UNIT-II

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

1. Differentiate between Right of Way and Carriage way (NOV/DEC 2019)

Right of Way Carriageway
Right of way is the area of land acquired for The pavement or carriageway width
the road along its alignment. The width of depends on the width of traffic lane and
this acquired land is known as land width and number of lanes. The carriage way
it depends on the importance of the road and intended for one line of traffic movement
possible future development. may be called a traffic lane.
Keeping all these in view a width of 3.75m
is considered desirable for a road having
single lane for vehicles of maximum width
2.44m.
For pavements having two or more lanes,
width of 3.5m per lane is considered
sufficient

2. Draw a typical Transition curve and mark all its zones (NOV/DEC 2019)

3. What are the fundamental principles of alignment? (April/May 2019)

 Design speed
 Sight distance
 Horizontal curves
 Drainage gradient
 Super elevation
4. What are the type of sight distance? (April/May 2019), (Nov/Dec 2016)

Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, over
which a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationary or
moving objects.
Three sight distance situations are considered for design:
• Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance
• Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as twice SSD
• Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation
• Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the
illumination of head lights
• Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection.

5. What is meant by widening of pavement on horizontal curves? (April/May 2018),

(May/June 2016)
Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is required on a
curved section of a road over and above that required on a straight alignment. This
widening is done due to two reasons: the first and most important is the additional width
required for a vehicle taking a horizontal curve and the second is due to the tendency of the
drivers to ply away from the edge of the carriageway as they drive on a curve.

6. What is the maximum and Minimum super -elevation?(April/May 2017)

Depends on (a) slow moving vehicle and (b) heavy loaded trucks with high CG.
IRC specifies a maximum super-elevation of 7 percent for plain and rolling terrain, while
that of hilly terrain is 10 percent and urban road is 4 percent.

The minimum super elevation is 2-4 percent for drainage purpose, especially for large
radius of the horizontal curve.

7. Define camber. (April/May 2017)

Camber, also called as cross fall, is the convexity provided to the cross section of the surface
of carriage way. It is the difference in level between the highest point, known as the crown
usually located at the centre of the carriage, and the edge.
Camber is provided so as
To drain surface water
To separate the traffic in two opposite directions
To improve the appearance of the road

8. What are the elements involved in Highway geometric design? (May/June 2016)
Geometric design of highways deals with:

i. Cross section elements

ii. Sight distance considerations

 iii. Horizontal alignment details

iv. Vertical alignment details

v. Intersection elements.

9. Briefly explain illumination sight distance. (April/May 2015)

This is the distance visible to the driver during night driving under the illumination of the
vehicle head lights. This sight distance is critical at up gradient and at the ascending stretch
of the valley curves.
10. Define sag curves (April/May 2015)
Sag vertical curves are curves that connect descending grades, forming a bowl or a sag.
Designing them is is very similar to the design of crest vertical curves.

11. What are overtaking zones? (APR/MAY 17)

The intervals or zones on the highways provided for the purpose of safety overtaking
operation of fast moving vehicles with slow moving vehicles, without any collision of
vehicles from opposite side are called overtaking zones.

12. What are the types of curves in highway geometric design and write any two salient
features of any one curve?(Nov/Dec 2018)
I. Horizontal curve
a) Simple curve
b) Compound curve
c) Reverse curve
d) Transition curve
II. Vertical curve
a) Sag curve
b) Summit curve

Salient Features of summit sag curve

a) Safety and
b) Comfort travelling between gradients

13. With neat sketches show the typical cross section of any one urban road as per Indian
Road Congress (IRC) standards. (Nov/Dec 2018)
14. State the marit and demerit of parabolic camber (Nov/Dec 2017)

Marit Demerit
Camber provides quick drainage of The roads will wear and tear on the edges.
rainwater and thus saves the foundation
course of the road structure from weakening
by percolation of rainwater to it through the The passengers feel unbalance and
road surface. discomfort during journey
This prevents rainwater to accumulate in
local shrinkages or depressions and forming It reduces the road width as everyone will
water pool on the road surface, which are try to move on the middle of the road.
disagreeable to the public as well as to the
road structure.

15. Find super elevation on a horizontal circular curve of 150 m radius for design speed
of 65Kmph with a coefficient of friction 0.15. (Nov/Dec 2017)

Solution:
 (65)2
𝑒 + 0.15 =
127(150)

4225
𝑒=
(19050 − 0.15)

4225
𝑒=
(19050 − 0.15)

𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟏%

16. List any four types of median adopted for highways.

(i) Traversable median

Flush
(ii) Non transferable median
Barrier
Deterring

Flush median

Deterring Barrier
17. What are the fundamental principles of alignment? (April/May 2019)
a. Short
b. Safe
c. Convenient

18. Elements of Highway cross section

 PART-B

1. Describe briefly about gradient and Its types (Nov/Dec 2018)(Nov/Dec 2016)

Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal.
While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided for designing the vertical curve.

The positive gradient or the ascending gradient is denoted as +n and the negative gradient
as −n. The deviation angle N is: when two grades meet, the angle which measures the
change of direction and is given by the algebraic difference between the two grades (n1 −
(−n2)) = n1 + n2 = α1 + α2.

Types of gradients

i) Ruling gradient,
ii) Limiting gradient,
iii) Exceptional gradient and
iv) Minimum gradient

(i) Ruling gradient

The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with which the designer
attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends on the terrain, length of the
grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. In flatter
terrain, it may be possible to provide flat gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical
and sometimes not possible also. The ruling gradient is adopted by the designer by
considering a particular speed as the design speed and for a design vehicle with standard
dimensions. But our country has a heterogeneous traffic and hence it is not possible to lay
down precise standards for the country as a whole. Hence IRC has recommended some
values for ruling gradient for different types of terrain.

(ii) Limiting gradient

This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous increase in cost of
construction. On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it may be frequently necessary to adopt
limiting gradient. But the length of the limiting gradient stretches should be limited and
must be sandwiched by either straight roads or easier grades.

(iii) Exceptional gradient

Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations. They
should be limited for short stretches not exceeding about 100 metres at a stretch. In
mountainous and steep terrain, successive exceptional gradients must be separated by a
minimum 100 metre length gentler gradient. At hairpin bends, the gradient is restricted to
 2.5%. Critical length of the grade The maximum length of the ascending gradient which a
loaded truck can operate without undue reduction in speed is called critical length of the
grade. A speed of 25 kmph is a reasonable value. This value depends on the size, power,
load, grad-ability of the truck, initial speed, final desirable minimum speed etc.

(iv) Minimum gradient

This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important. Camber will take
care of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along the side drains require
some slope for smooth flow of water. Therefore minimum gradient is provided for drainage
purpose and it depends on the rain fall, type of soil and other site conditions. A minimum of
1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete drain and 1 in 200 for open soil drains are found to
give satisfactory performance.

2. Explain the Factors influencing the geometric design of Hills roads (Nov/Dec 2018)
Design of hill road
a) Rock cutting
The rock stratum slopes downward into the hill side, the rock is permitted to
overhang the road forming a half tunnel. Blasting is done either from face or from
one or both sides.
The strata are inclined towards the hill slope, cutting is continued until the inner
slope is at a safe angle to prevent slipping.

b) Precipice work
Where the time available does not allow for blasting and tunnel work, cliff galleries
and cradles are restored for the negotiation of cliffs and precipices. These are
suitable only for light vehicles or foot traffic and considered only for short term use
and not as a permanent road way for regular traffic. It is an important that the strata
should dip inwards from the face in order to ensure safe attachments for the
jumpers and holdfasts and to lessen the risk of rock falls.

c) Retaining walls
Retaining walls are the most important structure in hill road construction to provide
adequate stability to the roadway and to the slope. Retaining walls are constructed
on the valley side of the roadway and also on the cut hill side to prevent land slide
towards the roadway.
d) Pavement walls
The embankment slopes are normally protected with rough stone pitching about
30cm thick in order to avoid erosion due to flow of water.
If the stopping length is too long it is preferable to construct a toe wall .to support
the embankment and depending upon the slope available. Where the cutting slope is
steep and contains loose or scour able soils, slips are likely to occur.
 e) Pavement type
Because of the high intensity of rain fall generally throughout the year in the hill
reigns, an important type of pavement proves more effective, through the initial cost
may be high. A permeable surface such as W.B.M gets eroded by the heavy rains and
regular maintenance cost comes out to be high.

The bituminous pavements are therefore preferred on hill road. Cement concrete
pavements are not considered suitable because of its high initial cost and delay in
construction

3) Calculate the safe OSD for a design speed of 90 Kmph. Take reaction time of driver
as 2.5 seconds and acceleration of overtaking vehicle as 2.5 kmph/sec. Draw OSD
Zone. (NOV/Dec 2017)

Given data:
Design speed = 90 kmph
Reaction time = 2.5 sec
Acceleration = 2.5 kmph/sec

Solution

Consider the speed of the overtaking vehicle as the design speed (ie)

V= 90Kmph = 90/ 3.6 = 25 m/ sec

V= vb=25 m/sec
Acceleration a= 2.5 kmph/sec
OSD= d1+d2+d3
Reaction time (t) = 2.5 sec
d1= vb t
= 25x 2.5
= 62.5m
S= [0.7Vb+b]
=[ 0.7x 25x6]
= 23.5 m

4X Vb
Time T= 𝑎

4X 25
=
2.5
 = 6.324 Sec
= 6.3 Sec

d2 = Vb T+2S

= 25 x 6.3 + 2 x 23.5

= 104.5 m

d3 = 25x 6.3 = 157.5 m

OSD = 62.5 +104.5 + 157.5
OSD = 62.5 + 104.5 +157.5
OSD = 324.5
OSD =325 m

4 Calculate the length of the transition curve with the following data (Nov/Dec 2017)
Design speeed= 70 kmph, Radius of circular curve = 250 m
Allowable rate of introduction of super elevation =1 in 150.
Pavement width including extrawidth=7.5m

Given data

Design speed =70kmph

Radius of circular curve = 250m
Allowable rate of introduction of super elevation = 1 in 150
Pavement width including extrawidth=7.5m

Solution :

1. By adopting a particular rate of super elevation length of transition curve

 𝒏𝒆
𝑳=
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑿 𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝑳=
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑳 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝒎

2. By considering orbitary rate of superelevation

𝒆𝑿𝑽
𝑳=
𝒙

𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝑿 𝟕𝟎
𝑳=
𝟐. 𝟓

𝑳 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎

3. By considering rate of change of accelaration radius on circular curve

𝑽𝟐
𝑳=
𝑹

𝟕𝟎𝟐
𝑳=
𝟐𝟓𝟎

𝑳 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟔 𝒎
 4. Explain the steps involved in the geometric design of hills roads (April/May
2015)

Hill road is defined as the one which passes through a terrain with a cross slope of
25% or more. IRC: SP: 73-2015 and IRC: SP: 84-2014 have merged the Mountainous and
Steep Terrain having Cross Slope more than 25%.

DESIGN IN HILL ROADS

Design and Construction of Hill roads are more complex than in plain terrain due to
factors summarized below:

a) Highly broken relief with vastly differing elevations and steep slopes,
deep gorges etc. which increases road length.
b) The geological condition varies from place to place.
c) Variation in hydro-geological conditions.
d) Variation in the climatic condition such as the change in temperature due
to altitude difference, pressure variation, precipitation increases at
greater height etc.
e) High-speed runoff due to the presence of steep cross slopes.
f) Filling may overload the weak soil underneath which may trigger new
slides.
g) Need of design of hairpin bends to attain heights.
h) Need to save Commercial and Residential establishments close to the
road.
i) Need to save the ecology of the hills.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATION IN HILL ROAD DESIGN

(i) Alignment of Hill Roads

The designer should attempt to choose a short, easy, economical and safe
comforting route.

(ii) General considerations

When designing hill roads the route is located along valleys, hill sides and if
required over mountain passes.

Due to complex topography, the length of the route is more.

In locating the alignment special consideration should be made in respect to

the variations in:
 • Temperature

• Rainfall

• Atmospheric pressure and winds

• Geological conditions

• Resettlement and Rehabilitation considerations

• Environment Considerations

(iii) Temperature
a) Air temperature in the hills is lower than in the valley. The
temperature drop being approximately 0.5° per 100 m of rising.
b) On slopes facing south and southwest snow disappears rapidly and
rain water evaporates quickly while on slopes facing north and
northeast rain water or snow may remain for the longer time.
c) Unequal warming of slopes, sharp temperature variations and erosion
by water are the causes of slope failure facing south and southwest.

(iv) Rainfall

a) Rainfall generally increases with increase in height from sea level.

b) The maximum rainfall is in the zone of intensive cloud formation at
1500-2500 m above sea level. Generally, the increase of rainfall for
every 100 m of elevation averages 40 to 60 mm.
c) In summer very heavy storms/cloud burst may occur in the hills and
about 15 to 25% of the annual rainfall may occur in a single rainfall. The
effects of these types of rainfall are serious and should be considered in
design.

(v) Atmospheric pressure and winds

 Atmospheric pressure decreases with increase in elevation.

 At high altitudes, the wind velocities may reach up to 25-30 m/s and
depth of frost penetration is also 1.5 to 2 m.
 Intensive weathering of rocks because of sharp temperature
variations.
 (vi) Geological conditions
 The inclination of folds may vary from horizontal to vertical
stratification of rock. These folds often have faults. Limestone or
sandstone folds may be interleaved with layers of clay which when
wetted may cause fracturing along their surface. This may result in
shear or slip fold.
 The degree of stability of hill slopes depends on types of rock, degree
of strata inclination or dip, occurrence of clay seams, the hardness of
the rocks and presence of ground water.
 When locating the route an engineer must study the details of
geological conditions of that area and follow stable hill slopes where
no ground water, landslides, and unstable folds occur.

(vii) Resettlement and Rehabilitation

 Due to limited availability of flat areas and connectivity issues, most of

the residential and commercial activity happens very close to the road
leading to large scale R&R and becomes a challenge in alignment
design.

(viii) Environment

 Hills are ecologically sensitive areas relatively untouched by human

activity. The alignment design must attempt to minimize tree cutting
and large scale earth filling/cutting to minimize damage.

(ix ) ROUTE SELECTION

Hill road alignment may follow alignment at Valley bottom or on a ridge depending on the
feasibility of the road. The first is called River route and the second is called Ridge route.

a) River route

 Most frequent case of hill alignment as there is a great advantage of running a

road at a gentle gradient.
 Runs through lesser horizontal curvature.
 Requirements for the construction of bridges over tributaries.
 Construction of special retaining structures and protection walls on hill side for
safe guarding the road against avalanches in high altitude areas.
 Benefit of low construction cost and operation cost.
Ridge route

 Characterized by the very steep gradient.

 Large number of sharp curves occurs on the road with hair pin bends.
 Extensive earthwork is required.
 The requirement for the construction of special structures.
 High construction and operation cost.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS

The various Design Standards being followed in the India for the design of Hill Road are:

IRC:SP:48-1998 Hill Road Manual.

IRC:52-2001 Recommendations About the Alignment Survey and Geometric

Design of Hill Roads.

IRC:SP:91-2010 Guidelines for Road Tunnels.

IRC:SP:73-2015 Manual of Specifications and Standards for Two Laning of

Highways with Paved Shoulder.

IRC:SP:84-2014 Manual of Specifications and Standards for Four Laning of

Highways through Public Private Partnership.

Hill Road Capacity

Design speed

The design speeds for various categories of hill roads are given below:

Sight distance

 Visibility is an important requirement for safety on roads.

 It is necessary that sight distance of sufficient length is available to permit drivers enough
time and distance to stop their vehicles to avoid accidents.
TYPICAL CROSS-SECTIONS – 2 LANE CARRIAGEWAY
(As per IRC:SP:73-2015)

As per IRC:SP:48-1998 and IRC:52- 2001

REVERSE CURVES ARE NEEDED IN DIFFICULT TERRAIN.

It should be ensured that there is sufficient length between the two curves for introduction
of requisite transition curves.
  Curves in same direction separated by short tangents, known as broken – back
curves.
 Should be avoided, as far as possible, in the interest of aesthetics and safety and
replaced by a single curve.
 If this is not feasible, a tangent length corresponding to 10 seconds travel time
must at least be ensured between the two curves.

Vertical Alignment

 Vertical curves are introduced for smooth transition at grade change.

 Both Summit curves and Valley curves should be designed as Square parabola.
 The Length of vertical curves is controlled by sight distance requirements.
 Curves with greater length are aesthetically better.
Recommended gradients for different terrain conditions, except at hair pin bends, are given
below:

At unavoidable circumstances Hair-pin Bends may be designed as Circular Curve with

Transitions or as Compound Circular curves.

Design Criteria for Hair-pin Bends as per IRC: SP: 48-1998 and IRC: 52- 2001

Illustrations of Hair-pin Bends

 5. Elaborate the factors affecting the geometric design of highways (April/May 2017),
(Nov/Dec 2017)

(Refer Part-B, Question no.4)

6. Explain the sight distance and types (April/May 2018)

Types of sight distance Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance
along the road surface, over which a driver from a specified height above the carriage way
has visibility of stationary or moving objects. Three sight distance situations are considered
for design:

i. Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance

ii. Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as twice SSD
iii. Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation
iv. Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during night driving
under the illumination of head lights
v. Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection.

The most important consideration in all these is that at all times the driver traveling at the
design speed of the highway must have sufficient carriageway distance within his line of
vision to allow him to stop his vehicle before colliding with a slowly moving or stationary
object appearing suddenly in his own traffic lane. The computation of sight distance
depends on:
Reaction time of the driver

Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver
to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total reaction time may be split up into four
components based on PIEV theory. In practice, all these times are usually combined into a
total perception-reaction time suitable for design purposes as well as for easy
measurement. Many of the studies shows that drivers require about 1.5 to 2 secs under
normal conditions. However, taking into consideration the variability of driver
characteristics, a higher value is normally used in design. For example, IRC suggests a
reaction time of 2.5 secs.

Speed of the vehicle

The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the speed, more time
will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed increases, sight
distance also increases.

Efficiency of brakes

The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle characteristics etc.
If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are applied. But
practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency. Therefore the sight distance
required will be more when the efficiency of brakes are less. Also for safe geometric design,
we assume that the vehicles have only 50% brake efficiency.

Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road

The frictional resistance between the tyre and road plays an important role to bring the
vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately. Thus
sight required will be less. No separate provision for brake efficiency is provided while
computing the sight distance. This is taken into account along with the factor of
longitudinal friction. IRC has specified the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35 to
0.4.

Gradient of the road.

Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the
vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less. While descending a
gradient, gravity also comes into action and more time will be required to stop the vehicle.
Sight distance required will be more in this case.
Stopping sight distance

Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any
spot having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed,
safely without collision with any other obstruction. There is a term called safe stopping
distance and is one of the important measures in traffic engineering. It is the distance a
vehicle travels from the point at which a situation is first perceived to the time the
deceleration is complete. Drivers must have adequate time if they are to suddenly respond
to a situation. Thus in highway design, sight distance atleast equal to the safe stopping
distance should be provided.

The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the braking distance. Lag
distance is the distance the vehicle traveled during the reaction time t and is given by vt,
where v is the velocity in m/sec2 .

Braking distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle during braking operation. For a
level road this is obtained by equating the work done in stopping the vehicle and the
kinetic energy of the vehicle.

If F is the maximum frictional force developed and the braking distance is l, then work done
against friction in stopping the vehicle is Fl = fWl where W is the total weight of the vehicle.
The kinetic energy at the design speed is

Similarly the braking distance can be derived for a descending gradient. Therefore the
general equation is given by Equation
Overtaking sight distance

The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a
vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic in the
opposite direction. The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured
along the center line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road
surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface. The factors that affect the
OSD are:

• Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle coming in
the opposite direction.
• Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
• Skill and reaction time of the driver
• Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
• Gradient of the road

Time-space diagram: Illustration of overtaking sight distance

The dynamics of the overtaking operation is given in the figure which is a time-space diagram. The
x-axis denotes the time and y-axis shows the distance traveled by the vehicles. The trajectory of the
slow moving vehicle (B) is shown as a straight line which indicates that it is traveling at a constant
speed. A fast moving vehicle (A) is traveling behind the vehicle B.

The trajectory of the vehicle is shown initially with a steeper slope. The dotted line indicates the
path of the vehicle A if B was absent. The vehicle A slows down to follow the vehicle B as shown in
the figure with same slope from t0 to t1. Then it overtakes the vehicle B and occupies the left lane at
time t3. The time duration T = t3 − t1 is the actual duration of the overtaking operation. The
snapshots of the road at time t0, t1, and t3 are shown on the left side of the figure.

From the the overtaking sight distance consists of three parts.

d1 the distance traveled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time t = t1 − t0

d2 the distance traveled by the vehicle during the actual overtaking operation T = t3 − t1

d3 is the distance traveled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking operation (T).

Therefore:

It is assumed that the vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed to vb, the speed of the slow moving
vehicle B and travels behind it during the reaction time t of the driver. So d1 is given by:

Then the vehicle A starts to accelerate, shifts the lane, overtake and shift back to the original lane.
The vehicle A maintains the spacing s before and after overtaking. The spacing s in m is given by:

Let T be the duration of actual overtaking. The distance traveled by B during the overtaking
operation is 2s+vbT. Also, during this time, vehicle A accelerated from initial velocity vb and
overtaking is completed while reaching final velocity v. Hence the distance traveled is given by:
 The distance traveled by the vehicle C moving at design speed v m/sec during overtaking operation
is given by: d3 = vT

where vb is the velocity of the slow moving vehicle in m/sec2 , t the reaction time of the driver in
sec, s is the spacing between the two vehicle in m given by equation 13.5 and a is the overtaking
vehicles acceleration in m/sec2 . In case the speed of the overtaken vehicle is not given, it can be
assumed that it moves 16 kmph slower the design speed. On divided highways, d3 need not be
considered

On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggests that it is not necessary to provide the
OSD, but only SSD is sufficient.

7. The speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles is 80 and 50 kmph respectively. On a two
way traffic load, the acceleration of overtaking vehicles is 0.99 m/sec2 . Calculate OSD,
mention the minimum length of overtaking zone and draw sketch of the overtaking zone
with all details. (April/May 2017)
8. (i) List and draw the various vertical curves adopted in highways.
(ii) Explain the controls and guidelines for safe, comfortable travel in highway
vertical curves.
(iii) List the various technical guidelines recommended for safety and comfort in case
of horizontal curves in highways.

(i) SUMMIT CURVE

Summit curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards.
They are formed when two gradients meet as illustrated in figure 1 in any of the
following four ways:
1. When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient [figure 1a]
2. When positive gradient meets a flat gradient [figure 1b].
3. When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient [figure 1c]
4. When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient [figure 1d]

Type of Summit Curve Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results, the
common practice has been to use parabolic curves in summit curves. This is
primarily because of the ease with it can be laid out as well as allowing a
comfortable transition from one gradient to another. Although a circular curve
offers equal sight distance at every point on the curve, for very small deviation
angles a circular curve and parabolic curves are almost congruent. Furthermore, the
use of parabolic curves were found to give excellent riding comfort.
 (ii) Design Consideration
In determining the type and length of the vertical curve, the design considerations are
comfort and security of the driver, and the appearance of the profile alignment. Among these,
sight distance requirements for the safety are most important on summit curves.
The stopping sight distance or absolute minimum sight distance should be provided on
these curves and where overtaking is not prohibited, overtaking sight distance or intermediate
sight distance should be provided as far as possible.
When a fast moving vehicle travels along a summit curve, there is less discomfort to the
passengers. This is because the centrifugal force will be acting upwards while the vehicle
negotiates a summit curve which is against the gravity and hence a part of the tyre pressure is
relieved.
Also if the curve is provided with adequate sight distance, the length would be sufficient
to ease the shock due to change in gradient. Circular summit curves are identical since the
radius remains same throughout and hence the sight distance.
From this point of view, transition curves are not desirable since it has varying radius
and so the sight distance will also vary. The deviation angles provided on summit curves for
highways are very large, and so the simple parabola is almost congruent to a circular arc,
between the same tangent points.
Parabolic curves are easy for computation and also it had been found out that it provides
good riding comfort to the drivers. It is also easy for field implementation. Due to all these
reasons, a simple parabolic curve is preferred as summit curve.

9. (i) Calculate the super-elevation to be provided for a horizontal curve with a radius of
400 m for a design speed 100 kmph in plain terrain. If super-elevation is restricted to
0.07, calculate the coefficient of lateral friction mobilized.
(ii) Calculate the safe stopping distance while travelling at a speed of 100 kmph on a
level road.

(iii) Draw the various components of overtaking sight distance on a straight stretch of
a highway and explain each one. (Nov/Dec 2015)
10. Find the rate of super elevation on a horizontal curve having a radius curvature of
90m. The design speed is 50Kmph and assume f= 0.15. (Nov/Dec 2017)

Solution:

(50)2
𝑒 + 0.15 =
127(90)

2500
𝑒=
(11430 − 0.15)
 2500
𝑒=
(11429)

𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟖

11. Explain shortly various special considerations to be given in design and construction
of Hilly roads in highway design. (Nov/Dec 2018)

(Refer Question no.4 in Part B)

12. Explain in brief the various classifications rural roads with its salient components as
per IRC Standards with neat sketches.(Nov/Dec 2018)

The Indian Highways as classified in types of roads are as follows.

(i) National Highways (NH)

(ii) State Highways (SH)
(iii) Major District Roads (MDR)
(iv) Other District Highways (ODR)
(v) Village Roads (VR)

(i) National highways

National highways are the main highways running through the length and breath of India,
connecting major parts, highways, capital of large states and industrial and tourist centers
including roads required for strategic movements for the defense of India. It was agreed
that a first step national trails should be constructed by the centre and that latter’s these
should be converted into roads to suit the traffic conditions.
 It was specified that national highways should be the frame on which the entire road
communication should be based on that these highways may not necessarily be of same
specification, but they must give an uninterrupted road communication through India and
should connect the entire road network.

(ii) State highways

State highways are the arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national highways of
adjacent state, district headquarters and important cities within the state and serving as the
main arteries for traffic to and from district roads.
 These highways are considered as main arteries of commerce by roads within a state or a
similar geographical unit. In some places they may be even carry heavier traffic than some
of the national highways but this will not alter their designation or function. The NH and SH
have some design speed and geometric design specification.

(iii) Major district roads

Major district roads are the important roads within a district serving areas of production
and markets and providing them with outlet to markets and connecting those with each
other or with the main highways of a district. the MDR has lower speed and geometric
design specifications than NH/SH.

(iv) Other district roads

Other district roads are roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with
outlet to market Centre’s taluk headquarters block development headquarters or other
main roads. These are of lower design specifications then MDR.

(v) Village roads

Village roads are road connecting villages or groups of villages with each other to the
nearest road of a higher category. It was specified that these villages roads should be in
essence farm tracks, but it was desired that the prevalent practice of leaving such tracks to
develop and maintain by themselves should be replaced by a plan for a designed and
regulated system.
 The Each type of roads from Expressway , National Highways (NH), State Highways (SH),
Major District Roads (MDR), Other District Highways (ODR), Village Roads (VR , briefly presented
its specifications in below the table.

Other
National State Major Village
Expressway District
Specifications Highways Highways District Roads
Roads
Roads

90-100m 12m
Right of way 45m 45m 25m 15m

7.5m
Carriage way 11.25m 12m 12m 9m 7.5m

40 km/hr
Speed 120 km/hr 100 km/hr 80 km/hr 60 km/hr 50 km/hr

90m
Horizontal curve 700-2600m 360m 360m 230m 155m

Vertical curve
1.5 %
(Minimum) 0.5 %
0.6 % 0.8 % 1.0 % 1.2 %

2.5 %
Camber 2.5% 2.5 % 2.5 % 2.5 % 2.5 %

Nil
Median 12-15m 4m 2m 1m 0.5m

Unpaved
Shoulder 2.5-3.0 m 2.5m 1m 0.5m 0.5m

7%
Super elevation 7% 7% 7% 7% 7%
 13. A road has a total width of 7.5 m including extra widening on curve and design speed
of 65kmph. Calculate the length of transition curve and its shift on this curve of 200m
radius. Allowable super elevation is 1 in 150 and pavement is rotated about centre
line. (Nov/Dec 2019), (Nov/Dec 2016)

Solution:
Design speed = 65kmph
Radius of curve = 200 m
Total pavement width = 7.5 m (Including Extra Widening)
Rate of Super elevation = 1 in 150

A) Length of transition curve, (Ls)

Length based allowable rate of centrifugal acceleration, C

80
C=
75+V
80
C = 75+65 = 0.57 m/sec3

As the value of C is between 0.5 and 0.8, C= 0.57 is accepted

0.0215𝑉 3
𝐿𝑠 =
𝐶𝑅

0.0215(653 ) 5904.437
𝐿𝑠 = = = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟕𝟗 𝒎
0.57𝑥200 114

Length by allowable rate of introduction of super elevation, E

𝐕𝟐 𝟔𝟓𝟐
Super elevation rate 𝒆 = =
𝟐𝟐𝟓𝐑 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝐱𝟐𝟎𝟎

𝟔𝟓𝟐
𝐞 = 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝐱𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 0.080

As this value is greater than the maximum allowable rate of 0.07, limit the value of e=0.07.
Check the safety against traverse skidding by finding the friction co efficient developed, fd for the
design speed of 65 kmph.

V2
𝑓𝑑 = −e
225R
 652
𝑓𝑑 = − 0.07
225x200

𝑓𝑑 = 0.0938 − 0.07= 0.023

Total width of the pavement at the curve, B=7.5 m

Total raise of outer edge of pavement with respect to the centre line

𝐸 𝑒𝐵 0.07𝑥7.5
= = = = 0.26 𝑚
2 2 2
Rate of super elevation, 1 in N=1 in 150

𝐸𝑁
𝐿𝑠 = = 0.26 𝑥 150 = 39 𝑚
2
Length as per IRC empirical formula

𝟐.𝟕 𝐕 𝟐 𝟐.𝟕 𝐱 𝟔𝟓𝟐 11407 .5

= = = = 57.03 m
𝐑 𝟐𝟎𝟎 200

Adopt the highest value 57 m as the design length of transition curve

B) Shift of transition curve, (Ls)

𝑳𝒔𝟐 𝟓𝟕𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝟒𝟗

𝑺= = = = 0.67m
𝟐𝟒𝑹 𝟐𝟒 𝒙 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎