HIGHWAY and RAILROAD

ENGINEERING
CEHWRD330

CEHWRD330 1
DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
Design Criteria
The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of design controls, engineering criteria, and
project-specific objectives. Such factors include the following:
▪ Traffic safety considerations ▪ Public involvement, review, and comment
▪ Functional classification of the roadway ▪ Environment considerations
▪ Projected traffic volume and composition ▪ Right-of-way impacts and costs
▪ Required design speed
▪ Multimodal needs of the surrounding community
▪ Topography of the surrounding land
▪ Capital costs for construction
▪ Agency funding mechanisms
▪ Human sensory capacities of roadway users
▪ Vehicle size and performance characteristics

These considerations are not completely independent of one another.

Of all factors that are considered in the design of a highway, the principal criteria are traffic
volume, design speed, vehicle size and vehicle mix.

The functional class of a proposed facility largely determined by the volume and composition of the traffic
to be served. It is also related to the type of service that a highway will accommodate and the design
speed that a vehicle will travel while being driven along a highway.

The choice of a design speed is governed primarily by the surrounding topography, regional importance
within the larger highway network, magnitude of related construction impacts, and capital costs
associated with construction of the highway project.

Once a design speed is chosen, many of the elements of design (e.g. horizontal & vertical alignment,
shoulder width, and side slopes) may be established on the basis of fundamental human sensory
capabilities, vehicle performance, and other related operating characteristics.
Relationship of Traffic to Highway Design
The major traffic elements that influence highway design are:

Average Daily Traffic

(ADT) & Annual Average
Daily Traffic (AADT) The fundamental measures of traffic flow.

Design Hourly Volume

(DHV)
The most significant measure of traffic volume to the designer.

Directional Distribution The one-way volume in the predominant direction of travel, expressed as
(D) a proportion of the volume in the two-way design hour volume. Ranges
from 50% – 70%.

Percentage of Trucks (T) Expressed as the percentage of trucks (exclusive of light delivery trucks)
present in the traffic flow during the design hour.

Design Speed (V)

Roadway Capacity

Once a level of service has been chosen for a particular project design, the corresponding
service volume logically becomes the design service volume. This implies that if the traffic
volume using this facility exceeds that value, the operating conditions will be inferior to the
level of service for which the roadway was designed.
An evaluation of the estimated volume of traffic anticipated to occur during the design year is
useful in determining the number of lanes required to achieve the desired level of service
operation.
Design Speed

The assumed design speed for a highway may be considered as “a selected speed used to
determine the various geometric design features of the roadway”. The engineer should select
a design speed appropriate to assure that road users can travel their desired speeds for the
specific facility.
Other factors determining the selection of design speed include terrain, traffic volume and
composition, costs of right-of-way and construction, and aesthetic considerations.
Design Vehicle

The dimensions of the motor vehicles that will utilize the proposed facility also influence the
design of a roadway project. The width of the vehicle naturally affects the width of the traffic
lane; the vehicle length has a bearing on a roadway capacity and affects the turning radius;
and the vehicle height affects the clearance of the various structures.

AASHTO recommends four design vehicle classes for geometric design of a highway vehicles.
They include (1) passenger cars, (2) buses, (3) trucks, (4) recreational vehicles.
Cross – Section Elements

The width of the surfaced road and number of lanes should be adequate to accommodate
the type and volume of traffic anticipated and the assumed design speed of vehicles. Roads
presently in use have traditionally been separated into generalized categories that include
two-lane, three-lane, multilane undivided, multilane divided, and limited-access highways.
Pavement Crowns

It is the raising of the centerline of the roadway above the elevation of the pavement edges.

Curb Configurations

The design of curbs varies from a low, flat, angle – type, to nearly vertical barrier – type curb. In areas
where sidewalks are not provided, curbs adjacent to traffic lanes should be low in height and constructed
with a flatter vertical angle so as not to create an obstruction. The face of the curb should be no steeper
than 45° (mountable curb) so that vehicles may drive over the curb without difficulty.

Curbs at parking areas and adjacent to sidewalks should be 150 to 200 mm in height, with a curb face that
is nearly vertical. Storm water drainage and the ability to accommodate curb inlets will also affect the
shape and height of the curb.
Shoulders

For roads without curbs, it is necessary to provide shoulders for safe operation and to allow the
development of full traffic capacity. A well-maintained, smooth, firm shoulders increase the effective width
(3m) of the traffic lane, as most vehicle operators drive closer to the edge of the pavement in the
presence of adequate shoulders.

In mountainous areas, where the extra cost of providing shoulders of this width may be prohibited, the use
of partial shoulders may be permitted provided that a stopped vehicle would only protrude to 0.3m to
1.2m into the adjacent travel lane.

For areas of terrain where guardrails or other vertical elements (such us retaining walls) are required, an
additional 0.6m of shoulder widening should be provided.
Guardrails

A guardrail should be provided where fills are over 2.4m in height, when shoulder slopes are greater than
1V:4H, in locations where there is sudden change in alignment, and where a greater reduction in speed is
necessary. In locations with deep roadside ditches, steep banks, or other right-of-way limitations, it is often
necessary to steepen the side slopes and to require the use of a guardrail.

W-Beam Cable Box Beam

Drainage Ditches

It should be located and shaped to avoid creating a hazard to traffic safety. Under normal
conditions, ditches should be low enough to drain the water from under the pavement. A
broad, flat, rounded ditch section has been found to be safer than a V-type ditch.

Slopes

The graded area immediately adjacent to the graded roadway shoulder is the sideslope. In a
cross section with a drainage ditch, the slope on the far side of the ditch where the roadside
region slopes back to natural topography is the backslope. The sideslope down to the ditch is
often referred to as the foreslope.
Roadway Alignment

An ideal and most desirable roadway is one that generally follows the existing natural
alignment of the countryside. This is the most economical type of highway to construct, but
certain aspects of the design that must be maintained. The designer must produce an
alignment in which conditions are consistent and uniform to help reduce problems related to
driver expectancy.
The ideal highway locations is one with consistent alignment, where both vertical grade and
horizontal curvature receive consideration and are configured to satisfy limiting design criteria.
The optimal final alignment will be that in which the best balance between grade and
curvature is achieved.
Terrain has considerable influence on the final choice of alignment. Generally, the topography of the
surrounding area is fitted into one of three classifications: level, rolling, or mountainous.

In level country, the alignment is in general limited by considerations other than grade, that is, cost of right-
of-way, land use, waterways requiring expensive bridging, existing cross roads, railroads, canals, power
lines, and subgrade conditions or the availability of suitable borrow materials.

In rolling country, grade and curvature must be carefully considered and to a certain extent balanced.
Depths of cut and height of fill, drainage structures, and number of bridges will depend on whether the
route follows the ridges, the valleys, or a cross-drainage alignment.

In mountainous country, grades provide the greatest problem, and, in general, the horizontal alignment or
curvature is controlled by maximum grade criteria.
Sight Distance

Safe highways must be designed to give drivers a sufficient distance of clear vision ahead so they can avoid hitting
unexpected obstacles and can pass slower vehicles without danger.

Sight Distance is the length of highway visible ahead to the driver of a vehicle. For roadway segments, three
general types of sight distance should be considered.

1. The stopping sight distance is the minimum distance required to stop a vehicle traveling near the design speed
before it reaches a stationary object in the vehicle’s path.
2. When the sight distance is long enough to enable a vehicle to overtake and pass another vehicle on a two-lane
highway without interference from opposing traffic, this distance is referred to as passing sight distance.
3. Often a driver may encounter an unexpected road feature. The sight distance required for a driver to make decisions
and successfully execute required maneuvers at complex locations is decisions sight distance.
ROADSIDE DESIGN
Roadside
Topography
When a motorist leaves the roadway, the vehicle’s lateral encroachment and trajectory are
affected by the geometry of the roadside. Most roadsides are not flat. Usually, the motorist
encounters an embankment, a cut slope, or a ditch. The slopes of embankments may be
parallel to the flow of traffic or at an angle to the flow of traffic.
Embankments Parallel to the Flow of Traffic

AASHTO defines three categories of slopes of embankments parallel to the flow of traffic:

1. Recoverable Slopes. Motorists encroaching on recoverable embankment slopes can

generally stop their vehicles or slow them enough to return safely to the road way. Slopes
1V:4H or flatter are generally considered to be recoverable.
2. Nonrecoverable Slopes. These slopes are traversable, but motorists who encroach on then
will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway safely. Slopes between 1V:3H and 1V:4H
are typically considered to be nonrecoverable.
3. Critical Slopes. Critical slopes are those on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes
generally steeper than 1V:3H occur with critical slopes, and protective roadside barriers
may be required to restrict access to these slopes.
Drainage Features

Ditches and drainage structures are integral and necessary elements of the highway cross
section. These elements must, however, be thoughtfully and properly designed, constructed,
and maintained, with consideration given to their effect on a safe roadside environment.
Ditches
The side slopes of ditches should be as flat as possible consistent with drainage requirements. Preferably,
the bottoms of ditches should be wide and rounded so as to be traversable by out-of-control vehicles. If
deep, narrow side ditches must be used, they may need to be shielded by roadside barriers.

Drainage Structures
It is important that curbs, cross-drainage structures, parallel drainage culverts, and drop inlets be designed
with proper consideration for safety. To enhance roadside safety, the following guidelines apply:

1. Eliminate all nonessential drainage structures.

2. Design, relocate, or modify drainage structures so they are traversable and not otherwise hazardous to
an out-of-control vehicle.
3. Shield hazardous drainage features that cannot be redesigned or relocated with a suitable traffic
barrier.
Curbs
The use of curbs along high-speed roadways should be avoided. It is common for vehicles that are sliding
sideways or slipping to overturn upon impact with curbs. If a curb must be used along high-speed
highways where a barrier is present, it is preferable to place it flush with the barrier or behind it.

Cross-Drains
Cross-drain structures, which are designed to carry water underneath the roadway embankment, are
varied in size and design. Care should be taken to ensure that cross-drains do not become a hazard, either
as a protruding fixed object or as an opening into which a vehicle can drop.
Longitudinal Barriers

Longitudinal Barriers are used to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway and crashing into roadside
obstacles, overturning, or crossing into the path of vehicles traveling in the opposite direction. The three
main classes of longitudinal barriers: roadside barriers, median barriers & bridge railings.

Before they are placed into service, longitudinal barriers and related energy absorbing terminals and
transitions are usually tested and evaluated by full-scale vehicle crash tests.
Roadside Barriers
Used to shield motorists from hazards located along each side of a roadway. They are intended to redirect
errant vehicles away from a hazard rather than to protect or prevent damage to a sign or other highway
appurtenances. Their primary purpose is to prevent a vehicle from leaving the roadway and striking a fixed
object or traversing a terrain feature that is considered more hazardous than the barrier itself.

Various types of roadside barrier systems are flexible, semirigid, and rigid systems. Flexible and semirigid
barriers are commonly referred to as guardrails. Some agencies have successfully used the so-called weak
post system where the post collapse when struck, and the rail deflects and absorbs the energy of impact.
Median Barriers
Median Barriers are used primarily to prevent vehicles from crossing the median and encroaching into
opposing lanes.

Bridge Railings
Bridge railings are special types of longitudinal barriers designed to prevent vehicles from running off the
edge of bridges or culverts. They differ from roadside barriers in that they are connected to the structure
and are usually designed to have little or no deflection.

Crash Cushions
Crash Cushions are used to decelerate errant vehicles to a stop, greatly reducing the severity of head-on
impact with a fixed object by spreading the energy of impact over time and space. A variety of crash
cushions have been proposed and tested, including rows of barrels, entrapment nets, and arrays of
containers filled with sand or water.
Crash Cushions