Module 2

1 Transportation Engineering – 21CV52
Module 2
HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
ELEMENTS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN
Introduction
The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of
the highway such as horizontal and vertical alignments, sight distances and intersections. The
designer may be exposed to either plan a new highway network or improve existing highway
to meet the requirements of existing and the anticipated traffic.
It is possible to design and construct highway in stages but the geometric elements have to be
planned in the initial stages only it will be expensive and difficult to improve it later.
Geometric design of highways deals with following elements
a. Cross-Section Elements
b. Sight Distance Consideration,
c. Horizontal Alignment Details
d. Vertical Alignment Details
e. Intersection Elements
Design Controls and Criteria
Factors affecting the geometric designs are as follows
• Design speed
• Topography or terrain
• Traffic factors
• Design hourly volume and capacity
• Environmental and other factors
Design speed
The design speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements of
highways. The design speed is decided taking into account the overall requirements of the
highway. In India, different speed standards have been assigned depending upon the
importance or the class of the road such as National/State Highways, Major/Other District
Roads and Village Roads. Further the design speed standards are modified depending upon
the terrain or topography.
Topography
The topography or the terrain conditions influence the geometric design of highway
significantly. The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country across the
alignment, as plain, rolling, mountainous and steep terrains. The design standards specified
for different classes of roads, are different depending on the terrain classification. Further in
hilly terrain, it is necessary to allow for steeper gradients and sharper horizontal curves due to
the construction problems.
Table 2.1 Terrain Classification by the IRC
Terrain Classification General cross slope of the
country, %
Plain 0-10
Rolling 10-25
Mountainous 25-60
Steep >60
Traffic Factors
The factors associated with traffic that affect geometric design of road are the vehicular
characteristics and human characteristics of road users. It is difficult to decide the design
vehicle or standard traffic lane under mixed traffic flow.
Suggested design speed for Urban Roads in India (IRC)
Road Design Speed, kmph
Expressways 120
Arterials 80
Sub arterials 60
Collector streets 50
Local streets 30
Design Speeds for different classes of roads (IRC)

Road Design Speed in kmph
Classificatio
n
Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep
Ruling Minimum Ruling Minimum Rulin Minimum Ruling Minimum
g
Expressway 120 100 100 80 80 60 80 60
NH and SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20
Environmental and Other Factors
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air and noise pollution and other
local conditions should be given due considerations in the design of road geometrics. Some
of the arterial high-speed highways and expressways are designed for higher speed standards
and uninterrupted flow of vehicles by providing controlled access and grade separated
intersections.
CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE HIGHWAY
These include:
i. Typical cross-section of a highway
ii. Pavement surface characteristics
· Friction (skid resistance) – lateral and longitudinal
· Unevenness of the pavement
iii. Camber (cross-slope)
iv. Carriageway width
v. Median (Traffic Separator)
vi. Kerb
vii. Road margins
viii. Roadway width
ix. Right-of-way
Typical Cross Section of Highway
Friction (skid resistance): It is the resistance between the tyres of vehicles and the surface of
road. It is an important factor which influences the design of horizontal alignment and sight
distance requirements. Two types of skid resistances are considered in design. (i) Lateral skid
resistance – used in the design of horizontal curves and superelevation and (ii) longitudinal
skid resistance - used in the design of stopping sight distance.
The skid resistance depends on the following factors:
• Type and condition of pavement - cement concrete/bituminous /gravel roads; wet/dry;
smooth/rough, etc.
• Type and condition of tyres - new/worn-out and tread pattern
• Speed of vehicle
• Brake efficiency
• Load and tyre pressure
• Temperature of tyre and pavement.
Pavement Unevenness: In order to have good riding comfort and to minimise the vehicle
operating cost, the surface of the pavement should be even. The unevenness index can be
expressed as the cumulative sum of ups and downs measured along the length of the road in
terms of mm/km. It is measured directly using an instrument called ‘Bump integrator’. If the
unevenness index is <1500 mm/km, the pavement surface condition is said to be ‘good’,
1500 - 2500 is considered ‘satisfactory’, if >3500 mm/km, then said to be ‘repairs are
required’. Currently, the riding quality is expressed in terms of International Roughness Index
(IRI) in terms of ‘metre per kilometre’ which can be measured directly by another new
instrument called Roughometer. IRI is correlated with bump integrator values (BI) as given
by equation 2.1:
BI = 630(IRI)1.12
Camber or Cross slope
It is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction for drainage purpose.
Usually, a raised camber is provided to the pavement surface to serve two functions: (i) to
drain off the rainwater falling on the surface easily and (ii) to prevent the entry of water from
the sides or shoulders to the pavement layers. The degree of camber is expressed as 1in N or
x per cent and it depends on two factors: (i) type of pavement surface and (ii) rainfall
intensity. IRC has recommended the following ranges of degree of camber with respect to
pavement type and rainfall intensity
Carriageway width
Carriageway is the central portion of the road which carries the load. The area designated for
the movement of one row of vehicle is known as a traffic lane. The number of lanes and lane
width are used to determine the width of the carriageway. The lane width is decided by
considering the lateral placement of a heavy commercial vehicle (HCV) on roads, allowing
sufficient lateral clearance on either side of a moving vehicle. Number of lanes required will
depend on the design traffic volume.
Median or Traffic Separators

A traffic separator or a median is provided to separate the traffic in order to prevent head-on
collisions between vehicles driving in opposing directions on adjacent lanes. Generally, the
desirable width of median is 5m and minimum is 1.2m. The width is decided based on the
availability of land. Wider medians will avoid glare due to opposite vehicles during night
driving, whereas, in narrower medians, glare may be reduced by planting shrubs on the
median.
Kerbs
Kerb is the boundary stone provided between the carriageway and the footpath/median. Its
primary function is to prevent or arrest the movement of vehicles from the carriageway to the
footpath. Also, it prevents the flow of materials from the carriageway to its sides while doing
the surfacing work of pavement.
Different types of kerbs generally used are given below:
i. Low/Mountable type: It allows the vehicle to mount over the kerb on eventualities.
ii. Semi-barrier type: Provided where pedestrian traffic is considerable. On very emergency
condition vehicle can drive over the kerb.
iii. Barrier type: Provided at places of high pedestrian traffic; not possible to mount over
iv. Submerged type: Provided in rural areas where pavement and shoulders are to flush each
other; at the same time act as a supportive structure for pavement layers.
Road margins
These include various structures; viz. Shoulders, Footpath, Drive way, Cycle track, Parking
lane, Bus bay, Lay bye, and Frontage road.
Shoulders: are provided on the both sides of the carriageway to provide structural stability
and support to the edges of the pavement. Shoulders can be paved or unpaved depending on
the intensity of traffic flow, so that on emergencies, vehicles can make use of it. IRC
recommends a minimum width of 2.5 m for shoulders to accommodate brake-down vehicles
on it and for emergency parking. The surface of shoulder shall be rough and distinct in colour
with respect to the carriageway, in order to discourage drivers from using it as carriageway.
Guard rails or Guard stones: are provided to safeguard vehicles from running out of the
embankment particularly when embankment height exceeds 3 m.
Footpath: is provided for the safe movement of pedestrians along the road way, if both the
pedestrian traffic and vehicular traffic are high. IRC suggests an absolute minimum width of
1.5 m and a desirable minimum with of 2.0 m, with a cross slope of 2.5 to 3%. It should be
well-maintained too to encourage the pedestrian for using it.
Drive ways: are used to give access to fuel station or service station, etc. from the highway.
They should be located away from junctions, provided with easy curves at entry and exit.
Cycle tracks: are provided where cycle traffic is high. Minimum width is 2 m, increased at
the rate of 1 m for every additional lane.
Parking lanes: are provided to facilitate on-street parking. Minimum width suggested is 3 m
for parallel parking.
Bus bays: are provided to stop the buses safely at specified locations without interfering with
other traffic. They are constructed by recessing the kerb sufficiently for accommodating the
buses; located at least 75 m away from junction.
Lay byes: where vehicles can stop without interrupting other traffic; minimum length
required is 30m, 3m wide with the tapered ends.
Frontage roads or Service roads: are provided running parallel to parallel to the highway,
giving access to other properties and with controlled access to highway facility.
Roadway: Carriageway together with the shoulders and separators (median), if any, is called
road way. In embankment, the top width is considered for roadway, whereas in cutting, the
bottom width is taken. Roadway widths suggested by the IRC for different classes of roads
with respect to the road category and the nature of terrain conditions are given in Table
Roadway widths for different classes of roads (IRC)
Sl. No. Road Class Roadway width, m in
Plain and rolling Mountainous and steep
terrain terrain
NH and SH
1 (a) Single lane 12.00 6.25
(b) 2-lane 12.00 8.80
MDR
2 (a) Single lane 9.00 4.75
(b) 2-lane 9.00 -
ODR
3 (a) Single lane 7.50 4.75
(b) 2-lane 9.00 -
VR
4
Single lane 7.50 4.00
Right of way
It is the area acquired by the authorities for the construction of the highway. The transverse
distance between the two road boundaries is the width of the right of way and is known as
‘right of way width’ or ‘land width’. Its length will be the length of the highway. The land
widths recommended by the IRC for different classes of roads under different terrain
conditions are given in Table 2.7. Also, note that the land widths recommended for Urban
roads are given Table 2.8.
Land widths (m) for different classes of the roads (IRC)

Mountainous and steep
Plain and rolling terrain
Sl No. Road Class terrain
Open Area Built up area Open area Built up area
1 Expressway 90 - 60/30 -
2 NH and SH 45 30 24 20
3 MDR 25 20 18 15
4 ODR 15 15 15 12
5 VR 12 10 9 9
Land width (m) for urban roads (IRC)

Road class Land width, m
Arterials 50-60
Sub arterials 30-40
Collector streets 20-30
Local streets 10-20
Sight distance
Sight Distance and Importance Sight distance is the length of road visible ahead of the driver
at any instance. Sight distance available at any location of the carriageway is the actual
distance a driver with his eye level at a specified height above the pavement surface has
visibility of any stationary or moving object of specified height which is on the carriageway
ahead. The sight distance between the driver and the object is measured along the road
surface.
Restrictions to Sight Distance

Restrictions to visibility or sight distance may be caused in the following circumstances
 At horizontal curves, when the line of sight is obstructed by objects at the inner side
of the curve. Here the sight distance is measured along the centre line of the
horizontal curve when the vehicle driver is able to see another vehicle or object on the
carriageway
 At a vertical curve, the line of sight is obstructed by the road surface of the summit
curve (i.e., a vertical curve of the road with convexity upwards)
 In this case also the sight distance is measured along the centre line of the vertical
curve when the vehicle driver is able to see another vehicle or object on the road
 At an uncontrolled intersection when a driver from one of the approach roads is able
to sight a vehicle from another approach road proceeding towards the intersection,
Here the sight distance for each vehicle driver is the distance from the position when
the two can see each other up to the intersection point of the two roads.
Types of sight distance
Sight distance required by drivers applies to geometric designs of highways and for
traffic control. Three types of sight distances are considered in the design
a. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) or absolute minimum sight distance

b. Safe Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) or Passing Sight Distance
c. Safe Sight Distance for entering into uncontrolled intersections.
Apart from the three situations mentioned above, the following sight distances are
considered by the IRC in highway design
d. Intermediate Sight Distance

e. Head Light Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Factors on which visibility or sight distance depends
The minimum distance visible to a driver ahead or the sight distance available on a
highway at any spot should be of sufficient length to safely stop a vehicle travelling at
design speed, without collision with any other obstruction. Therefore, this Stopping Sight
Distance (SSD) is also called Absolute Minimum Sight Distance. This is also sometimes
called NonPassing Sight Distance.
The sight distance available to a driver travelling on a road at any instance depends
on the following factors:
 Features of the road ahead

 Height of the driver's eye above the road surface
 Height of the object above the road surface
IRC has suggested the height of eye level of driver as 1.2 m and the height of the object as
0.15 m above the road surface.
Factors on which stopping distance depends

The distance within which a motor vehicle can be stopped depends upon the factors listed
below
a. Total reaction time of the driver
b. Speed of vehicle
c. Efficiency of Brakes
d. Frictional Resistance between the road and the tyre
e. Gradient of the road, if any
Total reaction time of driver
Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to
the driver to the instant the brakes are effectively applied. The actual time gap or the
reaction time of the driver depends on several factors. During this period of time the vehicle
travels a certain distance at the original speed, which may be assumed to be the design
speed of the road. Thus, the stopping distance increases with increase reaction time of the
driver. The total reaction time
(t) may be split up into two parts.
Perception Time
It is the time required for a driver to realise that brakes must be applied. It is the time from
the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver to the instant he realises that
the vehicle needs to be stopped. The perception time varies from driver to driver and also
depends on several other factors such as the distance of object and other environmental
conditions.
Brake Reaction
Time It is also depending on several factors including the skill of the driver, the type of the
problems and various other environmental factors. The total reaction time may be explained
with the help of PIEV theory.
PIEV theory
According to PIEV theory, the total reaction time of the driver is split into four parts, viz.,
time taken by the driver for
1. Perception
2. Intellection
3. Emotion
4. Volition
The PIEV time of a driver also depends on several factors such as physical and
psychological characteristics of the driver, type of the problem involved, environmental
conditions and temporary factors.
Speed of vehicle
The stopping distance depends very much on the speed of the vehicle. First, during
the total reaction time of the driver the distance moved by the vehicle will depend on the
speed. Second, the braking distance or the distance moved by the vehicle after applying the
brakes, before coming to a stop depends also on the initial speed of the vehicle.
Efficiency of brakes
The braking efficiency is said to be 100 percent if the wheels are fully locked
preventing them from rotating on application of the brakes. This will result in 100 percent
skidding which is normally undesirable, except in utmost emergency. Also skidding is
considered to be dangerous, as it is not possible for the driver to easily control a vehicle
after it starts skidding.
Frictional resistance between road and tyres

The factional resistance developed between road and tyres depends upon the 'skid
resistance' or the coefficient of friction, f between the road surface and the tyres of the
vehicle.
Analysis of Stopping Distance The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of
a. The distance travelled by the vehicle at uniform speed during the total reaction
time, t which is known as LAG DISTANCE.
b. The distance travelled by the vehicle after the applications of the brakes, until the
vehicles comes to a dead stop which is known as BRAKING DISTANCE.
Lag distance
During the total reaction time, t seconds the vehicle may be assumed to move forward with
a uniform speed at which the vehicle has been moving and this speed may be taken as the
design speed. If ‘v’ is the design speed in m/sec and ‘t’ is the total reaction time of the
driver in seconds, then
Lag Distance = v t
1000
If the design speed is V kmph, then the lag distance = Vt ×
60 ×60
= 0.278 V t ≈ 0.28 V t in meters
IRC has recommended the value of reaction time t as 2.5 sec for calculation of
Stopping Distance.
Braking distance on level surface

The coefficient of friction f depends on several factors such as the type and
condition of the pavement and the value of f decreases with the increase in speed. IRC has
recommended a set of friction co efficient values for the determination of stopping sight
distance.
Speed, kmph 20 - 30 40 50 60 80 100 and above
Longitudinal friction coefficient 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.35
value, f for SSD
2
v
The braking distance, l =
2 gf
Where l - braking distance, m
v - speed of the vehicle, m/sec
f - design coefficient of friction, f
(0.40 to 0.35) g – acceleration
due to gravity – 9.8 m/sec2
Stopping distance on level road
Stopping Distance, SD = Lag Distance + Braking Distance
2
v
SSD = vt+ ∈meters
2 gf
If speed is V kmph, stopping distance
2
v
SSD = 0.278 vt+ ∈meters
254 f
Stopping distance at slopes
2
v
SSD = vt+ ∈meters
2 g (f ± 0.01 n)
If speed is V kmph, stopping distance
2
v
SSD = 0.278 vt+ ∈meters
254 (f ± 0.01 n)
IRC has recommended the SSD values for different speed as follows
Design Speed, kmph 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
SSD for design, m 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

Over Taking Requirement If all the vehicles travel along a road at the design speed,
then theoretically there should be no need for any overtaking. In fact, all vehicles do not
move at the design speed as each driver is free to travel at lower speeds and this is
particularly true under Mixed Traffic conditions. It is necessary for fast moving vehicle to
overtake or pass the slow- moving traffic.
The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known
as Minimum Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) or Safe Passing Sight Distance.
The OSD is the distance measured along the centre line of the road which a driver
with his eye level at 1.2m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2m above
the road surface.
Analysis of OSD on a 2 – way road

Simple overtaking process on a 2 – lane highway with 2 – way traffic movement
Vehicle a travelling at the design speed v m/sec or V kmph desires to overtake another
slow- moving vehicle B moving at a speed of vb m/sec or V b kmph. The vehicle A has to
accelerate, shift to the adjacent right-side lane, complete the overtaking manoeuvre and
return to the left lane, before oncoming vehicle C approaches the overtaking stretch.
The overtaking manoeuvre may be split up into 3 operations, thus dividing OSD into 3 parts
d1, d2 and d3.
 d1 is the distance (m) travelled by the overtaking vehicle A during the reaction
time, t (secs) of the driver from position A1 to A2 before starting to overtake the
slow vehicle B.
 d2 is the distance travelled (m) travelled by the vehicle A during the actual
overtaking operation during T (secs) from position A2 to A3.
 d3 is the distance (m) travelled by oncoming vehicle C during the actual
overtaking operation of A during T (secs) from position C1 to C2.
Thus, on a 2-lane road with 2-way traffic the OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 in meters
Assumptions made in the analysis
Assumptions made to calculate the values of d1,d2 and d3 (m) are given below:
 The overtaking vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed from the design speed v
(m/sec) to Vb (m/sec) of the slow vehicle B and move behind it, allowing a space s
(m), till there is an opportunity for safe overtaking operation
 When the driver of vehicle A finds sufficient clear gap ahead, decides within a
reaction time t (sec) to accelerate and overtake the vehicle B, during which the
vehicle A moves at speed vb (m/sec) through a distance d1 from position A1 to A2.
 The vehicle A accelerates and overtakes the slow vehicle B within a distance d2
during the overtaking time, T (sec) between the position A2 to A3
 The distance d2 is split up into three parts
a.
Spacing, s (m) between A2 and B
b.
Distance b (m) travelled by the slow vehicle B between B1 and B2
during the overtaking manoeuvre of A
c.
Spacing (m) between B2 and A3
 During this overtaking time T (sec), the vehicle C coming from opposite direction
travels through a distance d3 from position C1 to C2
Determination of the components of OSD
 From position A1 to A2, the distance, d1 (m) travelled by overtaking vehicle A, at
the reduced speed vb (m/sec) during the reaction time, t (sec) = vb t (m). The IRC
suggests that this reaction time Y of the driver may be taken as 2.0 sec as an average
value, as the aim of the driver is only to find an opportunity to overtake. Therefore
d1 = 2vb
 From position A2, the vehicle A starts accelerating, shifts to the adjoining lane,
overtakes the vehicle B, and shifts back to its original lane ahead of B in position A3
during the overtaking time, T (sec). The straight distance between position A2 and
A3 is taken as d2 (m), which is further split into three parts, viz.,
d2 = (s+b+s)
 The minimum distance between position A2 and B1 may be taken as the minimum
spacing s (m) between the two vehicles while moving with the speed vb (m/sec).
The minimum spacing between vehicles depends on their speed and is given by
empirical formula
s = (0.7vb +6)
 Now the time T depends on speed of overtaken vehicle B and the average
acceleration a (m/sec2) of overtaking vehicle A. The overtaking time T (sec) may be
calculated by equating the distance d2 to (vb T + ½ a T 2 ) using the general formula
for the distance travelled by a uniformly accelerating body with initial speed vb
m/sec and a is the average acceleration during overtaking in m/sec2.
d2 = (vb T +2s)
 The distance travelled by vehicle C moving at design speed v (m/sec) during the
overtaking operation of vehicle A i.e. during time T (sec) is the distance d2 (m)
between positions C1 to C2. Hence,
d3 = VT (m)
In m/sec units
OSD = (d1 + d2 + d3) = (vbt +vbT+2s+vT)
Here
vb = initial speed of overtaking vehicle, m/s t = reaction time of driver = 2 sec
V = speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed, kmph
T=
√ 4s
a
s = spacing of vehicles = (0.7 vb + 6)
a= average acceleration during

overtaking, m/sec. In kmph units
OSD = 0.28 Vbt + 0.28 VbT + 2s + 0.28 VT
Here
Vb = initial speed of overtaking vehicle, kmph t = reaction time of driver = 2 sec
V = speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed, kmph
T=
√ 4 ×3.6 s
A
=
√
14.4 s
A
s = spacing of vehicles = (0.2 Vb + 6)
A = average acceleration during overtaking, kmph

In case the speed of overtaken vehicle (vb or Vb) is not given, the same may be
assumed as 4.5 m/sec or 16 kmph less than the design speed of the highway.
Therefore,
Vb= (v - 4.5) m/sec Vb= (V - 16) kmph

Where: v is the design speed in m/sec V is the design speed in kmph.
The acceleration of the overtaking vehicle varies depending on several factors such
as the make and model of the vehicle, its condition, load and the speed; actual
acceleration also depends on the characteristics of the driver. The average rate of
acceleration during overtaking manoeuvre may be taken corresponding to the
design speed.
Maximum overtaking acceleration at different speeds
Overtaking sight distance on two-lane highways for different speeds
Criteria for sight distance requirement on highway Absolute Minimum Sight Distance
SSD for the design speed is the absolute mining sight distance and this should be made
available all along the road stretch irrespective of the category of road. If on any road
stretch SSD is not available due to any reason such as obstruction to vision, immediate
steps should be taken to either remove the obstruction to the sight line or install suitable
regulatory signs to specify the speed limit along with appropriate warning signs.
Overtaking Sight Distance
It is desirable that adequate overtaking sight distance is available on most of the road
stretches such that the vehicles travelling at the design speed can overtake slow vehicles at
the earliest opportunity.
 On road stretches with two-way traffic movement, the minimum overtaking

distance should be (d1 + d2 + d3) where overtaking is not prohibited.
 On divided highways and on roads with one way traffic regulation, the overtaking
distance need be only (d1 + d2) as no vehicle is expected from the opposite
direction.
 On divided highways with four or more lanes, it is not essential to provide the
usual OSD; however, the sight distance on any highway should be more than the
SSD, which is the absolute minimum sight distance.
Overtaking Zones
It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the length of road visible
ahead at every point is sufficient for safe overtaking. This is seldom practicable and there
may be stretches where the safe overtaking distance cannot be provided. In such zones
where overtaking or passing is not safe or is not possible, sign posts should be installed
indicating No Passing or Overtaking Prohibited before such restricted zones start.
However overtaking opportunity for vehicles moving at design speed should be given at as
frequent intervals as possible. These zones which are meant for overtaking are called
Overtaking Zones.
The width of carriageway and the length of overtaking zone should sufficient for
safe overtaking. Sign posts should be installed at sufficient distance m advance to indicate
the start of the overtaking zones, this distance may be equal to
 (d1 + d2) for one-way roads
 (d1 + d2 + d3) for two-way roads
The minimum length of overtaking zone = 3 (OSD) The desirable length of overtaking
zones = 5 (OSD) Intermediate sight distance
At stretches of the road where requires OSD cannot be provided, as far as possible
intermediate Sight Distance ISD equal to twice SSD may be provided. The measurement of
the ISD may be made assuming both the height of the eye level of the driver and the object
to be 1.2 metres above the road surface. Therefore
ISD = 2SSD
Sight Distance at Uncontrolled Intersections

It is important that on all approaches of intersecting roads, there is a clear view across the
corners from a sufficient distance so as to avoid collision of vehicles. This is all the
more important at uncontrolled intersections. The sight line is obstructed by structures or
other objects at the corners of the intersections. The area of unobstructed sight formed by
the lines of vision is called the sight triangle.
The design of sight distance at intersections may be based on three possible
conditions,
a. Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed
b. Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
c. Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
d. Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed
Design of horizontal alignment General
Often changes in the direction are necessitated in highway alignment due to various
reasons such as topographic considerations, obligatory points. The geometric design
elements pertaining to horizontal alignment of highway should consider safe and
comfortable movement of vehicles at the designated design speed of the highway. It is
therefore necessary to avoid sudden changes in direction with sharp curves or reverse
curves which could not be safely and conveniently negotiated by the vehicles at design
speed. Improper design of horizontal alignment of roads would necessitate speed changes
resulting m higher accident rate and increase in vehicle operation cost.
Various design elements to be considered in the horizontal alignment are design
speed radius of circular curve, type and length of transition curves, super elevation,
widening of pavement on curves and required set-back distance for fulfilling sight distance
requirements.
Design Speed
The design speed is the main factor on which geometric design elements depends.
In other words, the geometric details of a highway mainly depend on the design speed. All
the important geometric elements such as sight distances, radius of horizontal curve, length
of horizontal transition curve, rate of super elevation, extra widening of pavement at
horizontal curve, length of summit and valley curves are dependent on the design speed.
The design speed of roads depends upon
1. Class of the Road

2. Terrain
The speed standards of a particular class of road thus depends on the classification
of terrain through which it passes. The terrains have been classified as plain,
mountainous and steep, depending on the cross slope of the country as given in
table below
Terrain classification Cross slope of the country, percent
Plain 0-10
Rolling 10-25
Mountainous 25-60
Steep greater than 60
Two values of design speeds are considered at the design stage of highway geometries
namely,
1. Ruling design speed
2. Minimum design speed
As a general rule, attempt should be made to design all the geometric element of the
highway for the 'ruling design speed'. This is because ruling design speeds are guiding
criteria for the geometric design. However, 'minimum design speed’ may be accepted
where site conditions or economic considerations warrant.
The ruling design speeds suggested for the National and State Highways in India
passing through plain terrain is 100 kmph and through rolling terrain is 80kmph and
minimum design speed values standardized by the IRC for of roads on different terrains in
rural (non-urban) areas are given in Table below
The recommended design speeds for different classes of urban roads

1. Arterial Roads: 80 Kmph
2. Sub-Arterial Roads: 60 Kmph

3. Collector Streets: 50 Kmph
4. Local Streets: 30 Kmph
Horizontal Curves
A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the
centre line of a road. A simple circular curve may be designated by either the radius, R of
the curve in meters or the degree, D of the curve. The degree of the curve (D°) is the
central angle subtended by an arc of length 30 m and is given by the relation, RD𝜋/180 =
30. Therefore, the relation between the radius and degree of the circular curve is given by,
R = 1720 / D.
When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally
outwards through the centre of gravity of the vehicle. The centrifugal force developed
depends on the radius of the horizontal curve and the speed of the vehicle negotiating the
curve. This centrifugal force is counteracted by the transverse frictional resistance
developed between the tyres and the pavement which enables the vehicle to change the
direction along the curve and to maintain the stability of the vehicle. Centrifugal force P is
given by the equation:
2
Wv
P=
gR
Where
P = centrifugal force, kg
W = weight of the vehicle, kg
R = radius of the circular curve, m v = speed of vehicle, m/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2
The ratio of the centrifugal force to the weight of the vehicle, P/W is known as the
'centrifugal ratio' or the 'impact factor'. Therefore, centrifugal ratio
2
P v
=
W gR
The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has the following
two effects: 1)
1. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels
2. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards

Overturning Effect
The overturning moment due to centrifugal force, P = P x h This is resisted by the
restoring moment due to weight of the vehicle W and is equal to (Wb/2) The
Wb P b
equilibrium condition for overturning will occur when Ph= or = overturning will
2 W 2h
occur.
2
b v
And the safety >
2h gR
Transverse Skidding Effect
The centrifugal force developed has the tendency to push the vehicle outwards in the
transverse direction.
The equilibrium condition for the transverse skid resistance developed is given by F = FA + FB
= f (RA + RB) = f W
Where,
f = coefficient of friction between the tyre and the pavement surface in the transverse
direction
RA, RB = Normal Reactions at the wheels A and B
W = weight of the vehicle
2
P v
When the centrifugal ratio =f =
W gR
2
v
For safety f >
gR
Thus, to avoid both overturning and lateral skidding on a horizontal curve, the
P b
<
W 2h
Super elevation
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the

tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised
with respect to the inner edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout the
length of the horizontal curve. This transverse inclination to the pavement surface
is known as super elevation or cant or banking.
The rate of super elevation, 'e' is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer
edge with respect to the horizontal width.
NL E
e = tan θ = sin θ = =
ML B
E – Relative elevation of the outer edge B – Width of the pavement The general
equation for design of super elevation is given by
2
v
e+f =
gR
e = rate of super elevation = tan θ
f = design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15 v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
R = radius of the horizontal curve, m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2
If the speed of the vehicle is given in kmph then the equation is

( 0.278 V )2 v2
e+f = =
9.81 R 127 R
The maximum value of super elevation is limited to 7% or 0.07 and the minimum
value of lateral friction of coefficient f for highway is 0.15.
In some situations, particularly at, some intersections it is not possible to provide

super elevation and in such cases the friction counteracts the centrifugal force fully.
The allowable speed of vehicle negotiating a turn should be restricted to the
condition.
V = √ 127 fR
The super elevation depends upon
1. Radius of the curve R,

2. Speed of the vehicle V
3. The coefficient of lateral friction f
Steps for Super Elevation Design
The steps for the design of super elevation in India from practical considerations
(as per the IRC Guidelines) are given below:
1. The super elevation is calculated for 75% of design speed (0.75 v m/sec or 0.75 V
kmph), neglecting the friction
2 2
(0.75 V ) (0.75 V )
e= =
gR 127 R
2
V
e=
225 R
2. If the calculated value of 'e' is less than 7% or 0.07 the value so obtained provided.
If the value of 'e' as per the above equation exceeds 0.07 then provide the
maximum super elevation equal to 0.07 and proceed with steps 3 or 4

3. Check the coefficient of friction developed for the maximum value e = 0.07 at the
full value of design speed, v m/sec or V kmph
( )
2 2
V V
f= −0.07 ∨( −0.07)
gR 127 R
If the value of f thus calculated is less than 0.15, the super elevation of 0.07 is safe
for the design speed and this is accepted as the design super elevation. If not, either
the radius of the horizontal curve has to be increased or the speed has to be
restricted to the safe value which will be less than the design speed. The restricted
speed or the allowable speed is calculated as given in step 4.
4. The allowable speed or restricted speed (va m/sec or Va kmph) at the cm1 ' is
calculated by considering the. design coefficient of lateral friction and the maximum
super elevation. The safe allowable speed.
m
Va = √ 0.22 gR=√ 2.156 R
s
Or
Va = √ 27.94 R kmph
If the allowable speed, as calculated above is higher than the design speed design,
then the design is adequate and provide a super elevation of 'e' equal to 0.07. If the
allowable speed is less than the design speed, the speed is limited to the allowable Va kmph
calculated above. If the allowable speed Va is less than the design speed V, appropriate
warning signs and speed limit signs are to be installed.
Attainment of Super elevation in the field
Introduction of super elevation on a horizontal curve in the field is an important

feature in construction. The road cross section at the straight portion is cambered with the
crown at the center of the pavement and sloping down towards both the edges. But the
cross section on the portion of circular curve of the road is super elevated with a uniform
tilt sloping down from the outer edge of the pavement up to inner edge.
Thus, the crowned camber sections at the straight before the start of the transition
curve should be changed to a single cross slope equal to the desired superelevation at the
beginning of the circular curve. This change may be conveniently attained at a gradual and
uniform rate through the length of horizontal transition curve. The full superelevation is
attained by the end of transition curve or at the beginning of the circular curve.
The attainment of superelevation may be split up into two parts:
a. Elimination of crown of the cambered section

b. Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
Radius of horizontal curve
Horizontal curves of highways are generally designed for the specified

ruling design speed of the highway. However, if this is not possible due to site
restrictions, the horizontal curves may be designed considering the specified
minimum design speed of the highway.
For a particular speed of vehicle, the centrifugal force is dependent on the

radius of the horizontal curve. To keep the centrifugal ratio P/W or v2 /g R
within a low limit, the radius of the horizontal curve should be kept
correspondingly high. The centrifugal force, P developed due to a vehicle
negotiating a horizontal curve of radius, R at a speed, v m/sec or V kmph is
counteracted by the superelevation, e and lateral friction coefficient, f.
2 2
V V
Rruling = or Rruling =
( e+ f ) g 127 ( e+ f )
The minimum design speed is V’ Kmph, the absolute minimum radius of
horizontal
Curve
2
V
Rmin =
127 ( e+ f )
v and V – ruling speeds in m/sec and Kmph
V’ – minimum design speed in kmph
e - rate of superelevation, (0.07)
f – co efficient of friction 0.15
g - acceleration due to gravity 9.8 m/sec2

Widening of pavement on horizontal curves
Objectives
1. An automobile such as car, bus or truck has a rigid wheel base and only the front
wheels can be turned. When the vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve,
the rear wheels do not follow the same path as that of the front wheels. This
phenomenon is called 'off tracking'. Normally at low speeds and up to the design
speed when no lateral slipping of rear wheels take place, the rear wheels follow the
inner path on the curve as compared with those of the corresponding front wheels.
This means that if inner front wheel takes a path on the inner edge of a pavement at
a horizontal curve, inner rear wheel will be off the pavement on the inner shoulder.
The off-tracking depends on
 The length of the wheel base of the vehicle
 The turning angle or the radius of the horizontal curve negotiated.
2. At speeds, higher than the design speeds when the superelevation and lateral friction
developed are not fully able to counteract the outwards thrust due to the centrifugal
force, some transverse skidding may occur and the rear wheels may take paths on
the outside of those traced by the front wheels on the horizontal curves. However,
this occurs only at excessively high speeds.
3. The path traced by the wheels of a trailer in the case of trailer units, is also likely to
be on either side of the central path of the towing vehicle, depending on the speed,
rigidity of the universal joints and pavement roughness.
4. In order to take curved path with larger radius and to have greater visibility at curve,
the drivers have tendency not to follow the central path of the lane, but to use the
outer side at the beginning of a curve.
5. While two vehicles cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is a psychological
tendency to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles, than on straights for
increase safety
Thus, the required extra widening of the pavement at the horizontal curves, We depends on
a. The Length of wheel based of the vehicle l,

b. Radius of the curve negotiated R
c. The psychological factor which is a function of the speed of the vehicle and the
radius of the curve.
It has been a practice therefore to provide extra width of pavement on horizontal curves
when the radius is less than about 300 m.
Analysis of Extra Widening on Horizontal Curves
The extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves is divided into two parts.
Mechanical Widening
The widening required to account for the off-tracking due to rigidity of wheel base is
called as ‘Mechanical Widening’ (Wm) and is given by
2
nl
W m=
2R
Psychological Widening
Widening of pavements has to be done for some psychological reasons also. There
is a tendency for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves.
Some extra space is to be provided for more clearance for the crossing and
overtaking operations on curves. IRC proposed an empirical relation for the
psychological widening at horizontal curves.
v
W ps =
9.5 √ R
Hence Total widening We is given by We = Wm+Wps
2
nl V
W e= +
2 R 9.5 √ R
R – Radius of the curve
n – Number of lanes
l – length of wheel base of longest vehicle, m
Note: For multi lane roads, the pavement widening is calculated by adding half
extra width of two lane roads to each lane of the multi lane road.
Horizontal Transition Curves
Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment from straight to

circular curve gradually and has a radius which decreases from infinity at the straight end
(tangent point) to the desired radius of the circular curve at the other end (curve point)
Thus, the functions of transition curve in the horizontal alignment are given below:
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases
the comfort of passengers.
 To enable the driver, turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and safety
 To enable gradual introduction of the designed super elevation and extra
widening of pavement at the start of the circular curve.
 To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road
Type of transition curve Different types of transition curves are
a. Spiral or Clothoid
b. Cubic Parabola
c. Lemniscates
IRC recommends spiral as the transition curve because:
 It full fills the requirement of an ideal transition, as the rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration is uniform throughout the length.
 The geometric property of spiral is such that the calculation and setting out the
curve in the field is simple and easy.
Length of transition curve
The length of the transition curve should be determined as the maximum of the
following three criteria
1. Rate of Change of Centrifugal Acceleration

2. Rate of Change of Super Elevation
3. An Empirical Formula Given by IRC
Rate of Change of Centrifugal Acceleration

At the tangent point, radius is infinity and hence centrifugal acceleration (v2 /R) is
zero, as the radius is infinity. At the end of the transition, the radius R has minimum value
Rm. Hence the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is distributed over a length Ls.
Let the length of transition curve be Ls m. If ‘t’ is the time taken in seconds to
traverse this transition length at uniform design speed of v m/sec, t = Ls/v. The
maximum centrifugal acceleration of v2 /R is introduced in time t through the transition
length Ls and hence the rate of centrifugal acceleration C is given by
2
v
2 3
v R Ls v
C= = =
Rt v Ls R
The IRC has recommended the following equation
80
C=
(75+V )
The minimum and maximum value of C are limited to 0.5 and 0.8
The length of the transition curve Ls is given by

3
v
Ls =
RC
If the design speed is given in kmph

3
v
Ls =
46.5 RC
C - rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration, m/sec3 Ls – length of
transition curve
R – radius of the circular curve, m
Rate of introduction of super-elevation
Raise (E) of the outer edge with respect to inner edge is given by
E = eB = e(W +We)
If it is assumed that the pavement is rotated about the centre line after neutralizing the
camber, then the max amount by which the outer edge is to be raised at the circular curve
with respect to the centre = E/2. Hence the rate of change of this raise from 0 to E is
achieved gradually with a gradient of 1 in N over the length of the transition curve
(typical range of N is 60-150).
Therefore, the length of the transition curve Ls is given by
EN eN
Ls = = =(W + W e )
2 2
If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge, the length of transition curve is given by
Ls = EN = eN (W +W e )
By Empirical Formula
According to IRC standards the length of horizontal transition curve Ls should not be less
than the value given by the following formulas for two terrain classification
For plain and rolling terrain

2
2.7 V
Ls =
2
For mountainous and steep terrain
2
V
Ls =
2
Setting out Transition Curve Transition curves are introduced between the tangent points of
the straight stretches and the end of the circular curve on both sides. If the length of
transition curve is Ls and the radius of the circular curve is R, the shift S of the transition
curve is given by the formula
2
L
S= s
24 R
Setback Distance on Horizontal Curves
Setback distance m or the clearance distance is the distance required from the centreline of
a horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight
distance at a horizontal curve. The setback distance depends on:
a. Required Sight Distance, S

b. Radius of Horizontal Curve, R
c. Length of the curve, Lc which may be greater or lesser than S
a. When Lc > S
When the length of curve Lc is greater than the sight distance S, let the angle
subtended by the arc length S at the curve be α. On narrow roads such as single lane
roads, the sight distance is measured along the centre line of the road and the angle
subtended at the centre, α is equal to S/R radians. Therefore, half central angle id
given by
∝ S 180 S
= radians= degrees
2 2R 2 πR
The setback distance m, required from the centre line on narrow road is given by
α
m = R – R cos
2
In case of wide roads with 2 or more lanes, if d is the distance between the centre line of the
road and the centre line of the inside lane in meters, the sight distance is measured along the
middle of the inner side lanes and the setback distance m’ is given by
,
’ α
m = R-(R-d)cos
2
where
,
α 180 S
= degrees
2 2 π ( R−d )
b. When Lc < S
If the length of the curve Lc is less than the required sight distance S, then the angle
α subtended at the center is determined with reference to the length of circular
curve Lc and the setback distance m’ is worked out in 2 parts
α
,
180 Lc
= degrees
2 2 π ( R−d )
The setback distance is given by
α (S−Lc )
, ,
α
m’ = R – (R-d) cos + sin
2 2 2
Curve Resistance
When the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation of the front and the
rear wheels are different. The front wheels are turned to move the vehicle along the curve,
whereas the rear wheels seldom turn. The rear wheels exert a tractive force T in the PQ
direction. The tractive force available on the front wheels is T cos θ in the PS direction.
This is less than the actual tractive force, T applied. Hence, the loss of tractive force for a
vehicle to negotiate a horizontal curve is:
CR = T – T cos α = T (1 – cos α)
Design of vertical alignment
Introduction
The natural ground or the topography may be level at some places, but may
have slopes of varying magnitudes at other locations. While aligning a highway it
is the common practice to follow the general topography or profile of the land,
keeping in view the drainage and other requirements on each stretch. This is
particularly with a view to minimise deep cuttings and very high embankments.
Hence the vertical profile of a road would have level stretches as well as slopes or
grades.
In order to have smooth vehicle movements on the roads, the changes in the
gradient should be smoothened out by the vertical curves. The vertical alignment is
the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road. The vertical alignment
consists of grades and vertical curves.
The vertical alignment of a highway influences

1. Vehicle Speed
2. Acceleration and Deceleration
3. Stopping Distance
4. Sight Distance
5. Comfort While Travelling at High Speeds
6. Vehicle Operation Cost.
Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in x (1 vertical unit to x horizontal units).
The gradient is also expressed as percentages such as n%, the slope being n vertical
units to 100 horizontal units
Types of gradient
a. Ruling Gradient
b. Limiting Gradient
c. Exceptional Gradient
d. Minimum Gradient
Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with which the
designer attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends on the terrain,
length of the grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal
curve. In plain terrain, it may be possible to provide at gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not
economical and sometimes not possible also. The IRC has recommended ruling gradient
values of
a. 1 in 30 on plain and rolling terrain

b. 1 in 20 on mountainous terrain
c. 1 in 16.7 on steep terrain.
Limiting gradient
Where topography of a place compels adopting steeper gradient than the ruling
gradient, 'limiting gradient' is used in view of enormous increase in cost in constructing
roads with gentler gradients. However, the length of continuous grade line steeper than
ruling gradient should be limited. On rolling terrain and on hill roads, it may be frequently
necessary to exceed ruling gradient and adopt limiting gradient, but care should be taken to
separate such stretches of steep gradients by providing either a level road or a road with
easier grade.
Exceptional gradient
In some extra ordinary situations, it may be unavoidable to provide still

steeper gradients than limiting gradient at least for short stretches and in such cases
the steeper gradient up to 'exceptional gradient' may be provided. However, the
exceptional gradient should be strictly limited only for short stretches not
exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.
Minimum gradient
This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important.

Camber will take care of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along
the side drains requires some slope for smooth flow of water.
The road with zero gradient passing through level land and open side drains are
provided with a gradient of 1 in 400.A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient to drain
water in concrete drains or gutter, on inferior surface of drains 1 in 200 or 0.5%, on kutcha
open drains steeper slope up to 1 in 100 or 1 % may be provided.
Gradient for roads in different terrains
Grade Compensation on Horizontal Curve

When sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced on a road which has already the maximum
permissible gradient, then the gradient should be decreased to compensate for the loss of
tractive effort due to curve. This reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is called
Grade compensation or compensation in gradiebt at the horizontal curve, which is
intended to off-set the extra tractive effort involved at the curve. This is calculated from
the below equation
30+ R
Grade Compensation % =
R
The max value of grade compensation is limited to 75/R, where R is the radius of
the circular curve in m As per IRC the grade compensation is not necessary for
gradients flatter than 4.0 %, and therefore when applying grade compensation
correction, the gradients need not be eased beyond 4 %. The compensated gradient
= Ruling Gradient – Grade Compensation.
Vertical Curves
Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary to

introduce vertical curve at the intersections of different grades to smoothen out the
vertical profile and thus ease off the changes in gradients for the fast moving
vehicles. The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into two
categories:
a. Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

b. Valley curves or sag curves with concavity upwards
Summit curves
Summit curves with convexity upwards are formed in any one of the cases as given below
a. When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient

b. When positive gradient meets a at gradient
c. When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient.
d. When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient
The deviation angle, N between the two intersecting gradients is equal to

the algebraic difference between them. Among all the cases, the deviation angle
will be maximum when an ascending gradient, (+ n1) meets with a descending
gradient, (- n2). Therefore, deviation angle, N= n1 - (- n2) = (n1 + n2).
When a fast moving vehicle travels along a summit curve, the centrifugal
force will act upwards, against gravity and hence a part of the self-weight of the
vehicle is relieved resulting in reduction in pressure on the tyres and on the
suspension springs of the vehicle suspensions. So there is no problem of discomfort
to passengers on summit curves, particularly because the deviation angles on roads
are quite small. Also if the summit curve is designed to have adequate sight
distance, the length of the summit curve would be long enough to ease the shock
due to change in gradients.
Type of Summit Curve
Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results; the common practice has
been to use parabolic curves in summit curves. This is primarily because of the
ease with it can be laid out as well as allowing a comfortable transition from one
gradient to another.
Length of the summit curve
The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the length
of the curve which is parabolic. As noted earlier, the length of the curve is guided
by the sight distance consideration. Length of the summit curve for SSD.
a. When L > SSD

The equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by
2
NS
L= 2
( √ 2 H + √ 2 h)
Here: L – length of summit curve, m
S – SSD, m
N – Deviation angle, equal to algebraic difference in grades, radians, or

tangent of deviation angle
H - Height of eye level of driver above road surface, m = 1.2m
h – Height of subject above the pavement surface, m = 0.15m As per IRC

2
NS
L=
4.4
b. When L < SSD
2
( √ 2 H + √ 2 h)
L=2 S−
N
4.4
L=2 S−
N
The minimum radius of parabolic summit curve is given by R/N
Length of the summit curve for OSD or ISD
a. When L > OSD or ISD

2
NS
L=
8H
As per IRC
2
NS
L=
9.6
b. When L < OSD or ISD
8H
L=2 S−
N
As per IRC
9.6
L=2 S−
N
Valley curve
Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity downwards. The
deviation angle, N between the two intersecting gradients is equal to the algebraic
difference between them. Among all the cases, the deviation angle will be maximum when
a descending gradient, (- n1) meets with an ascending gradient, (+ n2). Therefore,
deviation angle, N= - n1 - (+ n2) = - (n1
+ n2).
They are formed when two gradients meet as illustrated in figure below in any of
the following four ways:
1. When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient

2. When a descending gradient meets a at gradient
3. When a descending gradient meets an ascending gradient
4. When an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient
Length of the valley curve
The length of the valley transition curve is designed to fulfil two criteria
a. Allowable rate change of centrifugal acceleration
b. The required HSD for night driving
Length of transition curve for Comfort condition

3 1 1
Nv 2 3 2
L=2 [ ] =0.38(N V )
C
Where: L – Total length of valley curve = 2Ls
N – Deviation angle, equal to algebraic difference in grades, radians, or tangent of

deviation angle
C – the allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, the value of C may be

taken as 0.6m/sec3
v – Design speed in m/s
V – design speed in kmph
The minimum radius of cubic parabolic valley curve is given by

Ls L
R= =
N 2N
Length of the summit curve for OSD or ISD
a. When L > OSD or ISD

If the valley curve is assumed to be parabolic shape, with equation y = a x2 ,
where a = N/2L The equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by
2
2 NS
h1 + Stanα=a S =
2L
Where h1 = the average height of head light = 0.75m
α - 1˚ the beam angle
2
NS
L=
(1.5+ 0.035 S)
L = Total length of valley curve,m
S= OSD or ISD, m
N=Deviation angle=(n1+n2) with slope -n1 and +n2
b. When L < OSD or ISD

(
h1 + Stanα= S− N
L
2 )
Where
h1 = the average height of head light = 0.75m
α - 1˚ the beam angle
(1.5+0.035 S )
L=2 S−
N
Pavement Design
The structure intended to carry vehicular traffic is known as pavement. The pavement
consists of one or more layers of selected and desirable materials. Its main function is to
distribute safely the applied load of vehicles to the subgrade (prepared ground) through
different layers. Essentially, the pavement should provide sufficient skid resistance, proper
riding quality, good drainage, favorable light-reflecting characteristics, and low noise
pollution.
Functions of Pavements
i. Primary function of a pavement is to transfer vehicular loads to the sub-base and the
soil underneath.
ii. Provide a strong and smooth surface with adequate riding quality to withstand traffic
loads.
iii. Distribute the loads safely on to a larger area of the foundation soil through the
intermediate layers/courses.
iv. Bear repeated application of traffic loads during the projected design life, without
developing excessive or harmful deformations/strains.
Requirements of Pavements
i. It should be strong enough to withstand the stresses imposed by the vehicles.
ii. Its thickness should be adequate to transmit the applied loads and distribute them on
to a larger area of the soil below.
iii. It should provide a hard wearing surface so as to resist the abrasion caused by vehicle
tyres.
iv. It should be smooth enough to provide riding comfort, yet provide enough friction for
tractive effort and to prevent skidding.
v. It should be impervious to water so as to prevent its deteriorating effect on the layers
below.
vi. It should have adequate durability to serve through its design period.
vii. Its initial cost and maintenance cost during its design life should be a minimum
Types of Pavements
Pavements can be classified in many ways. Structurally pavements are classified into three
types as follows:
a)Flexible pavements: A flexible pavement is a multi-layered structure with low flexural
strength. The intermediate layers viz. the base and the subbase allows the pavement to
transmit the load to the subgrade. The most common example of the flexible pavement is the
bituminous roads.
b)Rigid Pavements: In contrast to flexible pavement, rigid pavement resists loads because of
its flexural strength and they can bridge over minor irregularities or weak localized locations
in the subgrade. The main factor in resisting the tyre loads is the strength of the concrete slab
itself. E.g. Cement concrete roads.
c)Composite Pavements: A composite pavement comprises of multiple, structurally
different layers of heterogeneous nature. A typical example is a concrete pavement of two
layers, sandwiching a brick layer. A base of roller compacted concrete and surface course of
bitumen is another example. Pavements of bricks, stone blocks, and precast cement concrete
blocks laid over granular bases also belong to this category. It is rarely constructed in India.
Comparison between Flexible pavements and Rigid Pavements
Major differences between flexible pavements and rigid pavements are summarized in Table
Components of Pavement Structure and their Functions
As mentioned in the section pavement is a multi-layer system that distributes the vehicular
load to the subgrade soil. The various components of pavement structure are Surface course
or wearing course, base course, Sub base course and Subgrade. Typical cross sections of
Flexible pavement and Rigid pavement are shown in Fig.
Surface Course or Wearing Course
• This is the topmost layer which comes in immediate contact with traffic.
• It provides a smooth and skid-resistant riding surface.
• It resists the pressure exerted by tires and takes up the abrasion due to traffic.
• It acts as an impervious layer to protect the bottom layers from the weakening effect
of water.
Comparison between Flexible pavements and Rigid Pavements
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
It has a layered structure with highest It consists of a thick concrete slab having
quality materials at or near the surface high flexural (bending) strength.
The strength of sub grade primarily Rigidity and high modulus of concrete
influences the design thickness. influences the design
Stability of pavement is through aggregate Its structural capacity of the pavement slab
interlocking, friction and cohesion. is by beam action.
Load distribution is from the contact area of Load distribution is from the entire width of
wheels through the component layers. slab irrespective of the wheel position, to a
wider area, due to rigidity and high modulus
of elasticity of concrete.
Design is less precise. Design is more abstract.
Design life - 10 to 15 years. Design life - 20 to 30 years.
Less capital cost & more life cycle cost. High capital cost & less life cycle cost
Stage construction is possible. Stage construction is difficult.
Base Course
• The base course is provided immediately beneath the surface course.
• It distributes the loads from top layer to the underneath sub-base and sub-grade layers.
• It is constructed with hard and durable aggregates, generally consisting of two
layersbottom one, a non-bituminous base like Water Bound Macadam (WBM) or
Wet Mix Macadam (WMM), over which a bituminous base layer like Dense
Bituminous Macadam (DBM).
• Thickness of base course must be adequate enough to reduce the stresses on sub-grade
and sub-base courses.
Sub base Course
• The sub-base course is granular layer made up of natural gravel, aggregates or
brick bats, between the base course and the subgrade.
• It acts as a separating layer between base and subgrade and prevents the intrusion of
fines from the sub-grade into the pavement structure.
• It is extended beyond the pavement edge to enhance lateral support and uniform
subgrade loading.
• It reduces the wheel load stress on subgrade and acts as a drainage layer and prevents
subgrade from wetting up.
Sub grade
• The layer of natural soil beneath the pavement prepared to take care of the stresses
from the layers above.
• Subgrade bearing capacity, uniformity, and permeability are key factors in

determining various pavement layers’ thickness.
• Apart from the natural material on which the road is built, imported fill material is
used to create an embankment which should be compacted well to the desired density
at optimum moisture content.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
Types of Flexible Pavements
Flexible pavements can be of three types:
a) Layered flexible pavements: They are comprised of several layers of granular
materials over subgrade with a bituminous layer over it.
b) Deep strength flexible pavements: These types of flexible pavements have full
thickness bituminous construction over sub grade.
c) Composite flexible pavements: These pavements make use of stabilized layer with
bituminous surfacing.
Construction of Flexible Pavements
Different components in a flexible pavement (bituminous pavement) are sub grade, sub base,
base course, binder course and wearing course. The binder course and wearing course
together are sometimes called as bituminous surfacing. Depending on design some of the
layers may be absent (e.g. only base course instead of base and sub base course). Interlayer
bitumen coatings (Seal coat, Tack coat and Prime coat) are provided in between layers to
have adequate bonding between them. Construction of each component layer is briefly
explained here under.
Sub grade: After the vegetation is removed from the ground surface, compaction is done
with smooth wheeled rollers. If the subgrade is too weak, the soft soil is removed from the
top and good soil is spread uniformly in layers of thickness 200mm and compacted to get the
required density.
Granular Base / Sub base Course: Construction of granular base or sub base course
involves laying and compacting appropriately chosen material over the formed sub grade.
There might be more layers with varying materials, amounts of compaction, and thickness.
Commonly used materials include slag, natural sand, crushed stone, and crushed
concrete. The sub base material for bituminous pavement must have CBR values of 10% and
20% for traffic up to and beyond 2 million standard axles (msa) respectively(IRC). Water
Bound Macadam (WBM) and Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) are two types of most commonly
constructed sub bases.
Water Bound Macadam (WBM): WBM road is constructed with mechanically compacted
layers of crushed aggregate. The compacted layer is bound with filler material called
screening. Soil having plasticity index less than 20 is used as binding material (IRC).
Screenings are spread over it and compacted in dry condition. Binder soil is then spread along
with watering and compaction. This is allowed to dry overnight and if required grouting is
done on the next day. Next layer of WBM if needed can be made after the first layer is
completely dry and depressions and voids are visible.
Wet Mix Macadam (WMM): Wet mix macadam is constructed by laying and spreading
crushed graded aggregates pre-mixed with water. WMM is prepared in mixing plants where
water and aggregates of various sizes are thoroughly mixed in the appropriate ratios. The mix
is then applied in the required depths to the subgrade that has been prepared and compacted
according to meet the specifications. Laying of WMM requires lateral confinement.
Bituminous Penetration Macadam: Bituminous penetration macadam consists of one or
more layers of aggregates with application of bitumen binder in between. Dry, clean
aggregates are spread over the prepared base and compacted with smooth-wheeled rollers.
Specified quantity of binder is then applied using a mechanical sprayer and key aggregates
spread over it immediately. Then compaction using rollers is done to make a smooth finished
surface.
Bituminous Binder Course: Two types of bituminous binder courses are commonly used,
Bituminous Macadam (BM) and Dense Graded Bituminous Macadam (DBM). The
bituminous mixes are designed previously by any standard mix design procedure. The mix is
prepared by mixing graded aggregate with optimum bitumen content. Mix is produced in
bitumen mixing plants either batch mixing plants or continuous plants. Dump trucks are used
to transport the mix. After laying the mix in required thickness, it is compacted to get achieve
density and finish. Automated paving machines are nowadays used in major projects.
Bituminous Wearing Course: The commonly used wearing courses are bituminous concrete
(BC), Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC), surface dressing, premix surfacing etc. The
construction of bituminous concrete and semi dense bituminous concrete are same as that of
bituminous macadam or dense bituminous macadam. The size and gradation of aggregates
are different in this case.
RIGID PAVEMENTS
Rigid pavements have sufficient rigidity and high modulus of elasticity. Rigid pavements
are mostly made of cement concrete, however pre-stressed concrete and composite
pavements are sometimes used. Concrete pavements are built directly over subgrade soil,
with a base layer of stabilized soil, dry lean concrete, or some gravely material. Steel
reinforcements are only provided when temperature stresses are taken into account.
Types of Rigid (Concrete) Pavements
Plain cement concrete pavement: Plain cement concrete pavements are constructed without
reinforcements (except for temperature).The load is transferred at the joints using
interlocking properties of the aggregate. Steel tie bars are provided to form a longitudinal
warping joint between two lanes.
Plain dowelled concrete pavement: This pavement is made of simple cement concrete. To
transmit weight, reinforcements (dowel bars) are added at transverse joints. Tie bars are
provided at longitudinal junctions.
Continuously reinforced cement concrete pavement : This type of concrete road is
reinforced throughout with no expansion or contraction joints. The reinforcements acts as
load transfer device to prevent transverse cracks, if formed.
Prestressed Concrete Pavement: These types of pavements require lesser thickness
compared to ordinary concrete pavement. Though prestressed concrete pavements are not
very common for highways, it is being used for airport pavements.
Construction of Concrete Pavements
Mechanized construction using machines for spreading, compacting and finishing is currently
used for the construction of important roads. It can be:
a) Fixed form type: The equipment itself consists of many components forming a train.
The main components are spreader, vibrator, dowel inserter, diagonal finisher,
texturing unit and curing membrane sprayer. This type of construction is being
replaced by slipform technique.
b) Slip form Paving Technique: A slip form paver moves on its own tracks and does not
need any side forms. The concrete slab is extruded to the desired dimension as the
paver moves forward. The paver is guided by sensors and guiding string lines fixed
along the alignment outside the paving area controls the alignment, thickness and
profile. The paver consists of slip form unit ( for spreading and laying), finisher
(vibration and finishing), dowel bar inserter, texturing unit and spraying and curing
unit.
Methods of Construction: The construction of concrete roads is carried out in either of the
following two ways:
i) Alternate Bay Method: In this method, the concrete slabs are constructed in alternate
bays. The next bay is constructed after a time gap depending on the type of cement
used. It provides additional working space for laying adjacent bays as also easy in
joint construction. Large number of transverse joints increases the construction and
maintenance cost and may reduce riding comfort.
ii) Continuous Construction: In this method full traffic lane width is laid continuously
without any break. However, at the end of day’s work, construction joints are
provided. The difficulty in providing joints is the main disadvantage. The method is
still preferred because of speedy of construction and easy of diverting traffic through
the other traffic lane during construction.
Construction Procedure
In cement pavement construction, concrete layer is laid directly over the subgrade or on
prepared base/sub base course. The sub grade is leveled and compacted. It is ensured that the
sub grade is moist at the time of laying of concrete.
Sometimes a water proof polyethylene sheet is spread over the subgrade and then
concreting is done over it. This sheet acts as capillary cut off layer in the sub base. Base/
Subbase for concrete pavement are selected based on the availability of material in the
locality. As per IRC, the subbase can be any one type:
i. Granular material, consisting of brick soling with one layer of sand beneath it (WBM,
well graded granular materials, etc.)
ii. Stabilized soil
iii. Semi-rigid material, such as, lime burnt clay pozzolana concrete, lime fly ash
concrete, lean cement concrete, etc.
Concrete surfacing: The proportion of concrete is determined using a standard mix design
procedure. In order to avoid direct contact of rigid slab with subbase or subgrade, a
separation membrane made up of impermeable polyethylene sheet is placed before
concreting. A slip form machine will do the stages of spreading, compacting and finishing.
Texture of the surface is made by brooming over the laid surface of the pavement in
transverse direction. Curing compound having high water retentivity is spread over the
surface. For final curing, continuous ponding is adopted. After curing the joints are filled with
sealants. Finally the road is opened for traffic. 2-3 weeks of curing period of the rigid
pavement.
Joint Fillers and Sealants
Fillers and sealants are used to minimize infiltration of surface water and ingress of stone
grits into the joints. This will also help in reducing corrosion of dowel bars. Fillers are
materials used to fill the joints in concrete, whereas sealants are poured/placed above the joint
fillers to prevent water percolation. Joint fillers are rigid materials protecting joint edges
from impact but sealants are flexible materials, deflecting under traffic loads.
Three common categories of materials in use are:
i) Liquid fillers: These can be hot poured (polymerized or rubberised asphalt material)
or cold poured (silicon).
ii) Performed elastomeric type: These are mainly of neoprene materials.
iii) Rigid type: Cork or sponge rubber, impregnated fibre board, soft wood, etc.
The essential properties of filler/sealant materials are elasticity, stiffness, adhesion,

compressibility and durability. The filler material should be compressible and elastic because,
during summer, when the pavement expands, the gap provided reduces, resulting in the
compression of filler. Whereas during winter, the pavement edges contracts and if the filler is
inelastic, it would leave gap at the joint as shown in Fig.
Similarly, if the sealers used are not good quality, then during winter, when the pavement
contracts, the sealer breaks. Whereas in summer, if the flow characteristic of sealer is not
good, it flows and spreads around the joints, spoiling the appearance and riding quality of the
pavement. See Fig.
Joints in Cement Concrete Pavements

In concrete pavements, joints are provided to:
i) Release stresses (warping and curling) due to temperature variation
ii) Permit expansion and contraction of concrete under adverse environmental conditions
iii) Provide proper bonding between two phases of construction (breaking at the end of
day’s work).
iv) Allow pavement to be constructed in lanes of convenient width.
Types of Joints in Pavements
Joints are classified based on its function and location. Based on location it can be
longitudinal joint and transverse joint. Based on function it can be expansion joint,
contraction joint, warping joint and construction joint. Fig. 3.5 shows the lay-out of
longitudinal joint and transverse joints in a two-lane concrete pavement. Brief description of
different joints is given below.
Expansion Joint: Concrete expands due to increase in temperature. Unless some provisions
are made for expansion, the concrete slab may bend outward and ultimately break. These
types of joints are full depth joints and are provided at specified regular intervals along the
transverse direction of the pavement. Dowel bars (steel rods) are provided across the
expansion joint to take care of load transfer. A typical expansion joint is shown in Fig.
Contraction Joint: These types of joints are provided to resist the ill effects of shrinkage of
concrete. These are provided along the transverse direction at regular intervals. Dowel rods
are provided sometimes for added safety. In some places, dummy grooves are provided as
contraction joints. See Fig.
Warping Joints: Warping joints are provided to release stresses due to warping effect. These
joints are rarely needed, if properly designed expansion and contraction joints are provided. A
typical warping joint is shown in Fig.
Construction joints: Construction joints are the joints between pavement sections
constructed at a time lag (breaking after a day’s work, etc.). It can be a longitudinal joint or
transverse joint. See Fig.
Longitudinal Joints: They are provided to prevent the formation of longitudinal cracks in
the slab as a result of differential shrinkage and swelling of clayey subgrade soil below due to
rapid variations of moisture content, at the edges of the slab than at the centre. These joints
are required only if the width of pavement exceeds 4.5m. They are either plain butt joint or
butt joint with tie bar. See Fig.
Merits and Demerits of different types of road pavements

Merits Demerits
WBM Roads
Can be used as wearing course to a certain Not suited for higher traffic
extent and as base course
Greater adaptability to iron-tyred animal Greater time of construction
drawn vehicles
Suited to a daily traffic load of 1500 - 2000 • Greater penetration of water
tonnes. • Availability of good red earth as a
filler is a problem
High tractive resistance
WMM Roads
Can be used as a good base course Cannot be used as wearing course
Red earth is not required Requires skill in construction
• Better stability and strength, hence
carries greater loads
• Less time for construction
Bituminous Roads
Less initial cost Less design life
Less time for construction and High maintenance and life cycle cost
opening to traffic
Fit for stage construction Greater penetration of water
Less glare under sunlight • Poor night time visibility

• High tractive resistance
• Good subgrade is essential.
Concrete Roads
Provides good riding surface High capital cost
Greater life (30 to 40 years), hence Requires skill in construction
lesser life-cycle cost
Low maintenance cost and vehicle Greater time of construction and
operating cost opening to traffic
Low rolling resistance to vehicles Not possible to lay underground
cables and sewers after construction
of pavement
High night time visibility Higher noise during traffic

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1 Transportation Engineering – 21CV52

Design Speeds for different classes of roads (IRC)

Median or Traffic Separators

Land widths (m) for different classes of the roads (IRC)

Land width (m) for urban roads (IRC)

Restrictions to Sight Distance

Types of sight distance

a. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) or absolute minimum sight distance

d. Intermediate Sight Distance

 Features of the road ahead

Factors on which stopping distance depends

Frictional resistance between road and tyres

Braking distance on level surface

Design Speed, kmph 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100

SSD for design, m 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180

Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

Analysis of OSD on a 2 – way road

s = spacing of vehicles = (0.7 vb + 6)

a= average acceleration during

A = average acceleration during overtaking, kmph

Vb= (v - 4.5) m/sec Vb= (V - 16) kmph

Maximum overtaking acceleration at different speeds

Overtaking sight distance on two-lane highways for different speeds

 On road stretches with two-way traffic movement, the minimum overtaking

Sight Distance at Uncontrolled Intersections

1. Class of the Road

The recommended design speeds for different classes of urban roads

2. Sub-Arterial Roads: 60 Kmph

W = weight of the vehicle, kg

R = radius of the circular curve, m v = speed of vehicle, m/sec

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2

2. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards

Transverse Skidding Effect

In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the

R = radius of the horizontal curve, m

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2

If the speed of the vehicle is given in kmph then the equation is

In some situations, particularly at, some intersections it is not possible to provide

1. Radius of the curve R,

maximum super elevation equal to 0.07 and proceed with steps 3 or 4

Attainment of Super elevation in the field

Introduction of super elevation on a horizontal curve in the field is an important

The attainment of superelevation may be split up into two parts:

a. Elimination of crown of the cambered section

Horizontal curves of highways are generally designed for the specified

For a particular speed of vehicle, the centrifugal force is dependent on the

V’ – minimum design speed in kmph

e - rate of superelevation, (0.07)

f – co efficient of friction 0.15

g - acceleration due to gravity 9.8 m/sec2

a. The Length of wheel based of the vehicle l,

Analysis of Extra Widening on Horizontal Curves

Horizontal Transition Curves

Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment from straight to

Type of transition curve Different types of transition curves are

IRC recommends spiral as the transition curve because:

Length of transition curve

1. Rate of Change of Centrifugal Acceleration

Rate of Change of Centrifugal Acceleration

The IRC has recommended the following equation