
Z Type
The components of the MCB are listed as below:
1. Latch
2. Solenoid
3. Switch
4. Plunger
5. Incoming Terminal
6. Arc Chutes Holder
7. Arc Chutes
8. Dynamic Contact
9. Fixed Contact
10. Din Rail Holder
11. Outgoing Terminal
12. Bi-metallic Strip Carrier
13. Bi-metallic Strip

When the overflow of current takes place through

MCB – Miniature Circuit Breaker, the bimetallic
strip gets heated and it deflects by bending. The
deflection of the bi-metallic strip releases a latch.
The latch causes the MCB to turn off by stopping
the flow of the current in the circuit. This process
helps to safeguard the appliances or devices from
the hazards happening due to overload or
overcurrent. To restart the flow of current, MCB
must be turned ON manually.
Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is a switching device that interrupts the abnormal or fault current. It is a mechanical device that disturbs
the flow of high magnitude (fault) current and in additions performs the function of a switch. The circuit breaker is mainly
designed for closing or opening of an electrical circuit, thus protects the electrical system from damage.

Working Principle of Circuit Breaker

• Circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts.
• These contacts are touching each other and carrying the current under normal conditions when the circuit is closed.
• When the circuit breaker is closed, the current carrying contacts, called the electrodes, engaged each other under the
pressure of a spring.
• During the normal operating condition, the arms of the circuit breaker can be opened or closed for a switching and
maintenance of the system.
• To open the circuit breaker, only a pressure is required to be applied to a trigger.
Importance of Circuit Breakers

Circuit Breakers are quite unique devices in the sense that they are mechanical devices connected to electrical system.

Since the time when first electrical systems were utilized, there is always a need for a mechanism or a device that can initiate and interrupt the flow of electric
current.
In power system, it is often necessary to switch on or off various electrical devices and circuits like generating plants, transmission line, distribution systems,
etc. either in normal operating conditions or under abnormal situations.

Originally, this task is performed by a switch and a fuse connected in series with the electrical circuit.

The main disadvantage of such a setup is that if a fuse is blown, it is often time consuming to replace one and restore the power supply. The other and main
disadvantage is that a fuse cannot interrupt heavy fault currents.
Classification of Circuit Breakers
There are several ways of classifying different circuit breakers. Some of the common criteria used for classification of circuit breakers are:
•Intended Voltage Applications
•Location of the installation
•Design Characteristics
•Method and medium used for current interruption (Arc Extinction)
Even though there are several ways to classify circuit breakers, the classification based on the medium and method of current interruption is most general and significant in the industry as well. For now, we will
briefly about all these classifications and in the later sections, we will discuss the main classification (i.e. based on method of arc extinction) more thoroughly.
Based on Voltage Class
The first logical classification of circuit breakers is based on the operating voltage intended for the circuit breakers to be used. There are two types of circuit breakers based on the voltage level. They are:
•Low Voltage Circuit Breakers, which are intended to be used at voltages up to 1000V.
•High Voltage Circuit Breakers, which are intended to be used at voltages greater than 1000V.
Again, high voltage circuit breakers are further divided into 123kV or above and 72.5kV or below.
Based on Type of Installation
Circuit breakers are also classified based on the location of installation i.e. outdoor or indoor installation. These circuit breakers are usually high voltage circuit breakers. Indoor circuit breakers are designed to be
used inside buildings or with special weather resistant enclosures, usually a metal clad switchgear enclosure.
In fact, the main difference between indoor and outdoor circuit breakers is the packaging structures and enclosures while the internal structure like current carrying parts, interrupting mechanism and operation are
pretty much the same.
Based on Type of External Design
The classification of circuit breakers is also done based on the physical structural design and it is usually done in two ways. They are:
•Dead Tank Type Circuit Breakers
•Live Tank Type Circuit Breakers
In Dead Tank Type Circuit Breakers, the switching device is placed in a vessel at ground potential and it is surrounded by interrupters and insulating medium. One the other hand, in a Live Tank Type Circuit Breaker,
the vessel containing the interrupters and insulating medium is at higher potential than ground.
Dead Tank Circuit Breakers are more common in the US while Live Tank Circuit Breakers are frequently used in Europe and Asia.
Based on Type of Interrupting Medium
The most significant and important classification of circuit breakers is based on the interrupting medium and arc extinction method. In fact, the current interrupting medium and the arc extinction method have
become the main factors in designing the circuit breakers and also, they dictated the overall design parameters.
Originally, oil and air served as the interrupting medium and continue to be still used even after almost a century since their first implementation.
There are two newer techniques, one involving vacuum and the other one based on Sulfurhexafluoride (SF6) gas as the interrupting medium. These two dominate today’s circuit breaker industry but oil and air circuit
breakers are also still in service.
Different Types of Circuit Breakers
Since the general and most common way of classification of
circuit breakers is based on medium used for arc extinction, we
will see different types of circuit breakers based on the same.

Usually, the medium used for extinction of arc is air, oil,

Sulfurhexafluoride gas or vacuum. Hence, the different types of
circuit breakers based on these media are:

• Air Magnetic Circuit Breakers

• Air Blast Circuit Breakers
• Oil Circuit Breakers
• Sulfurhexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breakers
• Vacuum Circuit Breakers
Each type has its advantages and disadvantages and we will
take a look as all these different types of circuit breakers in
detail.

Air Magnetic Circuit Breakers

The first circuit breaker is the Air Magnetic Circuit Breaker. It is also called as
Arc Chute Circuit Breaker. Usually, it consists of a number of plates between the
contacts and are made up of either metallic or insulated materials.
Air Blast Circuit Breakers
The second ‘air’ based circuit breakers are air blast circuit breakers.
In this type, a high-pressure air-blast is used as arc extinguishing
medium. In case of a fault, the air-blast, controlled by a blast valve,
will open the contacts and also cools the arc.

The arc and the arching products are swept into the atmosphere,
which rapidly increases the dielectric strength of the medium. As a
result, the restriking of arc is prevented. The arc is extinguished
consequently and the flow of current is completely interrupted.

There are three types of air blast circuit breakers based on the
direction of the air-blast in relation to the arc. They are:

Axial Blast Type

Cross Blast Type
Radial Blast Type
In axial-blast circuit breakers, the air-blast flows in the same
direction as the arc. The high-pressure air-blast will push the moving
contact away, opening the circuit and also pushes the arc along with
it.
Oil Circuit Breakers
In Oil Circuit Breakers, an insulating oil is used as the arc extinguishing medium. As the contacts are opened in oil, when the arc strikes, the surrounding oil is evaporated as
hydrogen gas.
The hydrogen gas bubble will surround the arc region. Hydrogen gas, due to its high thermal conductivity, cools the arc and also deionizes the medium. Also, the
gas causes turbulence in the surrounding oil and all the arcing products are pushed away from the arc.
There are two types of oil circuit breakers. They are:
• Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers
• Low Oil Circuit Breakers
As the name suggests, bulk oil circuit breakers use a significantly large quantity of oil. Further, bulk oil circuit breakers are again divided into two types.
• Plain Break Oil Circuit Breakers
• Arc Control Oil Circuit Breakers
In Plain Break Oil Circuit Breakers, the contacts are separated in the oil tank and
the system for arc control is to increase the separation of the contacts. When a
critical gap between the contacts is reached, the arc extinction occurs.

The lack of control over the arc in plain break oil circuit breakers is overcome in
Arc Control Oil Circuit Breakers. The arc control is implemented in two ways
known as:

• Self-blast Oil Circuit Breakers

• Forced-blast Oil Circuit Breakers
In self-blast type breakers, an insulating rigid pressure chamber is used with the Coming to Forced-blast Oil Circuit Breakers, a piston cylinder is used to create
contacts and the gases released during arcing are confined to this chamber or the necessary oil pressure in contrast to Self-blast Oil Circuit Breakers, where
pot. The high pressure developed in the small chamber will force the oil as gas to the pressure is developed by the arc itself.
go through the arc and subsequently extinguishing it. In all the Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers mentioned above, the oil has two jobs. One
There are three type or designs of pressure pots in Self-blast Oil Circuit Breakers. is to act as an arc extinguishing medium and the other is to insulate live circuit
They are: from earth. Only a small percentage (10% or less) is actually used for arc
•Plain Explosion Pot extinction and the majority of the oil is used for insulating purpose.
•Cross Jet Explosion Pot In Low Oil Circuit Breakers, oil is used for arc extinction and a solid material
•Self-compensated Explosion Pot like porcelain and paper are used for insulation.
Sulfurhexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breakers
In Sulfur Hexafluoride circuit breakers, Sulfur Hexafluoride with
chemical formula SF6, is used as the arc extinguishing medium.

The Sulfurhexafluoride gas is electro-negative in nature i.e. it

attracts free electrons. When the circuit contacts are opened, a
high pressure Sulfurhexafluoride gas flows through the
chamber as the arc strikes.

Free electrons produced during the arcing are quickly absorbed

by the SF6 gas resulting in immobile negative ions. As the arc
loses its conducting electrons, the insulating strength of the
surrounding medium is quickly increased and the arc
completely extinguishes.

Following image shows a simplified construction of SF6 Circuit

Breaker. Both the fixed and moving contacts are placed in arc
chamber, which contains Sulfurhexafluoride gas. When the
contacts open, a high pressure SF6 gas from a reservoir will
flow through the chamber’s inlet.
Vacuum Circuit Breakers
In vacuum circuit breakers or VCB, the arc extinguishing medium is,
well Vacuum. It offers superior arc extinguishing properties than other
medium as it has the highest insulating strength.

When the contacts of the circuit breaker in vacuum are opened, an

arc is formed due to ionization of the metal vapours of the contacts.
But the arc is quickly extinguished as the vapours rapidly condense.

A typical vacuum circuit breaker is shown in the following image. It

consists of a moving contact and a fixed contact and also an arc shield
mounted in a vacuum chamber. The outer insulating body is usually
made up of glass or ceramic.
 What Is a Short Circuit?
A short circuit is any electrical flow that strays outside its intended circuit with
little or no resistance to that flow. The usual cause is bare wires touching one
another or wire connections that have come loose. The immediate impact is that
a large amount of current suddenly begins to flow.

Short circuits can occur when insulation on wires melts and exposes bare wires.
The principal danger of a short circuit is arcing or sparking that may occur as
electrical current jumps from a hot wire to a neutral. This situation can easily
cause fires.

Short circuits can also occur within the wiring of individual devices, such as lamps
or other plug-in appliances. Frayed or otherwise damaged electrical extension
cords or appliance cords can also cause short circuits.

Protection against short circuits is provided mostly by circuit breakers, which trip
and shut the circuit off when current begins to flow in an uncontrolled fashion. A
special type of circuit breaker, an arc-fault circuit interrupter (AFCI) is now
commonly used. It senses arcing, or sparking, and shuts off the current even
before the current flow overloads the breaker.
What Is a Ground Fault?
A ground fault is a type of fault in which the unintentional pathway of the straying electrical current flows directly to the earth (to the ground). Here,
too, the circuit is "short," in that it has bypassed the circuit wiring, so a ground fault can technically be defined as one type of short circuit.

The main danger of ground faults comes in the likelihood of shock if a person happens to be in contact with the path of least resistance to the ground.
This is why the danger of shock is much more pronounced in situations where a person is standing on the ground or in a damp location.1
Protection against ground faults is offered by circuit breakers that trip if the flow of electricity suddenly increases, and by a system of grounding wires in
the circuits that provide a direct pathway back to ground should current stray outside its established circuit wiring. There are also ground-fault circuit
interrupter outlets that can be used in situations where ground faults are particularly likely, such as in outdoor locations, near plumbing fixtures, and in
below-grade locations.
Common Causes of Ground Faults
•Water leaking into an electrical box can cause a ground
fault, since water is a conductor of electricity.
•Worn hot wires or hot wires that are not completely
seated into their terminals may come into contact with
ground wires or grounding devices or boxes.
•Power tools or appliances without proper insulation can
cause a ground fault if faulty wiring causes current to flow
directly to ground. When working outdoors or below
grade, always plug tools into GFCI outlets or use GFCI-
protected extension cords.
Common Causes of Short Circuits
•A loose connection on one of two wires in a junction box
or outlet box may cause a short circuit.
•A short circuit can occur when a wire slips off of a
terminal on an electrical device, such as an outlet. When it
touches another wire, a short circuit ensues.
•An appliance may encounter an internal wiring problem,
causing a hot wire and neutral wire to accidentally touch.
•Insects or rodents may chew the wire insulation and
cause a short circuit between two wires within a cable
bundle.
What is an Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)?
An ELCB is a specific type of latching relay that has a structure’s incoming mains power associated
through its switching contacts so that the circuit breaker detaches the power in an unsafe
condition. The ELCB notices fault currents of human or animal to the earth wire in the connection
it guards. If ample voltage seems across the ELCB’s sense coil, it will turn off the power, and remain
off until manually rearrange. A voltage sensing ELCB doesn’t detect fault currents from human or
animal to the earth.
ELCB Function
The main function of an Earth-leakage circuit breaker or ELCB is to prevent shock while electrical
installations through high Earth impedance because it is a safety device. This circuit breaker
identifies tiny stray voltages on top of the electrical equipment with a metal enclosure & disrupts the
circuit if a hazardous voltage is identified. The main purpose of ELCBs is to avoid harm to human
beings as well as animals because of electric shock.
ELCB Operation
An electrical circuit breaker is a particular kind of latching relay and it has a mains supply of
buildings that are connected throughout its switching contacts so that this circuit breaker will
disconnect the power once earth leakage is identified. By using this, the fault current can be
detected from life to the ground wire in the fitting it guards. If ample voltage comes out across the
sense coil of the circuit breaker, then it will shut down the power & remain off until physically reset.
An ELCB which is used for voltage-sensing does not detect fault currents.
Advantages of Voltage Operated ELCB
ELCBs are less sensitive to fault conditions and have few nuisance trips.
While current and voltage on the ground line generally fault current from a live wire, this is not continuously the case,
therefore there are conditions in which an ELCB can annoyance trip.
When an installation of the electrical instrument has two contacts to earth, a near high current lightning attack will root a
voltage gradient in the earth, offering the ELCB sense coil with sufficient voltage to source it to a trip.
If either of the soil wires becomes detached from the ELCB, it will no longer install will frequently no longer be correctly
earthed.
These ELCBs are the necessity for a second connection and the opportunity that any extra connection to ground on the
threatened system can inactivate the detector.

Disadvantages of Voltage Operated ELCB

They do not sense errors that don’t permit current through the CPC to the ground rod.
They do not permit only building system to be simply divided into many sections with independent error protection
because earthing systems are typically used mutual earth, Rod.
They may be skipped by outside voltages from something associated with the earthing system like metal pipes, a TN-C-S
or TN-S earth mutual neutral and earth.
As electrical leaky utilizations like washing machines, some water heaters and cookers might source the ELCB to trip.
ELCBs present an extra resistance & an extra point of failure in the earthing system.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker Vs MCB
The advanced version of Fuse is MCB and it is capable of
disabling the circuit contact with supply once the current
supply increases from the rated current of Molded Case
Circuit Breaker. The operation of MCB is to break the
contact to assist in securing the circuit from errors.

Similar to the Molded Case Circuit Breaker, the Earth

Leakage Circuit Breaker also capable of disabling the
circuit contacts through the mains supply. However
different to the MCB, it doesn’t disable the circuit
contacts within the case of an unexpected increase of
current supply current. This type of circuit breaker is used
to prevent the current supply when someone gets
shocked because of the circuit operation.
Molded Case Circuit Breaker
A molded case circuit breaker (MCCB) is a type of breaker that protects electrical circuits from overcurrents arising from circuit
overload, short circuits, or faulty wiring. They are almost the same as the Miniature circuit breaker (MCB) as they do the same
work. However, MCCB is more advanced.

It has a higher current rating of up to 2500, Amp, and adjustable trip settings.

These features make them useable on both low voltage, medium, and high voltage substations for circuit protection.
How the MCCB Works.
Like miniature circuit breakers, the molded case switch also uses a temperature sensitive device (thermal element) and a current
sensitive electromagnetic device (the magnetic element) to detect and interrupt faulty currents. This enables them to provide:
•Overload protection,
•Short circuit protection,
•Electrical switch for disconnection.
Overload protection
MCCB provides overload protection with its thermal element (the bimetallic contact).
This contact comprises two metals that expand at different rates when exposed to high temperature.
Under working conditions, the contact closes and allows current flows through it.
When the current exceeds the adjusted trip value, the contact heats up and eventually bends away. This leads to circuit
interruptions.
Short circuit protection
Besides overload protection, this switchgear also protects against faulty currents using electromagnetic induction.
The MCCB produces a small electromagnetic force as the current flows through the solenoid coil.
When a short circuit occurs, higher currents flow through the breaker. This makes the solenoid coil produce a strong
electromagnetic field that forces the trip bar to open the circuit.
Air Circuit Breaker (ACB)
Air Circuit Breaker (ACB) is an electrical protection device used for short circuit and overcurrent protection up to 15kV with
amperes rating of 800A to 10kA. It operates in air (where air-blast as an arc quenching medium) at atmospheric pressure to
protect the connected electric circuits. ACB has completely replaced by oil circuit breaker because it is still a preferable choice to
use an ACB because, there is no chance of oil fire like in oil circuit breaker.
• 1. Sheet Steel Supporting Structure
Principle of Operation of Air Circuit Breaker • 2. Current Transformer for Protection
The working principle of Air Circuit breaker is rather different Trip Unit
from other types of circuit breaker. The main aim of circuit breaker • 3. Pole Group insulating box
• 4. Horizontal rare terminals
is to prevent reestablishment of arcing after current zero where • 5a. Plates for fixed main contacts
the contact gap will withstand the system recovery voltage. It does • 5b. Plates for fixed arcing Contacts
it same work, but in a different manner. During interruption of arc, • 6a. Plates for Main moving contacts
• 6b. Plates for Moving Arcing contacts
it creates an arc voltage instead of supply voltage. Arc voltage is • 7. Arcing Chamber
defined as the minimum voltage required for maintaining arc .The • 8. Terminal box for fixed version –
circuit breaker increases the voltage in three different ways: Sliding Contacts for withdrawable version
• 9. Protection Trip Unit
•Arc voltage can be increased by cooling arc plasma. As soon as • 10. Circuit breaker Closing and
the temperature of arc plasma motion of particle in arc plasma is Opening Control
reduced, more voltage gradient will be required to maintain the • 11. Closing Springs

arc.
•By splitting the arc into a number of series will increases the arc
voltage.
•Arc voltage can be increased by lengthening the arc path. As
soon length of arc path is increased the resistance path will
increase more arc voltage is applied across the arc path hence
arc voltage is increased.
What Is Earthing System
The electrical earthing is known as the process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical flow directly to the
earth. This transferring is accomplished by the aid of the low resistance wire. It is actually an arrangement by which an
electrical installation is connected to a means of earthing. Although Earthing is sometimes used for functional purposes, it is
usually at services of safety purposes. For example, in the case of telegraph lines, the earthing is used as a conductor to save
the cost of a return wire over a long circuit.

If there is a fault in an electrical installation, and this installation possesses no earthing system, a person could be damaged by
an electric shock as touching a live metal part, because electricity uses the body of equipment as a path to the earth. Earthing
job is to provide an alternate path for a fault current to flow to earth.
The Purposes Using of Grounding System
In the previous section, we talked about what the earthing system
is and what it does. Now we are going to list some of the most
important purposes that earthing is at service for.
Electrical circuits are connected to the earth or actually to the
ground for a couple of reasons. There are a number of reasons
below that show that why using a grounding system is important.
1.The personal protection
2.The protection of Electrical system
3.Protection of Electromagnetic pulses
4.protection against Lightning
5.A sufficiently low impedance to facilitate satisfactory protection
operation under fault conditions.
6.Voltage protection, within reasonable limits under fault conditions
7.Graded insulation in power transformers.
8.Voltage limiting to earth on conductive materials that enclose
electrical conductors or equipment.
Methods of Earthing
• Conventional Earthing
• Maintenance Free Earthing

Conventional Earthing
• The Conventional system of Earthing calls for digging of a
large pit into which a GI pipe or a copper plate is positioned in
the middle layers of charcoal and salt.
• It requires maintenance and pouring of water at regular
interval.

Maintenance Free Earthing

• It is a new type of earthing system which is Readymade,
standardized and scientifically developed.
Its Benefits are
• MAINTENANCE FREE: No need to pour water at regular
interval- except in sandy soil.
• CONSISTENCY: Maintain stable and consistent earth
resistance around the year.
• MORE SURFACE AREA: The conductive compound creates a
conductive zone, which provides the increased surface area for
peak current dissipation. And also get stable reference point.
Components of Earthing System
A complete electrical earthing system consists
on the following basic components.

Earth Continuity Conductor

Earthing Lead
Earth Electrode

Methods and Types of Electrical Earthing

Earthing can be done in many ways. The various methods employed in earthing (in
house wiring or factory and other connected electrical equipment and machines) are
discussed as follows.

Plate Earthing:
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x
60cm x 3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x
60cm x 6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x ¼ in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should
not be less than 3m (10ft) from the ground level.

For proper earthing system, follow the above mentioned steps in the (Earth Plate
introduction) to maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode or earth
plate.
Pipe Earthing:
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed
vertically in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common
system of earthing.

The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The
dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length
for ordinary soil or greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will
determine the length of the pipe to be buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).
Rod Earthing
it is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of
12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm (0.6in) diameter of
galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI
pipe of length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the
earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer.
The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces
earth resistance to a desired value.

Earthing through the Waterman

In this method of earthing, the waterman (Galvanized GI) pipes are used for earthing purpose. Make sure to check
the resistance of GI pipes and use earthing clamps to minimize the resistance for proper earthing connection.
If stranded conductor is used as earth wire, then clean the end of the strands of the wire and make sure it is in the
straight and parallel position which is possible then to connect tightly to the waterman pipe.
Strip or Wire Earthing:
In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25mm x 1.6mm (1in x 0.06in) is buried in a
horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-section of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used
and a dimension of 3.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say less than 6.0mm2 if it’s a
galvanized iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in the ground would give a sufficient earth resistance and
this length should not be less than 15m.
General Method of Electrical Earthing Installation (Step by Step)

The usual method of earthing of electric equipments, devices and appliances are as follow:
1.First of all, dig a 5x5ft (1.5×1.5m) pit about 20-30ft (6-9 meters) in the ground. (Note that, depth and width depends on the
nature and structure of the ground)
2.Bury an appropriate (usually 2’ x 2’ x 1/8” (600x600x300 mm) copper plate in that pit in vertical position.
3.Tight earth lead through nut bolts from two different places on earth plate.
4.Use two earth leads with each earth plate (in case of two earth plates) and tight them.
5.To protect the joints from corrosion, put grease around it.
6.Collect all the wires in a metallic pipe from the earth electrode(s). Make sure the pipe is 1ft (30cm) above the surface of the
ground.
7.To maintain the moisture condition around the earth plate, put a 1ft (30cm) layer of powdered charcoal (powdered wood coal)
and lime mixture around the earth plate of around the earth plate.
8.Use thimble and nut bolts to connect tightly wires to the bed plates of machines. Each machine should be earthed from two
different places. The minimum distance between two earth electrodes should be 10 ft (3m).
9.Earth continuity conductor which is connected to the body and metallic parts of all installation should be tightly connected to
earth lead. Make sure to use the continuity by using continuity test.
10.At last (but not least), test the overall earthing system through earth tester. If everything is going about the planning, then fill
the pit with soil. The maximum allowable resistance for earthing is 1Ω. If it is more than 1 ohm, then increase the size (not length)
of earth lead and earth continuity conductors. Keep the external ends of the pipes open and put the water time to time to
maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode which is important for the better earthing system.
There are five basic methods for earthing and providing the neutral of an electrical installation. The five methods and their
abbreviations are named and elaborated below.
TN-S
In this method, there is a single point of connection between
the supply neutral and earth at the supply transformer. The
supply cables have separate neutral and earth protective
conductors (S.N.E.). basically, the neutral conductor is a
fourth ‘core’, and the earth conductor forms a protective
sheath. The customer may have an earth terminal connected
to the sheath of the service cable or a separate earth
TN-C-S
conductor.
In this method, the supply cables have a combined neutral
and earth metallic outer sheath with a PVC covering. The
combined neutral earth sheath is the PEN (protective earth
neutral).
The supply within the customer’s premises would usually be
TN-S, which means that the neutral and earth would be
separate, linked only at the service position. When combing
the neutral and earth within the premises, then the system
is TN-C.
TT
This method is a system where the supply is
earthed at one point only, but the cable sheaths
and exposed metalwork of the customer’s
installation are connected to earth via a separate
electrode which is independent of the supply
electrode.

IT
This is a system without a direct connection between live parts
and earth, but with its exposed conductive parts of the
installation earthed. Sometimes a high impedance connection
to earth is provided to simplify the protection scheme required
to detect the first earth fault.
MODULE 4:

ILLUMINATION
Fundamentals: Quality & Quantity of Lighting; Recommended Lux Levels; Type of Lamps – Incandescent, Discharge Lamps,
Fluorescent, CFL, LED and OLED. Integration of Day lighting with Artificial Lighting, Control Systems, Laws of illumination.

Techniques, Principles and Applications: Lighting Methods - Ambient, Task & Accent lighting; Systems of Luminaries - Up-
Lighting, Down-Lighting, Spot Lighting etc.; Street Lighting, Façade Lighting, Landscape Lighting, Architectural Typologies;
Preparation of Lighting Layout.
Quality and Quantity of Illumination:
When choosing a light source for a particular installation, many factors must be taken into consideration, such as the purpose
of the area you are illuminating, cost of installation and maintenance.

Two of the most significant considerations in lighting installations are the Quantity and Quality of Light produced.

Some tasks or areas will require higher lighting levels than others, and so the Quantity of light produced may need to be
increased, perhaps with higher wattage lamps.

As a general rule, a single 150-watt incandescent lamp will produce more lumens than three 50 watt incandescent lamps. The
amount of visible light produced by a lamp is measured in lumens or candela, which are discussed in a later chapter.

The Quality of the light produced is made of three general considerations:

Glare:
Reflective surfaces and unshielded lamps or filaments may be sources
of glare, which is considered a level of brightness that interferes with
vision and causes discomfort or eye fatigue.

Glare may be reduced by shielding or repositioning the light source, or

by decreasing the contrast between the source and it surroundings.
Glare is more common at higher lighting levels than at lower ones.
Frosted bulbs when compared to clear glass bulbs will have reduced
glare effects.
Diffusion:
One of the ways to avoid annoying reflections of light and glare is
to use diffusion to scatter light into many different directions.

This is often achieved by using a variety of light sources, or indirect

light sources, such as pointing a lamp at a white-painted ceiling to
help scatter and reflect that light back into the room.

This reduces the starkness of shadows and glare but does require
higher lighting levels to achieve the same level of illumination.

Colour:

As discussed the chromaticity of a light source can have a

psychological effect on people, with blues and greens said to be
‘cool’ (4000°K and above) while reds, oranges and yellow colours
are said to be ‘warm’ (3000°K and below).

If the task to be performed requires colour discrimination, then the

CRI, or colour rendering index, should also be taken into
consideration. For most tasks a CRI of 80 is sufficient.
As a body is gradually heated above room temperature, it begins to radiate energy in the surrounding medium in the form
of electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths. The nature of this radiant energy depends on the temperature of the
hot body.

The usual method of producing artificial light consists in raising a solid body or vapour to incandescence by applying heat
to it. It is found that as body is gradually heated above room temperature, it begins to radiate energy in the surrounding
medium in the form of electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths. The nature of this radiant energy depends on the
temperature of the hot body. Thus, when the temperature is low, the radiated energy is in the form of heat waves only, but
when a certain temperature is reached, light waves are also radiated out in addition to heat waves and the body becomes
luminous.

• Light is thus a part of radiant energy that propagates as a wave motion through ether, approx velocity being 3x108
m/sec.

• The wavelengths which can produce sensation of sight have a range from 4x10-5 cm to 7.5x10-5 cm.

• For expressing wavelength of light, another unit called Angstrom Unit (1 A.U. = 10-8 cm= 10-10 m) is used. Thus the
visible radiation lies between 4000 AU to 7500 AU. Typically a wavelength of 6000 AU produce yellow colour and 4000
AU produces violate colour.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS IN ELECTRICAL LIGHTING DESIGN:
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS IN ELECTRICAL LIGHTING DESIGN:
i) Sodium vapour lamps
Sodium vapour lamps has the highest theoretical luminous efficiency and gives
monochromatic orange-yellow light. The monochromatic light makes objects
look grey, on account of which these lamps are used for street and highway
lighting. The lamp consists of a discharge tube having special composition of
glass to withstand the high temperature of the electric discharge.
The discharge tube is surrounded by an outer tube as shown in fig. For heating
the cathode a transformer is included. Sodium below 600 C is in solid state. For
starting the lamp the electric discharge is allowed to take place in neon gas.

The temperature inside the discharge tube rises and vaporizes sodium.
Operating temperature is around 3000 C.

It takes about 10 minutes for the sodium vapour to displace the red colour of
the neon by its own yellow colour. The lamp takes around half an hour to reach
full output. A choke is provided for stabilizing the electric discharge and a
capacitor for power factor improvement.

Although the theoretical efficiency is 475 lumens/watt, the practical light

output is around 40-50 lumen/watt. HPSV lamps are used for lighting of public
thoroughfares, storage yards, open-air work sites, process plants, interiors with
high ceiling heights, etc.
II) Mercury Vapour Lamps:
It is similar to construction of the sodium vapour lamp. The electrodes are
tungsten coils containing an electron emitting material, which may be small
piece of thorium or an oxide mixture.

Argon is introduced to help start the lamp. The electric discharge first takes
place through argon and this vaporizes the mercury drops inside the discharge
tube.

The electron emitting material supplies electrons to maintain the arc.

The space between two bulbs is filled with an inert gas. The pressure inside the
discharge tube may range from one to ten atmospheres in lamps used for
lighting purposes, as at these pressures the radiation is in
visible spectrum.

Although the theoretical efficiency is 298 lumens/watt, the practical light

output is around 20- 30 lumen/watt.

(The ordinary tungsten filament or incandescent bulb has practical efficiency of

10-20 lumens/watt as against theoretical efficiency of 143 lumens/watt) HPMV
Lamps are used for lighting of secondary roads, car parking areas, parks and
gardens, factory sheds, etc.
III) Fluorescent Lamps:
In the mercury vapour lamp considerable amount of radiation is in
ultra-violate range. By coating the inside of the tube by phosphor, this
ultra violate radiation is converted in visible light. Phosphors have
definite characteristic colours, but when mixed together, they produce
a large variety of colours.

These phosphors are stable compounds and give a high output

throughout the life of the lamps. The colours of fluorescence
produced by various phosphors are given below:

Tungsten cathode Preheated Type Fluorescent lamp: In these types, the

electrons are produced by thermionic emission. Lower starting and
operating voltages are adequate.

A transient voltage of 300-600 V, applied by the starter, initiates the arc

stream. The cathodes, which are coated with emitting materials, lose a
little bit of this material every time the lamp is started. The constant
impact of electrons on the cathode also dislodges some of the emitting
material. Finally so little of the materials remain that it is not possible to
emit any electrons and the lamp becomes dead. Therefore this type of
lamp is unsuitable for frequent starting.
A well designed lighting scheme is one which
Provides adequate illumination
Avoids glare and hard shadows
Provides sufficiently uniform distribution of light all over the working plane.

Following two factors are important for lighting design:

i) Utilization factor or Coefficient of Utilization: it is the ratio of the lumens actually received by a particular surface to the
total lumens emitted by a luminous source. It is an indication of the effect of the lighting equipment and the interior
combined in producing horizontal illuminance. For example UF of 0.3 means that the lumen reaching horizontal plane is
30% of the lumens of the lamp operated bare under standard conditions.

ii) Depreciation factor/ Maintenance factor: It is the ratio of illuminance halfway through a cleaning cycle, to what the
illuminance would be if the installation was clean. This factor allows for the fact that the effective candle power of all lamps
or luminous sources deteriorates due to blackening and/ or accumulation of dust or dirt on the globes and reflectors etc.
Similarly walls and ceilings also do not reflect as much light as when they are clean. Taking into consideration the utilization
and depreciation or maintenance factors, the expression for gross lumens required is:
Incandescent Lamps

An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an

electric light with a wire filament heated until it glows.

The filament is enclosed in a glass bulb with a vacuum or inert gas to protect the
filament from oxidation.

Current is supplied to the filament by terminals or wires embedded in the glass. A

bulb socket provides mechanical support and electrical connections.

Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and
voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts.

They require no external regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and
work equally well on either alternating current or direct current.

As a result, the incandescent bulb became widely used in household and commercial
lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and
for decorative and advertising lighting
Fluorescent lamp
A fluorescent lamp, or fluorescent tube, is a low-pressure mercury-vapor gas-
discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light.

An electric current in the gas excites mercury vapor, which produces short-
wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the
lamp to glow.

A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy into useful light much more
efficiently than an incandescent lamp.

The typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100 lumens

per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with comparable
light output.

For comparison, the luminous efficacy of an incandescent bulb may only be

16 lumens per watt.

Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps because,
among other things, they require a ballast to regulate current through the
lamp, but the initial cost is offset by a lower running cost.

Compact fluorescent lamps are now available in the same popular sizes as
incandescents and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes.
A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent light, energy-saving light
and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an incandescent light
bulb; some types fit into light fixtures designed for incandescent bulbs. The lamps use a tube
that is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic
ballast in the base of the lamp.

Compared to general-service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light, CFLs
use one-fifth to one-third the electric power, and last eight to fifteen times longer. A CFL has a
higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its purchase
price in electricity costs over the lamp's lifetime.[1] Like all fluorescent lamps, CFLs contain
toxic mercury,[2] which complicates their disposal. In many countries, governments have
banned the disposal of CFLs together with regular garbage. These countries have established
special collection systems for CFLs and other hazardous waste.

The principle of operation remains the same as in other fluorescent lighting: electrons that
are bound to mercury atoms are excited to states where they will radiate ultraviolet light as
they return to a lower energy level; this emitted ultraviolet light is converted into visible light
as it strikes the fluorescent coating, and into heat when absorbed by other materials such as
glass.
An LED lamp or LED light bulb is an electric light that produces light using light-
emitting diodes (LEDs).

LED lamps are significantly more energy-efficient than equivalent incandescent

lamps and can be significantly more efficient than most fluorescent lamps.
The most efficient commercially available LED lamps have efficiencies of 200
lumens per watt (Lm/W).

Commercial LED lamps have a lifespan many times longer than incandescent
lamps.

LED lamps require an electronic LED driver circuit to operate from mains power
lines, and losses from this circuit means that the efficiency of the lamp is lower
than the efficiency of the LED chips it uses.

The driver circuit may require special features to be compatible with lamp
dimmers intended for use on incandescent lamps. Generally the current
waveform contains some amount of distortion, depending on the luminaires’
technology.

The LED lamp market is projected to grow from $75.8 billion in 2020 and
increasing to $160 billion in 2026.
TYPOLOGY OF LIGHTING:
1. Ambient Lighting
Ambient lighting is also called mood lighting or general lighting. It is a soft, at
times diffused lighting, and might mimic natural light. General lighting may
be natural or come from light fixtures.

It is a gentle, relaxing type of lighting.

Ambient lighting “bounces” off walls to illuminate the maximum space

possible.

There is no glare or spotlight. It does not call attention to any specific area.
It is ideal for general activity or quiet conversation. Good lighting fixtures for
ambient lighting include chandeliers, LED downlights, wall scones, traditional
recessed fixtures, and table & floor lamps.
2. Accent Lighting
Accent lighting creates visual interest and adds drama to a space. It is used
to spotlight sculptures, houseplants, paintings, bookcases, wall textures,
outdoor landscaping, and even drapery.

It is a very concentrated light meant to draw the eye to a focal point.

It needs at least three times as much light on a focal point as the ambient
lighting around it.

Accent lighting for outdoor areas, including architecture and gardens, is

called outdoor accent lighting. This is especially popular during holidays
such as Christmas and Halloween. It is often used in historical buildings, art
shows and museums. Types of accent lighting include sconces, picture
lights, track lights, outdoor lighting, and under-cabinet lighting.
3. Task Lighting
As the name suggests, task lighting helps you to perform specific tasks such as sewing, balancing checkbooks, reading, writing,
cooking, or gaming. Ideally, task lighting should be free of glare and shadows, while still bright enough to prevent eyestrain.

It provides additional, focused light for tasks in a space that may already have ambient or accent lighting.

It helps you see smaller objects, or objects with a low contrast.

Aids with accuracy in tasks.

Task lighting often has a swing arm or flexible neck.

Often they are installed over or near a workspace, and are an important part of commercial design. Standard fixtures for task
lighting include pendant lighting, recessed fixtures, desk or portable lamps, and under-cabinet lighting.
4) Facade lighting
To understand what façade lighting is, you must first know what a façade is. The
façade is the front side of the building. From an architectural point of view,
facades are the vital element of the exterior design.

The façade lighting can be defined as a way to turn a boring building in an eye-
catching one. When you effectively illuminate a building using façade lighting, it
can be more aesthetically appealing and eye-catching if viewed from a distance.
This type of lighting will help in accentuating the architecture of the building.
Also, it will help in lighting the name or logo of the company.

REASONS TO USE BUILDING FACADES LIGHTING

Here are some of the reasons for using building façade lights.

Façade lighting is a crucial element of the external appearance of a building. It is

capable of highlighting the special features of the building. Using it, the building
can be transformed into a landmark.

With the help of high-contrast interaction between shadow and light, you can
improve the brightness. Moreover, the dynamic light will have a lasting
impression on people. Many businesses use façade lighting to emphasize the
nocturnal effect of buildings.
5) Street lighting
A street light, light pole, lamppost, street lamp, light standard,
or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a
road or path.

Similar lights may be found on a railway platform. When urban

electric power distribution became ubiquitous in developed
countries in the 20th century, lights for urban streets followed,
or sometimes led.

Many lamps have light-sensitive photocells that activate the

lamp automatically when needed, at times when there is little-
to-no ambient light, such as at dusk, dawn, or at the onset of
dark weather conditions.

This function in older lighting systems could be performed with

the aid of a solar dial. Many street light systems are being
connected underground instead of wiring from one utility post
to another. Street lights are an important source of public
security lighting intended to reduce crime.
Landscape lighting or garden lighting refers to the use of outdoor illumination
of private gardens and public landscapes; for the enhancement and purposes
of safety, nighttime aesthetics, accessibility, security, recreation and sports,
and social and event uses.
Landscape Lighting
Landscape lighting is probably the key design feature that often gets
neglected when designing a yard. Landscape lighting not only highlights
well designed features, but it also conceals those features that may want to
be concealed. Well and spot lights shine directly on a specimen or accent
tree or architectural features while walkway lighting will serenely guide you
through the garden and landscape including hat, mushroom and pagoda.
For decks and staircases, use surface mount lighting directly to the structure
for visibility as well as for the soft cascading effect of light.
TYPOLOGY OF LIGHTING FIXURES:
Domes
Dome Lights represent light sources that are placed behind a translucent glass
dome. It is not a rule for these domes to be made of glass, but it is the best choice
to diffuse the light. Ceiling domes can be mounted directly on the ceiling(flush
mount fixture) or at a small distance through a hidden mechanism (semi-flush)
Recessed Lights
This type of ceiling fixture is called so because it is recessed into the ceiling,
simply put, it is installed above it. It is ideal for ambient, task and accent lighting.
It helps highlight certain products or merchandise displays because it focuses
the beam of light onto the desired area. It is commonly used in high-end stores
but not exclusively, any kind of retail store can benefit from this type of light.
Recessed lights ae also adjustable to a certain degree, can be pulled down or
can come in the form of a panel. Depending on the light bulb of your choice,
you can have the option of a dimmable light.

Track Lighting
This type of fixture is suspended or extends down from the ceiling. It
generally represents several light heads placed on some kind of track or
bar. The trajectory of these heads is in most cases adjustable to various
angles, providing you with a versatile lighting solution. This versatility
makes it perfect for task, accent and even overhead lighting.
 Pendant lights are the ones that are suspended directly from the ceiling. They are used in
general over display tables and counters or for the general illumination. They are perfect
for tall ceilings, simply because the cables can have the required length to perfectly
illuminate your store. The main applications for this type of ceiling fixture are in general
lighting and task lighting.

Chandeliers represent a cluster of lights, set in a specific pattern, designed to

direct the light upwards, downwards or in a diffused manner. They emit a bright
warm light that can emphasize the interior design of your store, as well as enhance
the appearance of your merchandise. Chandeliers are used to provide ambient
lighting. Designs vary greatly so it will be incredibly easy for you to find some that
perfectly complement the ambiance of your business.

Lamp fixture is rarely used in retail, they can be used for task
and ambient lighting. They come in a wide variety of styles,
shapes and designs, promoting also versatility and mobility.

The main types of lamps you will find are desk, floor and table,
named so because of the surface they stand on. Most of the
lamps you find on the market shine their light downwards, but
there is one exception. The torchiere floor lamp types direct the
light upwards.
MODULE 5

EXTRA LOW VOLTAGE SYSTEMS AND LOAD ESTIMATION

9. Extra Low Voltage systems: Telephone; Data & Cable TV Networking; Service provider
requirements; Point matrix for Individual residential / Apartment.

10. Electrical Layout Design and Load Estimation: Residential Electrical Layout Design
(using symbols as per IS codes), and Electrical Load Calculations.
What are Extra-Low Voltage Systems (ELV)?
Extra-Low Voltage means the voltage of electricity supply is in a range that is low enough that it does not carry any high risk of
any high voltage electrical shock(s).

The range of voltage that can be classified as Extra-Low Voltage is alternating current not exceeding 50 V AC and direct current
not exceeding 120 V DC (ripple free). This is based on the standards as per EN 61558 or BS 7671.

Therefore, Extra-Low Voltage Systems are any electrical systems that can operate on a low voltage with the voltage criteria as
per above.

In this article, we are going to share more about different components of ELV systems.

Components of ELV Systems

Closed Circuit Television System (CCTV)
Closed circuit television, also more commonly known as CCTV, is made up of a network of cameras and recording systems that
are connected to each other. This system would be classified as a ‘closed’ system as the system operates independently, unless
it’s part of an ELV integrated system. A CCTV system is an effective way to monitor and secure any sensitive area(s).

Currently, cameras can be connected either wired or wireless to a CCTV system. CCTVs are an effective deterrence to any
threats or area(s) that require constant offsite monitoring.

The key points in installing CCTV cameras is the positioning of the camera, to ensure that the camera can monitor the required
area in its scope of view as well as the clarity of the video footage to ensure usability of the footage if necessary.
Access Control System – ACS
Access control systems are a key feature of any security system hub that can secure, monitor and manage the access of
staff in any type of building. With this system, staff can either be given access cards or using fingerprints(biometric), they
are able to be granted access to various areas of the premises.

Nowadays, these systems ‘speak’ to each other wirelessly and usually connected to the local area network to reduce hard
wiring cost and flexibility of the positioning of the system itself. At times, the access control system might be a part of a
bigger integrated ELV system which allows central control of multiple different systems.

Public Address and General Alarm System – PAGA

A public address system is a system that allows an amplification of your voice through microphones and loudspeakers. Its
purpose is to enhance the volume of human voice or any other sound for that matter.

The general alarm system allows remote control of alarms and flashing lights(beacons).

Combined, this system would serve a general use of relaying information or be used in the case of any emergency
evacuations.

LAN and Telephone System

LAN stands for local-area network and is basically an interconnected computer network that usually covers a small area.
This network of computer/devices can be connected to each other via physical wires called LAN cables or wirelessly (radio
waves). A telephone system is a group of interconnected telephones connected either via telephone lines or via LAN cables
which then communicate using ‘Voice over Internet Protocol’ or in short VoIP.
Trunk Radio System – TRS
A trunk radio system is a system whereby all available radio channels are placed in one single pool. When for example person
A requires to transmit, a channel is automatically picked from the pool and used for person A’s transmission. Once the
transmission is completed, the channel that person A was using will be placed back into the pool for others to use.

This system is highly beneficial as radio channels are limited by nature as for example, if all radio channels are taken up, we
can’t physically or manually ‘create’ new channels. By using a trunk radio system, it’s more efficient in a sense there is a
higher chance a user will get access to an available channel when required.

Fence Intrusion Detection System – FIDS

A fence intrusion detection system or FIDS for short is a security system whereby the key purpose of this system is to be able
to detect any breaches that occur on any perimeter fences. There are multiple sensors installed on different parts of the
fence so whenever an intrusion is detected in a certain fenced area, if there is a CCTV nearby, the security personnel would
be able to angle the CCTV to view the intrusion if possible. If necessary, a physical check on the fence is needed as well to
ensure the security and integrity of the perimeter.

Master Clock System – MCS

A master clock system is an interconnected system of clocks whereby slave clocks would take reference of time from a
reference clock, also known as a master clock. These slave clocks would synchronize their time with the master clock. In this
way, the time across both the master and slave clocks would be the same. The use of master clock systems can be used in a
variety of industries such as for the IT sector and military or anywhere that requires an extremely high degree of time
accuracy.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS IN ELECTRICAL LIGHTING DESIGN:

The following are some of the definitions which we come across in the design of electric lighting scheme.

1) UTILIZATION FACTOR:

Utilization Factor or Co-efficient of utilization. It may be defined as “the ratio of total lumens received on the working plane to
the total lumens emitted by the light source”.i.e.
Utilization factor =Lumens received on the working plane/Lumens emitted by the lamp

FACTOR EFFECTING UTILIZATION FACTOR:

Type of light, light fitting, Colour surface of walls and ceiling, mounting height of lamps, Area to be illuminated
Its value lies between 0.4 and 0.6 for direct fittings it varies from 0.1 to 0.35 for indirect fittings

2) DEPRECIATION OR MAINTENANCE FACTOR

It may be defined as “the ratio of illumination under normal working condition to the illumination when everything is clean or
new” i.e.
D.F = Illumination under normal working conditions / Illumination when everything is clean.

The maintenance factor is based on how often the lights are cleaned and replaced. It takes into account such factors as
decreased efficiency with age, accumulation of dust within the fitting itself and the depreciation of reflectance as walls and
ceilings age. For convenience, it is usually given as three options:
Good = 0.70 Medium = 0.65 Poor = 0.55
3) WASTE LIGHT FACTOR:
When a surface is illuminated by a number of lamps, there is certain amount of wastage due to overlapping of light waves. Its
value will be between 1.2 to 1.5

4) REFLECTION FACTOR:
It may be defined as “the ratio of luminous flux leaving the surface to the luminous flux incident on it”. It’s value will be
always less than 1

5) ABSORPTION FACTOR:
When the atmosphere is full of snow or smoke fumes, it absorbs some light. Hence absorption factor may be defined as “the
ratio of net lumens available on the working plane after absorption to the total lumens emitted by the lamp”. It’s value varies
from 0.5 to 1
6) LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY OR SPECIFIC OUT PUT
It may be defined as “the ratio of number of lumens emitted to the electric power in take of a source” it’s unit is lumen/watt
(lm/W)

7) SPACING TO MOUNTING HEIGHT RATIO (SHR)

The Spacing to Mounting Height Ratio (SHR) is the spacing between luminaires divided by their height above the horizontal
reference plane.

8) ROOM INDEX:
The room index is a ratio, describing how the room's height compares to its length and width. It is given by:

Where L is the length of the room, W is its width, and Hm is the mounting height above the work plane.
It is proposed to illuminate a class room of dimensions 6 x 8 x 2.85 m to an
illuminance (E) of 400 lx at the bench level. The specification calls for luminaires
having one 1050 mm 40 W fluorescent natural tube with an initial output of 3200
lumens with white metal base and prismatic plastic diffuser (its UF is given in Table -
2) . Determine the number of luminaires required for this installation when the MF
is 0.7, respectively. The reflection coefficients are: (C= 0.70, W= 0.3, F=0.2)
It is proposed to illuminate an electronic workshop of dimensions 9 x 8 x3 m to an illuminance of 550 lx at the bench level. The
specification calls for luminaires having one 1500 mm 65 W fluorescent natural tube with an initial output of 3700 lumens.
Determine the number of luminaires required for this installation when the UF and MF are 0.9 and 0.8, respectively.
•An office area is 20meter (Length) x 10meter (width) x 3 Meter (height). The ceiling to desk height is 2 meters. The area is to be illuminated to a
general level of 250 lux using twin lamp 32 watt CFL luminaires with a SHR of 1.25. Each lamp has an initial output (Efficiency) of 85 lumen per watt.
The lamps Maintenance Factor (MF) is 0.63 ,Utilization Factor is 0.69 and space height ratio (SHR) is 1.25
Calculate Total Wattage of Fixtures:
Calculate Axial Spacing between each Fixture:
•Total Wattage of Fixtures= No of Lamps X each Lamp’s Watt.
• Axial Spacing between Fixtures = Length of Room / Number of Fixture in
•Total Wattage of Fixtures=2×32=64Watt.
each Row
Calculate Lumen per Fixtures:
•Axial Spacing between Fixtures =20 / 5 = 4 Meter
• Lumen per Fixtures = Lumen Efficiency(Lumen per Watt) x each
Calculate Transverse Spacing between each Fixture:
Fixture’s Watt
• Transverse Spacing between Fixtures = width of Room / Number of
•Lumen per Fixtures= 85 x 64 = 5440Lumen
Fixture’s row
Calculate No’s of Fixtures:
•Transverse Spacing between Fixtures = 10 / 4 = 2.5 Meter.
• Required No of Fixtures = Required Lux x Room Area / MFxUFx
Lumen per Fixture
•Required No of Fixtures =(250x20x10) / (0.63×0.69×5440)
•Required No of Fixtures =21 No’s
Calculate Minimum Spacing Between each Fixture:
• The ceiling to desk height is 2 meters and Space height Ratio is 1.25 so
•Maximum spacing between Fixtures =2×1.25=2.25meter.
Calculate No of Row Fixture’s Row Required along with width of
Room:
• Number of Row required = width of Room / Max. Spacing= 10/2.25
•Number of Row required=4.
Calculate No of Fixture’s required in each Row:
• Number of Fixture Required in each Row = Total Fixtures / No of Row =
21/4
•Number of Fixture Required in each Row = 5 No’s