GeoScienceWorld

Lithosphere
Volume 2021, Article ID 3377705, 14 pages
https://doi.org/10.2113/2021/3377705

Review Article
A Comparison of Geological Characteristics of the Main
Continental Shale Oil in China and the U.S.

1
Mengying Li and Xinkai Chen2
1
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, Beijing 100083, China
2
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina Changqing Oilfield Company, Xi’an 710018, China

Correspondence should be addressed to Mengying Li; [email protected]

Received 4 March 2021; Accepted 27 May 2021; Published 21 September 2021

Academic Editor: Xixin Wang

Copyright © 2021 Mengying Li and Xinkai Chen. Exclusive Licensee GeoScienceWorld. Distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution License (CC BY 4.0).

Shale oil is an important strategic resource in the future. The development and utilization of shale oil is a pivotal revolution in the
field of fossil energy. The successful development in North America brings new thinking to the world. In recent years, there have
been many definitions of shale oil, but no agreement has been reached in the petroleum industry. Marine shale oil is dominant in
the United States (the U.S.), while continental shale oil is the counterpart in China. This study takes Uinta Basin, Ordos Basin, and
Junggar Basin, for example, to make a comparison of the concept and geological characteristics of shale oil in continental basins
between the U.S. and China. Different kinds of shale oil are generated due to the distinctions of sedimentary environments,
hydrocarbon supply conditions, and sandy sediment development in different regions. High-quality source rocks have been
developed in freshwater and salty water environments of continental lacustrine basins. The lithologies of the Uteland Butte
Member, Chang 7 Member, and Lucaogou Formation are lacustrine carbonate rocks, clastic rocks, and mixed sedimentary
rocks, respectively. Results indicate that the lower pressure can be identified in continental basins in China. Furthermore, the
comparison shows that the Chang 7 Member characterizes lighter crude oil and larger scale of “sweet spot” and the Lucaogou
Formation developed a thicker target layer, while the Chang 7 Member is at a disadvantage of insufficient stratum energy and
the Lucaogou Formation is difficult in heavier crude oil and higher oil viscosity.

1. Introduction EIA, the production of shale oil in the U.S. reached 2827
million barrels in 2019, accounting for more than 60% of
The development and utilization of shale oil is a pivotal rev- the total crude oil production, which is the dominant
olution in the field of fossil energy. The resources of shale oil, resource of oil production [8, 9]. Moreover, the total proved
a hotspot in the exploration of continuous (unconventional) reserves in the U.S. shale plays have reached 23.24 billion
oil and gas, are abundant with more than 100 petroliferous barrels, while continental shale oil occupied less than 2% [9].
basins all over the world [1]. In 2013, the U.S. Energy Infor- Compared with the U.S., shale oil reservoirs in China are
mation Administration (EIA) estimated a total of 345 billion mainly composed of organic-rich shale in continental lacus-
barrels of oil technically recoverable in shale play worldwide trine basins, and the theory of continental oil generation is a
[2]. EIA and Advanced Resources International (ARI) iden- petroleum geological theory with Chinese characteristics,
tified a total risked shale oil in-place of 6753 billion barrels in playing a key guiding role in the development of the petro-
the 2013 report [3]. With 21% of the world’s shale oil leum industry. There are abundant reserves of continental
resources, the U.S. has become a shale oil power, leading shale oil that were mainly developed in continental basins
the development of shale oil [4, 5]. Since the 21st century, such as Junggar, Ordos, Songliao, and Bohai Bay. These con-
the U.S. has been vigorous in the exploitation of marine shale tinental shale oils are mainly distributed in five strata, includ-
oil, achieving the production of 1298 million barrels of oil in ing Paleogene, Cretaceous, Jurassic, Triassic, and Permian
shale play in 2015, accounting for 45% of the year’s crude oil [10]. EIA estimated a total of 32.2 billion barrels of techni-
production [6, 7]. According to the latest data released by cally recoverable shale oil in China [1], while the U.S.

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 2 Lithosphere

Geological Survey (USGS) published that the technical recov- the maximum cumulative thickness accounts for less than
erable continuous resources in Shahejie Formation of Bohai 30% of the total thickness of shale sequences. More impor-
Bay Basin, Qingshankou Formation and Nenjiang Formation tantly, there is no natural production capacity or below the
of Songliao Basin, and Ordovician of Tarim Basin are 2.0 bil- minimum limit of industrial oil production in shale play. It
lion barrels, 3.3 billion barrels, and 1.4 billion barrels in shale is a prerequisite to adopt special technological measures to
plays, respectively [11–13]. In 2019, the largest shale oil field obtain well production. Moreover, Zou et al. referred to a
in China was discovered in the source rock sequence of kind of oil resource that is in situ contained in shale reser-
Chang 7 Member in Ordos Basin, adding 2.58 billion barrels voirs without obvious trap limitation and natural industrial
of oil to the proved reserves and 4.99 billion barrels of oil to production capacity [30].
the predicted reserves [13]. In the same year, there was an At present, the most accepted definitions can be divided
unprecedented national demonstration zone of continental into narrow sense and broad sense. The understanding of
shale oil named Jimsar that was planned to reach the produc- the concept of shale oil by oil experts and scholars mainly
tion of 7.2 million barrels of shale oil by 2021, and this num- focuses on the narrow aspect, but there are still great differ-
ber will be doubled in the next four years. ences (see Table 1).
The enrichment of shale oil resources is influenced by The accumulation of inside-source continental petro-
many factors. Wood and Breyer et al. pointed out that the leum is the liquid hydrocarbon-rich accumulation retained
tectonic background has an important effect on the scale of or captured in situ in the source rocks of continental
shale oil enrichment [14, 15]. In addition, the geological organic-rich shale sequences. Continental shale oil can be
characteristics of source rocks, reservoirs, and seals also play divided into two types in terms of maturity: medium-high
an important role. Based on the different occurrence media maturity and medium-low maturity (see Figure 1). The
as well as the relationship between source rocks and reser- maturity of organic matter is one of the decisive factors for
voirs, shale oil has been classified into three types (matrix the formation of continental resources in shale play [10].
type, fracture type, and mixed type), according to Jarvie Middle-high maturity shale oil with vitrinite reflectance
and Sonnenberg and Mechkel [16, 17]. The scale of “sweet (Ro ) ranging from 1.0% to 1.5% is of high thermal evolution.
spot” controls commercial development and shale oil pro- In addition, there are abundant liquid hydrocarbon
duction [9]. resources that can be developed. However, according to pre-
Currently, the related technologies of shale oil develop- liminary estimates in China, middle-low maturity shale oil
ment include super long horizontal well, “a trip” well, with Ro from 0.5% to 1.0% is much more technically recov-
three-dimensional well pattern, fine cutting, and repetition erable than that of shale oil with medium-high maturity. The
of hydraulic fracturing technology in the U.S. [18, 19]. In development potential of medium-low maturity shale oil has
China, it is more inclined to use vertical well with conven- attracted widespread attention of oil companies, including
tional fracturing or volume fracturing, horizontal well with Shell, Exxon Mobil, and Total Oil Companies, which are car-
staged fracturing or volume fracturing, and in situ conver- rying out in situ conversion technology research and field
sion technology [20, 21]. The horizontal well with volume pilot tests.
fracturing and independent fracturing with joint production
in multilayer is the main technology for medium-high matu- 3. Results and Discussion
rity shale oil [22–26], while in situ conversion technology is
an important technology for medium-low maturity shale Compared with marine shale oil in the U.S., the formation
oil. In 2020, Liu et al. innovatively proposed the layered and distribution of continental shale oil in China are charac-
three-dimensional development mode of shale oil [27]. terized by a more complex geological background and tec-
In this review, we briefly retrospect the history of some tonic sedimentary environment with diverse basin types,
differences between the U.S. and China in shale oil. In rapid change of lacustrine sedimentary system, and multi-
Section 2, we first check the various definitions of “shale stage adjustment and transformation. However, comparisons
oil.” In Section 3, we discuss the geological characteristics of continental shale oil have rarely been made before. This
of the three basins as well as explain the differences, includ- part compares the geological characteristics and sweet spot
ing the evaluation criteria of “sweet spot.” evaluation criteria of continental shale oil in the U.S. and
China. The statistical table of geological characteristics of
2. Definition of Shale Oil the basin is as follows (see Table 2).

Recently, many scholars gave the definition of shale oil, but it 4. Geological Background
is far from reaching a consensus. EIA defines shale oil (tight
oil) as an industry convention that generally refers to oil The Uinta Basin with an area of 25,000 km2 locates in eastern
produced from very-low-permeability shale, sandstone, and Utah and western Colorado, which contains fluvial and
carbonate formations [28]. According to the Draft Standard lacustrine deposits of Eocene Lake Uinta bounded by Lara-
for Geological Evaluation of Shale Oil issued by the Stan- mide uplifts and the Sevier fold and thrust belt. Thin-layer
dardization Administration in 2019, shale oil refers to the dolomite in the Uteland Butte Member (single layer thick-
oil produced from organic-rich shale sequences with the lim- ness is 0.5~3 m) receiving much attention as a horizontal tar-
itation of maximum thickness within 5 meters in siltstone, get is the first successfully developed reservoir of continental
fine sandstone, or carbonate formations [29]. In addition, shale oil in North America [38–41].

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 Lithosphere 3

Table 1: Definition of shale oil [10, 28–37].

Definition
EIA Shale oil (tight oil) is produced from very-low-permeability shale, sandstone, and carbonate formations.
The distinction between shale oil and tight oil is avoided by using “unconventional resource in continuous-type
USGS accumulation.” It was defined to include those oil and gas resources that exist as geographically extensive
accumulations in coal sandstones and shales outside of the discrete well defined conventional trap. The U.S.
Tight oil is found at unmineable depths in sedimentary rock formations that are characterized by very low
NPC permeability. While some of the tight oil plays produce oil directly from shales, tight oil resources are also produced
from low-permeability siltstones, sandstones, and carbonates in close association with a shale source rock.
Shale oil is a kind of oil and gas resource that is in situ contained in shale reservoirs without obvious trap limitation
Zou et al. and natural industrial production capacity. It includes the petroleum resources in the pores and fractures of shale as
well as interlayers in the tight clastic rocks or carbonates.
Shale oil is extracted from the oil-rich shale sequences (a large set of dark mud shales, high carbon shales, silt shales,
Chen et al. and thin interlayer of sandstones). It is a continuous petroleum accumulation with ultralow porosity and ultralow
permeability, mostly occurring in pore and fracture free or adsorbed.
Shale oil is liquid hydrocarbon formed in the effective source rocks with free phase (condense oil) and adsorbed and
Zhang et al.
dissolved phase (dissolved in gas, kerogen, and residual water). Similar to shale gas. China
Presenting in the pores and fractures of shales, carbonates, and sandstones within shale sequences, shale oil is
Wu et al. adsorbed or free and can be exploited on an economic scale only through unconventional technological measures
such as horizontal well fracturing technology.
Shale oil refers to the self-generated and self-stored continuous petroleum, adsorbed or free accumulation in the
Dong et al. dark shales and mudstones as well as the interbed thin argillaceous siltstones and sandstones. The shale sequences
are rich in organic matter with very low permeability.
Zhou et al. The petroleum resources come from the mud-shale sequences which are not only source rocks but also reservoirs.

The ratio of generation/expulsion/retention of oil (%)

Type of oil
and gas RO (%) 0 20 40 60 80 100
0.5
Medium-low maturity Medium-high maturity

Untransformed of organic matter (%)

Shale
oil The generation of natural gas

1.0

1.3
Shale The generation of liquid hydrocarbon
oil
and The expulsion of oil (%)
gas
1.5

The expulsion of oil

The retention of oil
Untransformed of organic matter

Figure 1: Hydrocarbon generation, expulsion, and retention model of continental shale oil in China (modified from [10]).

The Uteland Butte Member, belonging to the lower part dolomites sandwiched between D shale and C shale [44, 45].
of the Green River Formation, was deposited in a major Its burial depth ranges from 1000 m to 3000 m, and the thick-
transgressive phase of the early freshwater stage of Eocene ness ranges from 15 m to 130 m (see Figure 2).
Lake Uinta before the main brackish-to-saline lacustrine Using a geology-based assessment, USGS estimated the
interval [42, 43]. The Uteland Butte, also called the Basal mean undiscovered resources of 214 million barrels of oil,
Carbonate of the Green River Formation, is rich with abun- 329 billion cubic feet of associated/dissolved natural gas,
dant bivalves, gastropods, and ostracods that developed three and 14 million barrels of natural gas liquids in the Uteland

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 4 Lithosphere

Table 2: The comparison of geological characteristics in Uteland Butte Member, Chang 7 Member, and Lucaogou Formation.

Basin Uinta Basin Ordos Basin Junggar Basin

Member Uteland Butte Member Chang 7 Member Lucaogou Formation
Salinity Freshwater Freshwater Saline
Facies Lacustrine Semideep and deep lacustrine Deep and semideep lacustrine
Lithologies Carbonate Clastic rock Hybrid sedimentary
Depth (m) 1000~3000 1200~2600 1500~4500
TOC (%) 2~5 2~20 2~16
Ro (%) 0.55~1.1 0.7~1.2 0.6~1.1
Kerogen Type I domain Type I-II1 Type I-II1
Porosity (%) 3~20 9~15 6~14
Permeability (mD) 0.004~0.337 0.001~1.0 <1.0
Density (g/cm3) 0.82~0.88 0.80~0.86 0.88~0.92
Viscosity (mPa·s) 1~4 1.55 average 45.6~434.9
Oil saturation (%) 60~70 60~80 80~90
Brittle mineral content (%) 75 average 75~90 70~95
Poisson’s ratio 0.15~0.35 0.20~0.30 0.20~0.30
Pressure coefficient 1.0~1.8 0.7~0.8 1.1~1.3

Depth
GR Porosity (%)
(m)
0 150 Depth GR 0 25
Lithology
(m) Permeability (mD)
0 150 1E–4 1
2125
C shale

2130

2135
Uteland Butter Member
Green River Formation

2135

PZ1 Dolomite 1

2140
Dolomite 2

2145 2140 PZ1'

Dolomite 3

2150
PZ2

D shale

(a) (b)

Argillaceous dolomite

Argillaceous limestone

Calcareous shale

Figure 2: Stratigraphic and lithology of the Uteland Butte Member (modified from [44]): (a) GR curve of Uteland Butte Member (well
UT15-30); (b) histogram of the middle Uteland Butte Member.

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 Lithosphere 5

Depth
GR/API Lithology
(m)

Classification and characteristics

Chang 6
of shale oil in Chang 7 Member,
Ordos Basin

1980
Source-reservoir differentiation
(type I)
Chang 71

Sandstone ratio: >20%

2000 Single sand body thickness: <5 m

Source-reservoir differentiation
(type I)
Chang 72

2020 Sandstone ratio: >20%

Single sand body thickness: <5 m

Pure shale
(type III)
2040 Sandstone ratio: <10%
Single sand body thickness: <2 m
Chang 73

Source reservoir integration

(type II)
2060 Sandstone ratio: 10%~20%
Single sand body thickness: 2~4 m
Chang 8

Black shale Silt-fine sandstone

Dark mudstone Middle-fine sandstone

Figure 3: Lithology and categories of shale oil in Chang 7 Member.

Butte Member of the Green River Formation, Uinta Basin tively [51, 52]. According to lithologic combination, sand
[46]. The technically recoverable shale oil resources in the concentration, and the thickness of sandstones, the shale oil
Uteland Butte Member are 177 million barrels [46]. in the Chang 7 Member could be divided into three catego-
Ordos Basin is a large multicycle craton basin located in ries (see Figure 3) [53].
northwest China. The Mesozoic shale oil in the Ordos Basin The Chang 7 Member with interbedded black shales and
refers to the oil accumulation with medium-low maturity in dark mudstones in Ordos Basin was deposited in freshwater
the tight sandstone and shale reservoirs of the Chang 7 Mem- environment, which is the same as the Uteland Butte Mem-
ber in the Yanchang Formation without long-distance migra- ber. The stratified enrichment of organic matter was influ-
tion [47]. The sedimentary period of Chang 7 Member was enced by deep volcanic activity, hydrothermal process, low
the largest flood period of the lake basin. During that time, sedimentation rate, and low terrigenous clastic compensation
rapid tectonic subsidence occurred. The shoreline of the lake rate. Appropriate volcanic activities provide rich nutrient ele-
expanded outward immediately, and a large oil shale ments to the eutrophic water funding the biological growth
sequence with wide distribution, large thickness, and stable in the lacustrine basin. Hydrothermal deposits, such as sili-
oil content was deposited. The Chang 7 Member of the ceous rocks, phosphorus and manganese ore, and carbonate
Upper Triassic is rich in shale oil with interbedded extensive nodules, presenting in the lacustrine basin of Ordos Basin,
source rocks and widespread fine-grained sandstones. A contribute to the flourishing of organisms and perform an
sequence of organic-rich shales and fine-grained sandstones obvious fertilization effect. The low sedimentation rate and
with delta gravity flow is developed [48–50]. The Chang 7 terrigenous clastic compensation rate reduce the dilution of
Member and deposition of semideep and deep lacustrine organic matter, anoxic or quiet reduction environment that
can cover areas of 10 × 104 km2 and 6:5 × 104 km2, respec- is conducive to the preservation of organic matter, and the

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 6 Lithosphere

Jimusar Sag, locating in Shaqiuhe-Qitai uplift of eastern

Depth (m) GR/API Lithology
Junggar Basin, is in a dustpan-like shape that faulted in the
south part and overlapped in the north part which was
deposited on the Middle Carboniferous fold basement [57].
The Permian Lucaogou Formation in Jimsar Sag was deposited
in semideep and deep lacustrine together with high-quality
source rocks [58]. As one of the oldest continental liquid
hydrocarbon shale reservoirs in China, it is an eye-catching
target for shale oil exploration.
3150 The Lucaogou Formation is formed in the sedimentary
environment of saline lacustrine basin depositing a set of
mudstones, siltstones, carbonates, and other hybrid sedi-
mentary under the comprehensive action of mechanical,
chemical, and biological deposition (see Figure 4) [59]. As
an oil-rich play with wide distribution, great thickness, high
abundance, and extensive potential, the Lucaogou Formation
3200 covers the optimal exploration areas of nearly 1000 km2.
The upper, middle, and lower shale sequences of Lucaogou
Lucaogou Formation

Formation are the most important source rocks of Jimusar

Sag and also the reservoirs of crude oil [60]. The source
rocks are mainly divided into five types: shale, mudstone,
dolomitic shale, dolomitic mudstone, and silty mudstone.
The accumulation of organic matter in Lucaogou Forma-
tion was due to not only the early volcanic activities which
3250
provided nutrients but also the flocculation facilitation of
salt water.
Key assessment parameters of shale oil and nuclear mag-
netic resonance analyses by the small patch method were
used to preliminarily calculate the resources. Shale oil in
Jimusar Sag has great potential with a total shale oil in-
place of 18.3 billion barrels, (theoretically) recoverable
3300 resources of 2.99 billion barrels, and technically recoverable
of 0.29 billion barrels in shale play [61]. Using a volumetric
method, Zhi et al. identified a total of 0.79 billion barrels of
shale oil that are technically recoverable under the recovery
ratio of about 3% of Lucaogou Formation, Jimusar Sag [60].

4.1. Source Rocks. The Uteland Butte Member contains type I

3350 kerogen and a small amount of type II along with high hydro-
carbon content. Under the influence of organic matter pro-
ductivity and preservation conditions, total organic carbon
Shale Dolomite (TOC) mainly ranges from 2% to 5%, and under the influ-
Dolomitic mudstone Limestone ence of the severe subsidence after the deposition, Ro varies
Calcareous mudstone Siltstone from 0.55% to 1.1% (see Table 2). From two well cores, oil
Argillaceous siltstone saturation index values in both are high, from nearly
100 mg-HC/g-TOC to more than 200 mg-HC/g-TOC. T max
Figure 4: Stratigraphic and lithology of the Lucaogou Member values are highly variable and range between 430 and
(modified from [60]). 457°C, reflecting excellent oil producibility. It is within the
oil generation window (see Figure 5).
extensive developed black shales and dark mudstones laid the The depth of Chang 7 Member is relatively shallow, rang-
foundation for abundant shale oil [54, 55]. The Chang 7 Mem- ing from 1200 to 2600 m, and the thickness of mud shale is
ber can be divided into three submembers: Chang 73, Chang large, ranging from 30 to 60 m. Black shales are mainly devel-
72, and Chang 71. The Chang 73 Submember is deposited in oped at the base of Chang 7 Member. The organic matter is
the period of high lake, mainly containing a sequence of dominated by type I-II1 kerogen, and the macerals are dom-
organic-rich shales with thin sandstones. Fu et al. estimated inated by amorphous sapropelinite and exinite. TOC varies
geological resources of 28.8 to 43.2 billion barrels in the first from 2% to 20% together with a similar Ro with the Uteland
type and prospective resources of 21.6 to 28.8 billion barrels Butte Member that varies from 0.7% to 1.2%. T max values are
in the second type in shale play [56]. It sheds light on a much less variable and range between 450 and 475°C (see Figure 6).
more preponderance than the Uteland Butte Member. The hydrocarbon index (S1/TOC) in the nonsource rocks is

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 Lithosphere 7

14-1-46 BTR
Total organic carbon Hydrogen index Oil saturation index Extractable organic matter
XDR (%)
(%) (mg-HC/g-TOC) (mg-HC/g-TOC) (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 0 1 2 3

2030
Depth (m)

2035
PZ1

2040

PZ2

14-3-45 BTR
Total organic carbon Hydrogen index Oil saturation index Rock-Eval Tmax
XDR (%) (%) (mg-HC/g-TOC) (mg-HC/g-TOC) (°C)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 425 450 475 500

2235
Depth (m)

2240

PZ1
2245

Quartz Dolomite
Feldspar Pyrite
Calcite Total clay

Figure 5: Uteland Butte Member core geochemical logs (modified from [39]).

always higher than 100 mg-HC/g-TOC, and the highest 2% to 16% and Ro varying from 0.6% to 1.1%, which indi-
reaches nearly 500 mg-HC/g-TOC, while in the source rock cates the early stages of peak oil production.
series, it is always lower than 100 mg-HC/g-TOC. This result
indicates that the oil-bearing property of the Chang 7 Mem- 4.2. Reservoir Characteristics. Compared with conventional
ber is well developed. reservoirs, the criteria for shale oil reservoirs are more com-
Affected by the low energy of deep water, the distribution plex, and the distribution and hydrocarbon generation
of shale in the whole area of Lucaogou Formation is relatively capacity of source rocks are more rigorous. According to
stable, with depth ranging from 1500 to 4500 m, which is the dominant organic and lithologic characteristics, the shale
much deeper than the other two. Lucaogou Formation con- oil resource system is classified into three types: (1) organic-
tains type I-II1 kerogen along with the TOC varying from rich mudstones with predominantly healed fractures, if any;

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 8 Lithosphere

H317
Total organic carbon S1 Hydrogen index S1/TOC
(%) (mg-HC/g-rock) Tmax (°C) (mg-HC/g-TOC) (mg-HC/g-TOC)
0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6 8 400 425 450 475 500 0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600

2030

2035
Depth (m)

2035

2035

2040

Figure 6: Pyrolysis geochemical profile of H317 well (modified from [62]).

(2) organic-rich mudstone with open fractures; and (3) vals and porous dolomite provides a favourable condition
hybrid systems with a combination of juxtaposed organic- for horizontal well drilling [67, 68].
rich and organic-lean intervals [63]. Principle parameters The fine-grained deposits of Chang 7 Member in Ordos
of shale reservoir physical properties are porosity that controls Basin are composed of five lithologies: fine sandstone, silt-
oil storage potential, permeability that affects oil productiv- stone, black shale, dark mudstone, and tuff, with shale as
ity, pore throat diameter that determines the shale matrix the major part, interbedded with many thin layers of fine silt-
porosity, microfracture development, and shale reservoir stone [53]. The Chang 7 Member has a porosity of 9%~15%
fracturing ability [64]. There are terrigenous clastic and and a permeability of 0.01~1.0 mD, which is a well-developed
hybrid sedimentary reservoirs that are widely developed in primary and secondary pore. Intergranular pores, dissolution
continental shale sequences in China. Intergranular pores, pores, and clay mineral intercrystalline pores are predomi-
intercrystalline pores, organic pores, dissolution pores, nant in the Chang 7 intrasource reservoir, and the pore is
microfractures, and bedding fractures are the most important generally at the scale of micrometer to nanometer [51]. Shale
reservoir spaces here. laminae, sandy laminae, and microscopic laminae are com-
The Uteland Butte interval consists of limestone, dolos- mon in the Chang 7 Member, in which laminae pores and
tone, calcareous mudstone, siltstone, and conversely rare shale pores form a complex pore system with high heteroge-
sandstone. It is distinctive in its abundance of carbonate neity, effectively improving the physical properties of reser-
and lack of sandstone, which may have been caused by the voirs [69]. It is high in content of brittle minerals leading
rapid lake-level rise that makes siliciclastic sediments to by quartz and feldspar (see Figure 7), including quartz of
deposit in proximal alluvial channels [65]. Of particular 17%~80%, plagioclase and potassium feldspar of 9%~43%,
interest for horizontal drilling are three beds with up to and generally the total clays of 40%~50%.
100% dolomite in Uteland Butte Member that may result With typical characteristics of self-generation and self-
from the increase of evaporation and the decrease of freshwa- storage, Lucaogou Formation is a set of mud-shale intervals
ter input as well as periodic warming. The dolomitic lime- comprised of overlapped source rocks and reservoirs. Simi-
stone is comprised of 10% quartz, 25% calcite, 63% larly, the crude oil migrated for an extremely short distance
dolomite, and 2% total clay in BBC’s acreage, indicating a from source rocks to the well physical property reservoirs,
high brittleness. Carbonate minerals are high in the range arenaceous dolomite, and dolomitic siltstone, for instance.
of 33% to 96%, and clay minerals generally less than 20% Principle minerals of reservoirs are dolomite, quartz, and
are mainly kaolinite, montmorillonite, and chlorite. Adjacent plagioclase, while clay minerals are not common. From the
to the dolomite are highly fractured limestones [66]. The res- XRD result of Wang et al., the contents of quartz, feldspar,
ervoir space of Uteland Butte Member is characterized by dolomite, pyrite, and clay minerals are 20.9%, 25.4%,
good physical properties, mainly intergranular pores, inter- 26.2%, 0.9%, and 13.3%, respectively (see Figure 8) [70].
crystalline pores, and organic pores, with porosity ranging The porosity ranges from 6% to 14%, and the overlying
from 3% to 20% and permeability ranging from 0.004 to pressure permeability is less than 1.0 mD. In addition to
0.337 mD (see Table 2). The span of porosity here is much millimeter and micron pores, a large number of nanopores
wider than others. The existence of brittle calcareous inter- are also developed.

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 Lithosphere 9

Smectite Smectite
Smectite
1% Chlorite Chlorite 3% Chlorite
Kaolinite 2%
1.4% 8% Kaolinite 5%
3% Kaolinite
3% 3%

Illite Quartz Quartz

20% Quartz 34% 30%
41% Illite Illite
22% 31%

Feldspar Feldspar Feldspar

32% 31% 28%

Fine sandstone Siltstone Shale

Quartz Kaolinite
Feldspar Smectite
Illite Chlorite

Figure 7: Average content of terrigenous clastic minerals in three main lithologies of Chang 7 Member (modified from [63]).

4.3. Liquid Characteristics. The enrichment areas of shale oil ment in the U.S. are primarily due to the improved under-
tend to be in mature organic-rich shale formations that have standing of geology and, crucially, the finding of sweet spots.
produced oil on a large scale, generally with a characteristic “Sweet spot” indicates the favourable reservoir with
of high-producing energy, low oil density, and high gas-oil richer oil, better property, easier transformation, and com-
ratio, which are easy for oil to flow and to be exploited. mercial development value in the whole oil-bearing conti-
Shale oil in the Uteland Butte Member of Uinta Basin has a nental source sequences. In other words, the target of shale
high oil saturation, which varies from 60% to 70%, with crude oil enrichments and high-yield areas can be first explored
oil density of 0.82~0.88 g/cm3 and viscosity of 1~4 mPa·s and developed under the current economic and technical
(see Table 2). Through horizontal well, hydraulic fracturing, conditions, including geological sweet spots, engineering
and acid treatment, commercial development has been real- sweet spots, and economic sweet spots. In profile, it is named
ized in the central and northern depression of the basin. “sweet interval” and the “sweet spot” in lateral.
Shale oil of the Chang 7 Member has a high oil saturation “Sweet interval” is the source rock system where oil and
(60%~80%), low oil density (0.80~0.86 g/cm3), low pressure gas are relatively enriched or have relatively large potential.
(pressure coefficient between 0.70 and 0.80), and mean vis- It has good oil content, superior reservoir conditions, and
cosity of 1.55 mPa·s (see Table 2). The proportion of illite/s- strong reformability. The preference of “sweet interval” is
mectite and montmorillonite in shale is high, and the based on core, logging, and test data to identify the endoge-
fracture effect of reservoir reconstruction is poor. With opti- nous hydrocarbon quality, reservoir quality, engineering
mal conditions for large-scale exploration and development, mechanical quality, and oil content.
Chang 7 Member is the most potential and representative Based on the geological conditions and sedimentary
area for underground in situ conversion technology of shale characteristics of continental reservoir series, “sweet inter-
oil in China [10], and it is also an important replacement field val” is divided into three types: interlayer, hybrid sediment,
for sustained and stable oil production of Changqing. and shale, according to Jiao et al. [72]. The shale sequences
The shale oil of Lucaogou Formation has a high oil satura- of Uteland Butte Member, Chang 7 Member, and Lucaogou
tion of 80%~90% and a crude oil density of 0.88~0.92 g/cm3. Formation feature overall oil and coexist sources and reser-
For the high content of isoparaffin, naphthene, colloids, and voirs. The dolomite of Uteland Butte Member interbeds
asphaltenes, the crude oil of Lucaogou Formation is generally with organic-rich limestones and shales, capturing shale
sticky [71]. The Lucaogou Formation is dominated by normal oil, pertaining to the dolomitic “sweet interval” of hybrid
pressure and weak overpressure, with pressure coefficient sediment (see Figure 9). The reservoir of shale sequences
ranging from 1.10 to 1.30. The economy is the hinge to in Chang 7 Member is mainly sandstone, mudstone, and
determine whether shale oil can be put into large-scale shale. The favourable thin-layer sandstone reservoirs cap-
development in Jimusar Sag. ture shale oil near the source to “sweet interval,” developing
sandstone “sweet interval” of the interlayer. Shale oil of
4.4. Evaluation of “Sweet Spot.” Source rock and seal are the Lucaogou Formation in Jimusar Sag migrated from source
key factors to control the scale of shale oil resources, but the rocks in a very short distance to arenaceous dolomite and
development and scale of “sweet spot” are the key factors to dolomitic siltstone reservoirs with good physical properties,
control the commercial development and production of which belongs to arenaceous dolomite “sweet interval” of
shale oil. The success and cost reduction of shale oil develop- hybrid sediment.

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 10 Lithosphere

Mineral content (%)

0 20 40 60 80 100
3266.15
3269.93
3274.10
3275.25
3275.75
3278.11
3279.75
3282.24
3284.59
3285.24
3287.07
3288.01
Potassium feldspar 3290.40

Depth (m)
3.6% 3293.51
3295.98
3297.35
3299.25
Plagioclase Quartz 3300.60
21.8% 20.9% 3302.69
Others 3303.43
1.4%
3304.98
Calcite
3306.83
11.9%
3307.97
Total clay
13.3% Pyrite 3309.92
Dolomite 0.9% 3311.99
24.5% 3317.85
3318.59
3320.43
Ankerite
1.7%
(a) (b)
Quartz Plagioclase
Calcite Dolomite
Ankerite Total clay
Potassium feldspar Others
Pyrite

Figure 8: The content of minerals of Lucaogou Formation in Jimusar Sag (modified from [70]).

Uinta Basin Ordos Basin Junggar Basin

Hybrid sediment Interlayer Hybrid sediment

Depth (m) Lithology Depth (m) Lithology Depth (m) Lithology

2010

2139 3150
2020

3170
2140 2030

Argillaceous limestone Silt-fine sandstone Dolomite Limestone

Argillaceous Dolomitic
Argillaceous dolomite Black shale mudstone
siltstone
Calcareous shale The migration direction of
oil and gas

Figure 9: Type of “sweet interval” in Uteland Butte Member, Chang 7 Member, and Lucaogou Formation.

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 Lithosphere 11

The “sweet spot” is developed in source reservoir symbi- there are similarities and differences between continental
otic shale sequences that can be transformed into the high- shale oil basins in the U.S. and China.
yield and rich zone by artificial reconstruction within the Two types of high-quality source rocks in freshwater and
range of favourable source rocks. There are many parameters salty water environment have been developed in continental
for the evaluation of “sweet spot,” particularly organic matter lacustrine basins. It is considered that high productivity of
abundance, organic matter maturity, oil saturation, pressure lake, preservation conditions in anoxic environment, and
coefficient, gas-oil ratio, and brittleness index. The first two low terrigenous detrital compensation rate are the key factors
control the extent of the favourable area, while others deter- for organic matter enrichment in freshwater environment. In
mine the feasibility of shale oil production under the existing addition, early volcanic activities, flocculation facilitation of
economic and technical conditions. Based on the geological salty water, and low energy positively contribute to the scale
characteristics of unconventional petroleum in China, Zou of shale oil accumulation in salty water environment.
et al. published that the evaluation should be focused on The lithologies of the Uteland Butte Member, Chang 7
source rock characteristics, lithology, physical property, brit- Member, and Lucaogou Formation are lacustrine carbonate
tleness, oil-gas possibility, and stress anisotropy [73]. Hu rocks, clastic rocks, and mixed sedimentary rocks, respec-
et al. stated that the “sweet spot” was mainly controlled by tively. The keys to the Uteland Butte horizontal play are
factors such as the thickness of organic-rich shale, thermal thickness of the target dolomites and geopressure, while the
evolution degree, and natural fractures [74, 75]. development is restricted by the limited “sweet spot” and
In 2015, the USGS defined the Uteland Butte Carbonate “sweet interval.” Results indicate that the lower pressure
Continuous Oil Assessment Unit on the basis of combining can be identified in continental basins in China. Further-
the primary parameters of overpressure with total thickness more, the comparison shows that the Chang 7 Member char-
of Uteland Butte Member, dolomite, organic matter abun- acterizes lighter crude oil and larger scale of “sweet spot” and
dance, and thermal maturity; the estimated average esti- the Lucaogou Formation developed a thicker target layer,
mated ultimate recoveries (EUR) in the “sweet spot” are while the Chang 7 Member is at a disadvantage of insufficient
0.088 million barrels of oil, far higher than “nonsweet spot” stratum energy and the Lucaogou Formation is difficult in
of 0.046 million barrels of oil [46]. heavier crude oil and higher oil viscosity.
On lateral, the “sweet spot” of Chang 7 Member in Ordos The exploration of shale oil in China should not only
Basin reaches 8000~10000 km2, more than eight times the focus on the tight clastic rocks and carbonates associated
Uteland Butte Member. Cui et al. proposed to optimize the with organic-rich source rocks but also attach great impor-
favourable play and lithology of Chang 7 Member in Ordos tance to the exploration of organic-rich brittle shale
Basin according to three key parameters: geological index sequences and select the target interval for horizontal dril-
(maturity), economic index (oil content), and engineering ling. Moreover, it is important to find a new “sweet spot,”
index (mineral composition). It is determined that the “sweet expand the scale of the confirmed “sweet spot,” strengthen
spot” should be limited by the optimal exploration depth of basic theoretical research, and explore suitable stimulation
2000~2600 m, the maturity of 0.7%~1.1%, the organic matter technology.
abundance of no more than 6%, and the clay mineral of less
than 50% [76]. Conflicts of Interest
Guided by the geological requirement of “sweet spot” in
Lucaogou Formation, a set of multiparameter prediction The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
technology covering geology, logging, geophysical explora-
tion, and engineering of “sweet spot” has been carried out
to put “sweet spot” into three types [77]. The classification Acknowledgments
of “sweet spot” in Lucaogou Formation is on the strength of This work is supported by the Major Science and Technology
reservoir parameters (porosity, air permeability, and thick- Project of China National Petroleum Corporation (Grant
ness), source rock parameters (organic matter abundance, No. 2019E-2601).
kerogen, and maturity), brittleness parameters (Poisson’s
ratio and Young’s modulus), and geostress characteristic
parameters (multiples of two horizontal principal stresses). References
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River Formation, Uinta Basin, Utah, AAPG Rocky Mountain

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