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 Cambridge IGCSE™

Chemistry
Fourth Edition

Bryan Earl
Doug Wilford

9781398310506.indb 1 24/02/21 10:02 PM

Cambridge International copyright material in this publication is reproduced under licence and remains
the intellectual property of Cambridge Assessment International Education.
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ISBN: 978 1 3983 1050 6
© Bryan Earl and Doug Wilford 2021
First edition published in 2002,
Second edition published in 2009,
Third edition published in 2014,
This edition published in 2021 by
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Typeset in ITC Officina Sans Std Book 11.5/13 by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India
Printed in Slovenia
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
Contents
Acknowledgementsvi
How to use this book ix
Scientific enquiry x

1 States of matter 1
1.1 Solids, liquids and gases 1
1.2 The kinetic particle theory of matter 2
1.3 Changes of state 4
1.4 The effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas 6
1.5 Diffusion 7

2 Atoms, elements and compounds 10

2.1 Elements10
2.2 Compounds 14
2.3 Mixtures 18
2.4 Inside atoms 20

3 Bonding and structure 30

3.1 Ionic bonding 30
3.2 Covalent bonding 38
3.3 Metallic bonding 50

4 Stoichiometry – chemical calculations 54

4.1 Relative atomic mass 54
4.2 Calculating moles 55
4.3 Moles and compounds 57
4.4 Calculating formulae 60
4.5 Moles and chemical equations 62

5 Electrochemistry 69
5.1 Electricity and chemistry 69
5.2 Electrolysis of lead(II) bromide (Teacher demonstration) 70
5.3 Electrolysis of aluminium oxide 72
5.4 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions 75
5.5 Electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate aqueous solution 78
5.6 Fuel cells 81
5.7 Electroplating 82

6 Chemical energetics 87
6.1 Substances from petroleum 87
6.2 Fossil fuels 90
6.3 What is a fuel? 90
6.4 Alternative sources to fossil fuels 91
6.5 Exothermic and endothermic reactions 91

iii
 7 Chemical reactions 100
7.1 Reactions 100
7.2 Factors that affect the rate of a reaction 101
7.3 Enzymes 107
7.4 Reversible reactions and equilibrium 108
7.5 Ammonia – an important nitrogen-containing chemical 109
7.6 Industrial manufacture of sulfuric acid – the Contact process 111

8 Acids, bases and salts 116

8.1 Acids and alkalis 116
8.2 Formation of salts 120
8.3 Methods of preparing soluble salts 121
8.4 Preparing insoluble salts 124
8.5 Testing for different salts 124
8.6 Water of crystallisation 126

9 The Periodic Table 134

9.1 Development of the Periodic Table 134
9.2 Electronic configuration and the Periodic Table 137
9.3 Group I – the alkali metals 137
9.4 Group VII – the halogens 141
9.5 Group VIII – the noble gases 145
9.6 Transition elements 145
9.7 The position of hydrogen 147

10Metals 150
10.1 Properties of metals 150
10.2 Metal reactions 151
10.3 Reactivity of metals and their uses 153
10.4 Identifying metal ions 156
10.5 Extraction of metals 157
10.6 Metal corrosion 161
10.7 Alloys 165

11 Chemistry of the environment 170

11.1 Water 170
11.2 Artificial fertilisers 175
11.3 The air 177
11.4 Atmospheric pollution 179

12Organic chemistry 1 188

12.1 Alkanes 188
12.2 The chemical behaviour of alkanes 191
12.3 Alkenes 194
12.4 The chemical behaviour of alkenes 196
12.5 Polymers 198

iv
13Organic chemistry 2 206
13.1 Functional groups 206
13.2 Alcohols (R–OH) 206
13.3 Carboxylic acids 211
13.4 Esters212
13.5 Condensation polymers 214
13.6 Natural polyamides 216

14Experimental techniques and chemical analysis 221

14.1 Apparatus used for measurement in chemistry 221
14.2 Separating mixtures 224
14.3 Qualitative analysis 233

Theory past paper questions 240

Alternative to Practical past paper questions 255
Glossary262
Index269
Periodic Table of Elements 275

v
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Irene, Katharine, Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, b ©
Michael and Barbara for their patience, support and midosemsem – Fotolia; p.33 © Science Source/
encouragement throughout the production of this Science Photo Library; p.36 l © Martyn F. Chillmaid,
textbook. We would also like to thank the editorial r © Martyn F. Chillmaid; p.37 (left column) l ©
and publishing teams at Hodder Education who have Martyn F. Chillmaid, r © Martyn F. Chillmaid, (right
supported us on the journey over the past year. column) Courtesy of the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign Archives; p.38 © Andrew
Source acknowledgements
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.40 ©
pp. 13, 38, 40, 41, 42, 189, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library;
and 213
p.41 l © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science
The molecular models shown were made using
Photo Library, r © Andrew Lambert Photography/
the Molymod® system available from Molymod®
Science Photo Library; p.42 © Andrew Lambert
Molecular Models, Spiring Enterprises Limited,
Photography/Science Photo Library; p.44 ©
Billingshurst, West Sussex RH14 9NF England.
E.R.Degginger/Science Photo Library; p.46 l ©
Photo credits Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library, r © Robert
r right, l left, t top, m middle, b bottom Harding Photo Library; p.48 tl © Richard Megna/
p.1 © bl Dolphinartin/stock.adobe.com, tr © Fundamental/Science Photo Library, bl © Sheila
12ee12/stock.adobe.com, br © Olaf Schubert/Image Terry/Science Photo Library, tr © Michael Pettigrew
Broker/Alamy Stock Photo; p.2 l © Donald L Fackler – Fotolia, br © Kage Mikrofotografie GBR/Science
Jr/Alamy Stock Photo, r © Andrew Lambert Photo Library; p.49 © overthehill – Fotolia; p.56 l
Photography/Science Photo Library; p.3 tl © © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo
Geoscience Features Picture Library/Dr.Booth, bl © Library, r © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science
Javier Larrea/Agefotostock/Alamy Stock Photo, br © Photo Library; p.57 © Andrew Lambert Photography/
Power And Syred/Science Photo Library; p.7 l © Science Photo Library; p.63 © Dirk Wiersma/Science
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, Photo Library; p.69 tl © Alexander Maksimenko
r © Photiconix/Alamy Stock Vector; p.8 l © Andrew – Fotolia, tr © Mkos83/stock.adobe.com, b © Pavel
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, r © Losevsky/stock.adobe.com; p.72 © Howard Davies/
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; Alamy Stock Photo; p.73 © Kekyalyaynen/
p.10 © NASA/ESA/STSCI/Hubble Heritage Team/ Shutterstock.com; p.74 l © dpa picture alliance
Science Photo Library; p.11 t © Robert Harding/ archive / Alamy Stock Photo, r © Rex Features; p.75
Getty Images, m © FlemishDreams – Fotolia, b © l © Kathy Gould/iStock/Thinkstock, r © Trevor
Echo 23 Media/Alamy Stock Photo; p.12 tl © Bay Clifford Photography/Science Photo Library; p.78 tr
Ismoyo/AFP/Getty Images, bl © Christie’s Images / © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo
The Bridgeman Art Library, tr © BL Images Ltd / Library, br © Clynt Garnham Renewable Energy /
Brian Lawrence / Alamy Stock Photo; p.13 © Andrew Alamy Stock Photo; p.81 © Frankie Martin/NASA/
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.15 © Science Photo Library; p.82 © Adam Hart-Davis/
Andrew Lambert Photography / Science Photo Science Photo Library; p.83 bl © Andrew Lambert
Library; p.18 tr © Galyna Andrushko – Fotolia, br © Photography/Science Photo Library, br © Andrew
Andrew Lambert Photography / Science Photo Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.87 tl
Library; p.19 © Andrew Lambert Photography/ © Dinodia Photos / Alamy Stock Photo, bl © Oleg
Science Photo Library; p.20 (left column) tl © Zhukov – Fotolia, mt © Matt K – Fotolia, mb ©
Vvvita/stock.adobe.com, tr © Weyo/stock.adobe. Dmitry Sitin – Fotolia, tr © iofoto – Fotolia, br ©
com, bl © Shutterstock/Stay_Positive, bm © yang yu – Fotolia; p.88 l © Andrew Lambert
Magraphics/stock.adobe.com, br sommai/stock. Photography/Science Photo Library, r © Sindo
adobe.com, (right column) tr © Science Photo Farina/Science Photo Library; p.89 © Stevie Grand/
Library/Eye of Science, br © moodboard/Thinkstock; Science Photo Library; p.90 © GeoScience Features
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Library; p.24 br © Henry Westheim Photography / bl © Arnaud Santinil – Fotolia, tr © Yakovlevadaria/
Alamy Stock Photo; p.30 tl © Andrew Lambert stock.adobe.com, br © National Motor Museum,
Photography/ Science Photo Library, tr © Andrew Motoring Picture Library / Alamy Stock Photo;
vi
p.102 l © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Elenathewise/stock.adobe.com; p.147 tl © Andrew
Photo Library, tr © Andrew Lambert Photography/ Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, tr ©
Science Photo Library, br © Andrew Lambert Vlorzor/stock.adobe.com; p.150 tr © Andrew
Photography/Science Photo Library; p.104 tr © Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, br ©
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, Digital Vision/Getty Images; p.151 tl © Neil
bl © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Emmerson/Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd /
Library, br © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Alamy Stock Photo, tr © Andrew Lambert
Photo Library; p.107 © Alfred Pasieka/Science Photography/Science Photo Library; p.153 tl ©
Photo Library; p.108 © Daniel Kalker/DPA/PA govicinity – Fotalia.com, ml © M.bonotto/stock.
Images; p.109 © Andrew Lambert Photography/ adobe.com, bl © Antony Nettle/Alamy Stock Photo;
Science Photo Library; p.111 © Boyer/Roger Viollet/ p.154 © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science
Getty Images; p.116 tl © Yvdavid/stock.adobe.com, Photo Library; p.155 © Leah-Anne Thompson/stock.
bl © Picture Store/stock.adobe.com, tr © adobe.com; p.156 l © Andrew Lambert Photography/
Valery121283/stock.adobe.com, br © Iurii Science Photo Library, r © Andrew Lambert
Kachkovskyi/stock.adobe.com; p.117 tl © Alex Photography/Science Photo Library; p.158 tl ©
Yeung/stock.adobe.com, ml © Leah-Anne Thompson/ GeoScience Features Picture Library, bl ©
stock.adobe.com, bl © Illustrez-vous – Fotolia, r © GeoScience Features Picture Library, r © GeoScience
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; Features Picture Library; p.159 Tata Steel’s Blast
p.118 tl © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Furnace 4 at its Port Talbot works in the UK
Photo Library, bl © Andrew Lambert Photography/ (courtesy of Tata Steel UK Limited); p.160 t ©
Science Photo Library; p.119 © Alex White – Fotolia; Stockr/stock.adobe.com, b © Martin Bond/Science
p.121 © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.161 l © Hank Morgan/Science Photo
Photo Library; p.122 © Andrew Lambert Library, r © Digital Vision/Getty Images; p.162 l ©
Photography/Science Photo Library; p.123 l © Decha Helene Rogers/ Art Directors & TRIP / Alamy Stock
Thapanya/Shutterstock.com, tr © Andrew Lambert Photo, tr © Visual China Group/Getty Images, br ©
Photography/Science Photo Library, br © Andrew Aleksandr/stock.adobe.com; p.163 tl © g215 –
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.124 Fotolia, ml © Gravicapa – Fotolia, bl © Blueblood/
© Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo stock.adobe.com, r © steven gillis hd9 imaging/
Library; p.125 l © Andrew Lambert Photography/ Alamy Stock Photo; p.164 tl © Leslie Garland Picture
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Photography/Science Photo Library; p.126 © Andrew Fotolia; p.165 tr © Photo20ast/stock.adobe.com, br
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.127 © Kage Mikrofotografie GBR/Science Photo Library;
© Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo p.170 bl © Patricia Elfreth – Fotolia, br © BSIP SA/
Library; p.135 © Science Photo Library; p.136 tl © Alamy Stock Photo; p172. tl © Can Balcioglu –
Windsor – Fotolia, bl © jon11 – Fotolia, tr © Debby Fotolia, ml © Galina Barskaya – Fotolia, bl ©
Moxon, br © Mihaela Maiorescu - Fotolia; p.137 SciencePhotos/Alamy Stock Photo, br © Andrew
© Forance.stock.adobe.com; p.138 tl © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.173
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, bl © © niyazz – Fotolia; p.174 l © Sze Fei Wong/iStock/
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, Thinkstock, r © AoshiVN/iStock/Thinkstock; p.175 ©
r © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library;
Library; p.139 © Charles D. Winters/Science Photo p.176 bl © Dudarev Mikhail – Fotolia; p.177 l ©
Library; p.140 © Andrew Lambert Photography/ Universal Images Group/Getty Images, r © Argus
Science Photo Library; p.141 tr © Andrew Lambert – Fotolia; p.180 tl © Astrid & Hanns-Frieder Michler/
Photography/Science Photo Library, br © Andrew Science Photo Library, bl © VisualHongKong / Alamy
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.142 Stock Photo; p.181 tr © Photodisc/Getty Images, ml
© Martyn F. Chillmaid; p.143 tl © Mark Richardson/ © Peter Treanor/Alamy Stock Photo, br © LaSa/
Alamy Stock Photo, bl © Richard B. Levine/Alamy stock.adobe.com; p.182 © Falko Matte – Fotolia;
Stock Photo, tr © Uniquely India/PhotosIndia.com p.184 © Mark Bourdillon/Alamy Stock Photo; p.188
LLC / Alamy Stock Photo, br © ZUMA Press, Inc. / © Centaur – Fotolia; p.189 tl–bl © Andrew Lambert
Alamy Stock Photo; p.144 © Science Photo Library; Photography/ Science Photo Library; p.191 tr ©
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Koichi Kamoshida/Getty Images, tr © Squirrel7707/ Photo; p.192 © Andrey Popov/stock.adobe.com;
stock.adobe.com; mr © Yakov/stock.adobe.com, br © p.193 © NASA; p.195 tl–bl © Andrew Lambert
vii
Photography/Science Photo Library; p.196 © Andrew Shcheglov – Fotolia; p.221 © burnel11 – Fotolia;
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.197 p.221 tl © Martyn F Chillmaid, tr © Martyn F
© Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Chillmaid, br © Martyn F Chillmaid; p.223 © Maurice
Library; p.198 © Andrew Lambert Photography/ Savage/Alamy Stock Photo; p.225 © Andrew
Science Photo Library; p.199 tl © Josie Elias/Alamy Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.226
Stock Photo, tr © Andrew Lambert Photography/ bl © Vectorfusionart/stock.adobe.com, tr © Klaus
Science Photo Library, br © Martyn F. Chillmaid. Guldbrandsen/Science Photo Library, br © Klaus
Thanks to Molymod.com for providing the model; Guldbrandsen/Science Photo Library; p.227 l ©
p.200 tl © Steve Cukrov – Fotolia, bl © Andrew Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library,
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, br © tr © Ricardo Funari / Brazilphotos/Alamy Stock
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; Photo, br © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science
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Kaiser/ DPA/PA Images; p.202 tl © Sally Morgan/ bl © KPA/Zuma/Rex Features, r © Sciencephotos/
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Associates/Science Photo Library, br © Science Andrew Lambert Library; p.233 © Doug Taylor /
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Cooper / Rex Features; p.215 l © Andrew Lambert r © Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science
Photography/Science Photo Library, r © Leonid Photo Library.

viii
How to use this book
To make your study of Chemistry for Cambridge As you read through the book, you will notice that
IGCSE™ as rewarding and successful as possible, some text is shaded yellow. This indicates that the
this textbook, endorsed by Cambridge Assessment highlighted material is Supplement content only.
International Education, offers the following Text that is not shaded covers the Core syllabus. If
important features: you are studying the Extended syllabus, you should
look at both the Core and Supplement sections.
FOCUS POINTS
Each topic starts with a bullet point summary of
what you will encounter within the topic. Practical skills
These boxes identify the key practical skills
This is followed by a short outline of the topic you need to understand as part of completing
so that you know what to expect over the next the course.
few pages.

Key definitions
Test yourself These provide explanations of the meanings of key words
as required by the syllabus.
These questions appear regularly throughout the
chapter so you can check your understanding as you
progress.
Worked examples
Revision checklist These boxes give step-by-step guidance on how to approach
different sorts of calculations, with follow-up questions so
At the end of each chapter, a revision checklist will you can practise these skills.
allow you to recap what you have learned in each
topic and double-check that you understand the key
concepts before moving on.
Going further

Exam-style questions These boxes take your learning further than is

required by the Cambridge syllabus so that you have
the opportunity to stretch yourself.
Each chapter is followed by exam-style questions
to help familiarise learners with the style of
Answers are provided online with the accompanying
questions they may see in their examinations.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Teacher’s Guide. A Practical
These will also prove useful in consolidating your
Skills Workbook is also available to further support
learning. Past paper questions are also provided
you in developing your practical skills as part of
at the end of the book.
carrying out experiments.

ix
Scientific enquiry
Throughout your IGCSE Chemistry course, you will obtained. Most importantly, it is essential that
need to carry out experiments and investigations you carry out a risk assessment before you do any
aimed at developing some of the skills and abilities practical work.
that scientists use to solve real-life problems. 3 Make and record observations – the data you
Simple experiments may be designed to measure, need to answer the questions you have set
for example, the temperature of a solution or the yourself can only be found if you have planned
rate of a chemical reaction. Longer experiments, your investigation sensibly and carefully. For
or investigations, may be designed to allow you to example, you might start to use a measuring
actually see the relationship between two or more cylinder to collect a gas, but as you develop
physical quantities such as how rate of reaction your ideas you may realise a burette might be
varies with temperature and concentration. more appropriate and more accurate. Be careful
Investigations are likely to come about from the not to dismantle the equipment/apparatus until
topic you are currently studying in class, and your you have completed your analysis of the data,
teacher may provide you with suggestions. For all and you are sure you do not need to repeat any
investigations, both your teacher and you must of the measurements! If you have to reset your
consider the safety aspects of the chemicals and equipment/apparatus, it may add further errors
apparatus involved. You should never simply carry to the results you have obtained.
out a chemistry investigation without consideration Ensure that all your data, numeric or
of the hazards of the chemicals or getting the observational, is displayed in a clear format. This
approval of your teacher. will often be in the form of headed tables with
To carry out an investigation, you will need to: the correct units being shown to the appropriate
degree of precision.
1 Select and safely use suitable techniques,
4 Interpret and evaluate observations – the
apparatus and materials – your aim must be to
results you obtain from any investigation must
safely collect sufficient evidence using the most
be displayed carefully and to the accuracy of
appropriate apparatus for the technique you have
the equipment you have chosen to use. Your
chosen. Being able to draw and label diagrams
choice of presentation will help you interpret
correctly to show how the equipment will be used
your evidence and make conclusions. Often
is also important. Your techniques will need to be
your presentation will be in the form of a graph
explained clearly to do a proper risk assessment.
or a table. For some graphs, you may need to
For example, how to carry out a titration, how
calculate gradients or use it to find values at a
you are going to follow the rate of the reaction
specific point during the investigation by drawing
you are using, or how to test for ions and gases.
intercepts. Good chemists keep looking at the
2 Plan your experiment – this is an important part
data and alter the way in which it is obtained to
of doing science and involves working out what
get more accurate results. You should be able to
you are going to do to try to find answers to
evaluate whether your data is good or bad. If it is
the questions you have set yourself. Predictions
good, were there any anomalous results? Why did
based on work you have been studying or
you get them?
are doing in class may help you develop the
5 Evaluate methods and suggest possible
investigation in terms of the number and type
improvements – at the end of your investigation,
of observations or data needed. You will also
you must be able to evaluate the equipment,
need to be able to identify the independent
methods and techniques that you have used.
and dependent variables. For example, if you
Think about any sources of errors that could have
are trying to find out how temperature affects
affected your results by the use of the wrong
the rate of a reaction, the temperature will be
equipment. Consider, if you were able to carry out
the independent variable, but the dependent
the investigation again, what you would change.
variable might be the volume of gas collected.
The more data you obtain, the easier it is to spot
Other variables such as concentration need to be
anomalous results.
controlled so that they will not affect the data

x
 A written report of any chemical investigation label each axis of a graph with the name and unit
would normally be made of these fixed components: of the quantity being plotted. Make sure that the
scale you use allows the points to fill up as much
» First, state the aim of the work at the very
of the graph paper as possible.
beginning to inform your teacher what you were
Clearly explain the calculations involved in
doing the investigation to find out.
the interpretation of your data and give the
» A list of all items of equipment/apparatus used
significant figures appropriate to the equipment
and a record of the smallest division of the scale
used.
of each measuring device you have used (see
» Conclusions can be obtained from the graphs
Chapter 14). For example, burettes can be read
and calculations you carry out. Your conclusions
to two decimal places, to the nearest 0.05 cm3,
from the data obtained might be different from
where the second decimal place is either a 0
those that you expected. Even so it is very
if the bottom of the meniscus is on the scale
important for any scientist to come to terms with
division, or a 5 if it is between the divisions.
the findings of their experimental result, good
If the meniscus was between 24.10 cm3 and
or bad!
24.20 cm3, the reading would be 24.15 cm3.
» In the evaluation you should make a comparison
» You must show that you have considered the
between the conclusions of your investigation
safety of yourself and others before you carry
and your expectations: how close or how different
out any practical work. Provide a list of all the
were they? You should comment on the reliability
chemicals you will use, as well as the ones you
and accuracy of the observations and the data
will produce, and do a risk assessment to check
obtained. Could you have improved the method
on all the hazards of the chemicals. The results
to give better or more accurate results? Would a
of your risk assessment might indicate that you
pH probe have been better than using universal
need to work in a well-ventilated room or in a
indicator to find the point of neutralisation in a
fume cupboard. In some cases you may need the
titration? Were there any anomalous points on
assistance of your teacher. If in doubt, always ask
your graphs, or any unusual data or observations?
your teacher for advice.
Highlight these and try to give an explanation.
» Clearly state the details of the methods used,
starting with the wearing of eye protection. The
methods should be shown as numbered steps and Suggestions for
should be made as clear as possible. Ideas of the
number of measurements that will be made and investigations
their frequency should be stated. Observations Some suggested investigations are outlined in this
should be clear and you should use changes book as follows:
in colour and physical state as part of your 1 Find which vinegars contain the most acid.
observations. (Chapter 8)
» Presentation of results and calculations. If you 2 Find the molar volume of hydrogen by reacting
made several measurements of a quantity, draw magnesium with hydrochloric acid. (Chapter 4)
up a table in which to record your results. Use 3 Determination of the enthalpy of combustion
the column headings, or start of rows, to name of ethanol. (Chapter 6)
exactly what the measurement is and state the 4 The effect of changing the surface area of a
units used; for example, in a rates of reaction reactant on the rate of reaction. (Chapter 7)
experiment, ‘Mass of calcium carbonate/g’. 5 Use the anion and cation methods of
Give numeric values to the number of identification to find the ions present in tap
significant figures appropriate to the equipment water. (Chapter 14)
being used, for example, a mass could be 6 Show that ammonia is a weak base by measuring
recorded to 0.5 g or 0.05 g depending on the its pH and conductivity, and comparing your
resolution of the top-pan balance you use. Take results with those from a solution of sodium
averages and remember that anomalous or non- hydroxide with the same concentration. (Chapter 8)
concordant results should not be used in their 7 Determine the melting point of stearic acid.
calculation. If you decide to make a graph of your (Chapter 1)
results, you will need at least six data points 8 How can sodium chloride be obtained from rock
taken over as large a range as possible; be sure to salt? (Chapter 14)

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 9 What are the effects of acid rain on a variety of A further example involves the well-known
building materials? (Chapter 11) Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev. He realised that
10 Which is the best temperature, between 34 and the physical and chemical properties of the known
40°C, for the fermentation of sugar to take place? elements were related to their atomic mass in a
(Chapter 12) ‘periodic’ way, and arranged them so that groups of
11 What are the chemical properties of the weak elements with similar properties fell into vertical
organic acid, ethanoic acid? (Chapter 13) columns in his table. However, in devising his
12 Do foodstuffs contain carbon? (Chapter 12) table, Mendeleev did not conform completely to the
order of atomic mass, with some elements swapped
Ideas and evidence in science around. It took time for his ideas to gain acceptance
because the increase in atomic mass was not regular
In some of the investigations you perform in the when moving from one element to another. We
school laboratory, you may find that you do not now know, with the development of atomic theory
interpret your data in the same way as your friends and a better understanding of chemical processes,
do; perhaps you will argue with them as to the best that the elements in the Periodic Table are not all
way to explain your results and try to convince in atomic mass order. It took until 1934, with an
them that your interpretation is right. Scientific understanding of atomic number and post-Russian
controversy frequently arises through people revolution, for the Periodic Table to be finally
interpreting evidence differently. accepted in the form you see today.
For example, our ideas about atoms have changed There are many different types of scientists
over time. Scientists have developed new models with specialties in their own areas of work such
of atoms over the centuries as they collected new as chemistry and physics, but they all work in the
experimental evidence. If we go back to the Greeks same way. They come up with new theories and
in the 5th century bc, they thought matter was ideas, they carry out work to find the evidence to
composed of indivisible building blocks which they establish whether their ideas are correct and, if not,
called atomos. However, the idea was essentially why. Scientists rely on other scientists checking
forgotten for more than 2000 years. Then John their work, often improving the ideas of everyone
Dalton published his ideas about atoms in 1800. He and moving science forward. The use of new ideas
suggested that all matter was made of tiny particles is often beneficial to everyone in the world, for
called atoms, which he imagined as tiny spheres example, the discovery of vaccines for Covid-19, or
that could not be divided. It then took another the push to improve battery manufacture for use
100 years before Joseph Thomson, Ernest Rutherford in electric cars which would in turn help solve one
and James Chadwick carried out experiments and of the biggest problems we have to face: global
discovered that there was a structure within the warming. Scientists are working hard to stop global
atom. This saw the continuous development of what warming but their ideas are not always embraced
we know today as atomic theory. because of economic and political factors.

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 1 States of matter
FOCUS POINTS
★ What is the structure of matter?
★ What are the three states of matter?
★ How does kinetic particle theory help us understand how matter behaves?

In this first chapter, you will look at the three states of matter: solids, liquids and gases. The structure
of these states of matter and how the structures can be changed from one to another is key to
understanding the states of matter.
You will use the kinetic particle theory to help explain how matter behaves, so you can understand
the difference in the properties of the three states of matter and how the properties are linked to
the strength of bonds between the particles they contain. Why, for example, can you compress gases
but cannot compress a solid? By the end of this chapter, you should be able to answer this question
and use the ideas involved to help you to understand many everyday observations, such as why car
windows mist up on a cold morning or why dew forms on grass at night.

1.1 Solids, liquids and gases

Chemistry is about what matter is like and how it
behaves, and our explanations and predictions of
its behaviour. What is matter? This word is used to
cover all the substances and materials from which
the physical universe is composed. There are many
millions of different substances known, and all of
them can be categorised as solids, liquids or gases
(Figure 1.1). These are what we call the three states
of matter.

b Liquid

a Solid c Gas
▲ Figure 1.1 Water in three different states

1
1 States of matter

A solid, at a given temperature, has a definite The main points of the theory are:
volume and shape which may be affected by changes » All matter is made up of tiny, moving particles,
in temperature. Solids usually increase slightly in size invisible to your eye. Different substances have
when heated, called expansion (Figure 1.2), different types of particles (atoms, molecules or
and usually decrease in size if cooled, called ions) of varying sizes.
contraction. » The particles move all the time. The higher the
A liquid, at a given temperature, has a temperature, the faster they move on average.
fixed volume and will take up the shape of any » Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter
container into which it is poured. Like a solid, a ones at a given temperature.
liquid’s volume is slightly affected by changes in
temperature. The kinetic particle theory can be used as a
A gas, at a given temperature, has neither a scientific model to explain how the arrangement
definite shape nor a definite volume. It will take up of particles relates to the properties of the three
the shape of any container into which it is placed states of matter.
and will spread out evenly within it. Unlike solids
and liquids, the volumes of gases are affected Explaining the states of matter
greatly by changes in temperature. In a solid, the particles attract one another. There
Liquids and gases, unlike solids, are compressible. are attractive forces between the particles which
This means that their volume can be reduced by hold them close together. The particles have little
the application of pressure. Gases are much more freedom of movement and can only vibrate about
compressible than liquids. a fixed position. They are arranged in a regular
manner, which explains why many solids form
crystals.
It is possible to model such crystals by using
spheres to represent the particles. For example,
Figure 1.3a shows spheres built up in a regular way
to represent the structure of a chrome alum crystal.
The shape is very similar to that of a part of an
actual chrome alum crystal (Figure 1.3b).

▲ Figure 1.2 Without expansion gaps between the rails, the

track would buckle in hot weather

1.2 The kinetic particle

theory of matter
The kinetic particle theory helps to explain the
way that matter behaves. It is based on the idea
that all matter is made up of tiny particles. This
theory explains the physical properties of matter in
terms of the movement of the particles from which
it is made. a A model of a chrome alum crystal

2
 1.2 The kinetic particle theory of matter

▲ Figure 1.5 Sodium chloride crystals

In a liquid, the particles are still close together but

they move around in a random way and often collide
with one another. The forces of attraction between
the particles in a liquid are weaker than those in
a solid. Particles in the liquid form of a substance
have more energy on average than the particles in
the solid form of the same substance.
b An actual chrome alum crystal In a gas, the particles are relatively far apart.
▲ Figure 1.3 They are free to move anywhere within the container
in which they are held. They move randomly at very
Studies using X-ray crystallography (Figure 1.4) have
high velocities, much more rapidly than those in a
confirmed how particles are arranged in crystal
liquid. They collide with each other, but less often
structures. When crystals of a pure substance
than in a liquid, and they also collide with the walls
form under a given set of conditions, the particles
of the container. They exert virtually no forces of
are always arranged (or packed) in the same way.
attraction on each other because they are relatively
However, the particles may be packed in different
far apart. Such forces, however, are very significant.
ways in crystals of different substances. For
If they did not exist, we could not have solids or
example, common salt (sodium chloride) has its
liquids (see Changes of state, p. 4).
particles arranged to give cubic crystals as shown in
The arrangement of particles in solids, liquids
Figure 1.5.
and gases is shown in Figure 1.6.

Solid
Particles only vibrate about fixed positions.
Regular structure.

Liquid
Particles have some freedom and can move
around each other. Collide often.

Gas
Particles move freely and at random in all
the space available. Collide less often than
in liquid.

▲ Figure 1.4 A modern X-ray crystallography instrument ▲ Figure 1.6 The arrangement of particles in solids, liquids
used for studying crystal structure and gases

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1 States of matter

of attraction between themselves and the other

Test yourself particles in the liquid and they escape to form a gas.
1 When a metal (such as copper) is heated, it The liquid begins to evaporate as a gas is formed.
expands. Explain what happens to the metal Eventually, a temperature is reached at which
particles as the solid metal expands. the particles are trying to escape from the liquid
so quickly that bubbles of gas actually start to form
inside the liquid. This temperature is called the
1.3 Changes of state boiling point of the substance. At the boiling point,
The kinetic particle theory model can be used to the pressure of the gas created above the liquid
explain how a substance changes from one state to equals that of the air, which is atmospheric pressure.
another. If a solid is heated, the particles vibrate Liquids with high boiling points have stronger
faster as they gain energy. This makes them ‘push’ forces between their particles than liquids with low
their neighbouring particles further away. This boiling points.
causes an increase in the volume of the solid, When a gas is cooled, the average energy of the
such that the solid expands, and we can say that particles decreases and the particles move closer
expansion has taken place. together. The forces of attraction between the particles
Eventually, the heat energy causes the forces of now become significant and cause the gas to condense
attraction to weaken. The regular pattern of the into a liquid. When a liquid is cooled, it freezes to form
structure breaks down, and the particles can now a solid. Energy is released in each of these changes.
move around each other. The solid has melted. The Changes of state are examples of physical
temperature at which this takes place is called the changes. Whenever a physical change of state
melting point of the substance. The temperature occurs, the temperature remains constant during the
of a melting pure solid will not rise until it has all change. During a physical change, no new substance
melted. When the substance has become a liquid, is formed.
there are still very significant forces of attraction
between the particles, which is why the substance Heating and cooling curves
is a liquid and not a gas. The graph shown in Figure 1.7 was drawn by
Solids which have high melting points have plotting the temperature of water as it was
stronger forces of attraction between their particles heated steadily from −15°C to 110°C. You can see
than those which have low melting points. A list of from the curve that changes of state have taken
some substances with their corresponding melting place. When the temperature was first measured,
and boiling points is shown in Table 1.1. only ice was present. After a short time, the curve
▼ Table 1.1 Melting points and boiling points of substances flattens showing that even though heat energy is
Substance Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C being put in, the temperature remains constant.
Aluminium 661 2467
Ethanol −117 79 110
100
Magnesium oxide 827 3627 Liquid and All
gas (liquid gas
Mercury −30 357
Temperature/ºC

water and
Methane −182 −164 water
vapour)
Oxygen −218 −183
All
Sodium chloride 801 1413
liquid
Sulfur 113 445 0 (liquid
All Solid and liquid water)
Water 0 100 15 solid (ice and liquid
(ice) water)
If a liquid is heated, the average energy of the Time/minutes
particles increases and the particles will move around
▲ Figure 1.7 Graph of temperature against time for the
even faster. Some particles at the surface of the change from ice at −15°C to water to steam
liquid have enough energy to overcome the forces
4
 1.3 Changes of state

Practical skills

Changes of state
For safe experiments/demonstrations which
Clamp
are related to this chapter, please refer to the
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills
Thermometer
Workbook, which is also part of this series.
Safety Boiling tube

l Eye protection must be worn.

l Take care when handling and using hot water. Stearic acid

The apparatus on the right was set up to obtain Beaker

a cooling curve for stearic acid. The stearic acid
Warm water
was placed into a boiling tube which was then
placed in a beaker of water that was heated
to 80°C, which is above the melting point of 1 Why was it important to remove the boiling
stearic acid. tube with the stearic acid from the water?
2 Why was the stearic acid stirred with the
The boiling tube was then removed from the thermometer?
beaker and the temperature of the stearic acid 3 Why were temperature readings taken every
was recorded every minute for 12 minutes using minute for 12 minutes?
the thermometer to stir the stearic acid while it
was a liquid. The following data was obtained from the
experiment:
Time/mins 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Temperature/°C 79 76 73 70 69 69 69 69 69 67 64 62 60

4 Draw and label axes for plotting this data. 6 a At what temperature did the stearic acid
5 Plot the points and draw a line of best fit. begin to change state?
b How could you tell this from your graph?
c Explain what is happening at this
temperature.

In ice, the particles of water are close together melting point. A sharp melting point therefore
and are attracted to one another. For ice to melt, indicates that it is a pure sample. The addition or
the particles must obtain sufficient energy to presence of impurities lowers the melting point.
overcome the forces of attraction between the
water particles, so that relative movement can You can find the melting point of a substance
take place. The heat energy is being used to using the apparatus shown in Figure 1.8. The
overcome these forces. addition or presence of impurities lowers the
The temperature will begin to rise again melting point. A mixture of substances also has a
only after all the ice has melted. Generally, the lower melting point than a pure substance, and the
heating curve for a pure solid always stops rising melting point will be over a range of temperatures
at its melting point and gives rise to a sharp and not sharp.

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1 States of matter

Thermometer What do you think has caused the difference

between the balloons in Figure 1.9? The pressure
inside a balloon is caused by the gas particles
striking the inside surface of the balloon. At a
higher temperature, there is an increased pressure
Melting point
tube
inside the balloon (Figure 1.10). This is due to the
Rubber band gas particles having more energy and therefore
moving around faster, which results in the particles
Oil striking the inside surface of the balloon more
Solid
frequently, which leads to an increase in pressure.

Heat

▲ Figure 1.8 If a substance, such as the solid in the melting

point tube, is heated slowly, this apparatus can be used to
find the melting point of the substance

In the same way, if you want to boil a liquid, such as

water, you have to give it some extra energy. This can
be seen on the graph in Figure 1.7, where the curve
levels out at 100°C – the boiling point of water.
Solids and liquids can be identified from their
characteristic melting and boiling points.
▲ Figure 1.10 The gas particles striking the surface
The reverse processes of condensing and freezing create the pressure
occur when a substance is cooled. Energy is given
out when the gas condenses to the liquid and the Since the balloon is made from an elastic material,
liquid freezes to give the solid. the increased pressure causes the balloon to
stretch and the volume increases. An increase
in volume of a gas with increased temperature
1.4 The effects of is a property of all gases. French scientist J.A.C.
temperature and pressure Charles made an observation like this in 1781 and
concluded that when the temperature of a gas
on the volume of a gas increased, the volume also increased at a fixed
pressure. We can extend this idea to suggest
that changing the pressure of a fixed volume of
a gas must have an effect on the temperature of
the gas. If you have ever used a bicycle pump to
blow up a bicycle tyre then you may have felt the
pump get hotter the more you used it. As you
use the pump you increase pressure on the air in
the pump. Such an increase in pressure causes
the gas molecules to move closer together so the
molecules to collide more frequently and more
frictional forces come into play, which causes the
temperature to rise. In addition, as the molecules
are forced closer to one another, intermolecular
bonds form, again increasing the temperature of
the gas. As the temperature of the gas increases,
▲ Figure 1.9 Temperature changes the volume of the air in a this also causes the molecules to move faster,
balloon. Higher temperatures increase the volume of the causing even more collisions.
balloon and cold temperatures reduce its volume.

6
 1.5 Diffusion

Diffusion can be explained by the kinetic

Test yourself particle theory. This theory states that all matter
2 Why do gases expand more than solids for the is made up of many small particles which are
same increase in temperature? constantly moving. In a solid, as we have seen,
3 Ice on a car windscreen will disappear as you the particles simply vibrate about a fixed point.
drive along, even without the heater on. Explain However, in a gas, the particles move randomly
why this happens.
4 When salt is placed on ice, the ice melts.
past one another, colliding with each other.
Explain why this happens.
5 Draw and label a graph of water at 100°C being
allowed to cool to −5°C.

1.5 Diffusion
When you go through the door of a restaurant, you
can often smell the food being cooked. For this
to happen, gas particles must be leaving the pans
the food is being cooked in and be spreading out
through the air in the restaurant. This spreading out
of a gas is called diffusion and it takes place in a
haphazard and random way.
All gases diffuse to fill the space available. ▲ Figure 1.12 Hydrochloric acid (left) and ammonia
Figure 1.11 shows two gas jars on top of each other. (right) diffuse at different rates
Liquid bromine has been placed in the bottom gas Gases diffuse at different rates. If one piece of
jar (left photo) and then left for a day (right photo). cotton wool is soaked in concentrated ammonia
The brown-red fumes are gaseous bromine that has solution and another is soaked in concentrated
spread evenly throughout both the gas jars from the hydrochloric acid and these are put at opposite
liquid present in the lower gas jar. ends of a dry glass tube, then after a few minutes
a white cloud of ammonium chloride appears.
Figure 1.12 shows the position at which the two
gases meet and react. The white cloud forms in
the position shown because the ammonia particles
are lighter; they have a smaller relative molecular
mass (Chapter 4, p. 54) than the hydrogen chloride
particles (released from the hydrochloric acid) and
so move faster, such that the gas diffuses more
quickly. (See Chemistry Practical Skills Workbook for
more detail of this experiment.) This experiment
is a teacher demonstration only, which must be
carried out in a fume cupboard. If considering
carrying out this practical, teachers should refer
to the Practical Skills Workbook for full guidance
▲ Figure 1.11 After 24 hours the bromine fumes have
and safety notes.
diffused throughout both gas jars

7
 1 States of matter

Diffusion also takes place in liquids (Figure 1.13)

but it is a much slower process than in gases. This Revision checklist
is because the particles of a liquid move much more After studying Chapter 1 you should be able to:
slowly. ✔ State the three states of matter and describe the
structure arrangement of the particles in each.
✔ Explain the properties of the three states of
matter using ideas about the separation and
movement of particles.
✔ Name the changes of state and describe what
happens to the particles in a substance when they
occur.

✔ Explain what is happening when a substance

changes state.
✔ Describe what happens to a given amount
▲ Figure 1.13 Diffusion of green food colouring can take of gas when temperature and/or pressure
days to reach the stage shown on the right decreases and increases.
✔ Use the kinetic particle theory to explain the
When diffusion takes place between a liquid and effects of pressure and temperature on the
a gas, it is known as intimate mixing. Kinetic volume of a gas.
particle theory can be used to explain this process. ✔ Describe the process of diffusion and explain
It states that collisions are taking place randomly why gases diffuse.
between particles in a liquid or a gas and that there ✔ Describe and explain the rate of diffusion of a
is sufficient space between the particles of one gas in terms of its relative molecular mass.
substance for the particles of the other substance to
move into.

Test yourself
6 When a jar of coffee is opened, people can often
smell it from anywhere in the room. Use the
kinetic particle theory to explain how this happens.
7 Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the diffusion of
a drop of green food colouring added to the bottom
of a beaker.
8 Explain why diffusion is faster in gases than in
liquids.

9 Explain why a gas with a low relative molecular

mass can diffuse faster than a gas with a
high relative molecular mass at the same
temperature.

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 Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions
1 a Sketch diagrams to show the arrangement of a Describe what you would observe after:
particles in: i a few hours [1]
i solid oxygen [1] ii several days. [1]
ii liquid oxygen [1]
iii oxygen gas. [1] b Explain your answer to Question 5a using
b Describe how the particles move in these your ideas of the kinetic particle theory. [2]
three states of matter. [3]
c State the physical process that takes place in
c Explain, using the kinetic particle theory, this experiment. [1]
what happens to the particles in oxygen
as it is cooled down. [3] 6 The apparatus shown below was set up.
Stopper White cloud Glass tube
2 Explain the meaning of each of the following
terms. In your answer include an example to help
with your explanation.
a expansion [2]
b contraction [2]
c physical change [2] Cotton wool soaked Cotton wool soaked
d diffusion [2] in concentrated in concentrated
hydrochloric acid ammonia solution
e random motion [2]
3 a Explain why solids do not diffuse. [2] When this apparatus is used, the following
b Give two examples of diffusion of gases things are observed. Explain why each of these
and liquids found in your house. [2] is observed.
4 Explain the following, using the ideas you have a A white cloud is formed. [1]
learned about the kinetic particle theory: b It took a few minutes before the white
a When you take a block of butter out of the cloud formed. [1]
fridge, it is quite hard. However, after 15 c The white cloud formed further from the
minutes it is soft enough to spread. [2] cotton wool soaked in ammonia than that
b When you come home from school and open soaked in hydrochloric acid. [2]
the door, you can smell food being cooked. [2] d Cooling the concentrated ammonia and
c A football is blown up until it is hard on hydrochloric acid before carrying out the
a hot summer’s day. In the evening the experiment increased the time taken for
football feels softer. [2] the white cloud to form. [1]
d When a person wearing perfume enters a
room, it takes several minutes for the smell
to reach the back of the room. [2]
5 Some green food colouring was carefully added to
the bottom of a beaker of water using a syringe.
The beaker was then covered and left for several
days.
Beaker

Water

Green
food
colouring

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