1 Highway Eng I

Chapter Three
GEOMETRICAL DESIGN
OF HIGHWAY
 3.1. General
2

 Highway geometric design is the process whereby

the layout of the road through the terrain is designed
to meet the needs of the road users.
 Geometric features are the road cross-section and
horizontal and vertical alignment.
 A highway geometric elements:
 Cross-section
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment
 Sight distance
 Vertical and lateral clearance
 Intersections
 3.2. Components of Road Structures
3

 The highway cross-section elements includes all those

features of the highway which from its effective width
and which affect vehicle movement.
 A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway,
shoulders or curbs, drainage features, and earthwork
profiles
 Carriageway- use by moving traffic: traffic lanes,
auxiliary lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes, and
bus bays and lay-byes.
 Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the
shoulders, parking lanes and viewing areas
 Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and back
slopes
 For urban cross-sections: includes facilities for pedestrians,
cyclists, or other specialist user groups
 Components of Road Structures (cont..)
4

 Highways are categorized based on the presence of

median as:
 Divided highways
 Undivided highways
 The components of highways within the right of way
are:
 Highway Travel Lanes
 Shoulders
 Medians
 Pavement Crowns
 Curbs
 Drainage Ditches
 Side slopes
 Guardrails
 I. Highway Travel Lanes
5

 Is the portion of roadway provided for movement of

vehicles
 The width of travel lanes will vary according to
functional class of highway, design speed, traffic
volume and level of development of the area.
 It should accommodate the type & volume of traffic
anticipated, and the assumed design speed of the vehicles
 Unequal-width lanes will be used, locating the
wider lane on the outside (right), to provide more
space for large vehicles that usually occupy that
lane.
 Example: Two-lane HW: 7.2m lane width
 Table 2.1 of ERA manuals for all DS
 II. Shoulders
6

 Shoulders: attached with the travelled way for:

 accommodation of stopped vehicles for emergency use
 lateral support for the pavement structure.
 recovery of errant vehicles
 to increase sight distance on horizontal curves
 to provide clearance for placement of road signs
 provides additional space for bicycle use
 They vary from no shoulder on minor rural roads
where there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m or even
greater sealed shoulder on major roads depending on
the terrain and design classification.
 II. Shoulders…(cont.)
7

 Materials used to surface shoulders include:

 gravel, shell, crushed rock, mineral or chemical additives,
bituminous surface treatments
 All shoulders should be sloped sufficiently to rapidly drain
surface water
 The slope of the shoulder should be greater than that of
the pavement
 high type surfacing: slope from 2 to 4 percent.
 Gravel: 4 to 6 percent
 grass shoulders: 6 to 8 percent slopes
 The color and texture of shoulders be different from those
of the traveled way
 to clearly define the traveled way at all times
 II. Shoulders…(cont.)
8

 Shoulders widths as recommended by the ERA design

Guide
Design Standard Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) Town Section Widths (m)
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Shoulder Parking Foot !
Lane*** way Median
DS1 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 5.0 (min)
(min)
DS2 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 Barrier!
DS3 1.5 - 3.0++ 1.5 - 3.0++ 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
DS4 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
DS5* 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5+++ 2.5 n/a
DS6** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5+++ 2.5 n/a
DS7 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS8** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS9** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS10** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
 III. Medians
9

 Median: is the portion of a highway separating

opposing directions of the traveled way.
 The principal functions:
 to separate opposing traffic
 provide a recovery area for out of control vehicles,
 provide a stopping area in case of emergencies,
 allow space for speed changes and storage of left-turning and U-
turning vehicles,
 minimize headlight glare, and
 provide width for future lanes
 Additional benefits in an urban area are that:
 it may offer an open green space,
 may provide a refuge area for pedestrians crossing the street, and
 may control the location of intersection traffic conflicts.
 III. Medians…(cont.)
10

 For maximum efficiency, a median should be highly visible both

night and day and should contrast with the traveled
 Median can be either raised, flushed or depressed.
 median widths is from 1.2 to 24 m or more
 on freeways, a median barrier may be used
 IV. Pavement Crowns
11

 Pavement crown is the raising of the centerline of

the roadway above the elevation of the pavement
edges but not being so great as to make steering
difficult.
 It provides adequate surface drainage
 normal crossfall should be 2.5% on paved roads and
4% on unpaved roads
 Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5%
steeper
 When four or more traffic lanes are used, it is
advisable to provide a higher rate of crown on the
outer lanes
 IV. Pavement Crowns….(cont.)
12
 V. Curbs
13

 A curb is a steep raised element at the edge of

roadway.
 Its functions are:
 drainage control
 roadway edge delineation
 right-of-way reduction
 aesthetics
 delineation of pedestrian walkways
 reduction of maintenance operations and
 assistance in orderly roadside development
 On high-speed rural highways: located at the outside
edge of the shoulder
 V. Curbs…(cont.)
14

 Vertical curbs may range from 150 to 200 mm in height.

 When the slope of the curb face is steeper than 1V:1H, and
1V:2H, the height should be limited to about 150 mm.
 VI. Drainage Ditches
15

 It have a function of collecting and conveying surface water from

the highway right-of-way.
 They should have
 adequate capacity for the design runoff
 provide for unusual storm water with minimum damage to the
highway and
 be located and shaped to provide a safe transition from the roadway
to the back slope
 The depth of channel should be sufficient to remove surface
water without saturation of the subgrade
 The minimum desirable grade: is a drainage velocities needed
to avoid sedimentation
 Generally, a broad, flat, rounded ditch section has been found to
be safer than a V-type ditch
 VII. Side slopes
16

 Is the graded area immediately adjacent to the graded roadway

shoulder.
 Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the
roadway and to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of
an out-of-control vehicle.
 Fore slopes : 1V:4H up to 1V:6H
 Back slopes: 1V:6H to 1V:5H
 VIII. Guardrails
17

 A guardrail is provided where:

 fills are over 2.4 m in height
 shoulder slopes are greater than 1V:4H
 there is sudden change in alignment
 great reduction in speed is necessary
 deep roadside ditches
 steep banks
 right-of-way limitations

 Guardrails (roadside barriers) should be located

beyond the edge of the shoulder to ensure that the
full shoulder width may be used
 3.3. Highway Classification
18

 The choice of design controls and criteria is

influenced by the following factors:
 the functional classification of the road
 the nature of the terrain

 the design vehicle

 the traffic volumes expected on the road

 the design speed

 the density and character of the adjoining land use

 economic and environmental considerations

 I. Functional Classification of Roads
19

 The classification of highways into different operational

systems, functional classes, or geometric types is necessary
for communication among engineers, administrators, and
the general public.
 A complete functional design system provides a serious of
distinct travel movements.
 I. Functional Classification of Roads.. (cond..)
20

 The six recognizable stages in most trips include:

a) Main movement  freeway uninterrupted 
high-speed flow
b) Transition freeway ramps
c) Distribution (arterials)  moderate speed
d) Collection  brings them nearer to the vicinity of
their destination neighborhoods
e) Access direct approach to individual residences
f) Termination
 I. Functional Classification of Roads.. (cond..)
21

 Road class as per ERA Geometric Design Manual (2002)

 The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five
functional classes
 Trunk Roads (Class I): Centers of international importance and
roads terminating at international boundaries are linked with Addis
Ababa by trunk roads. Trunk roads have a present AADT >=1000,
although they can have volumes as low as 100 AADT
 Link Roads (Class II): Centers of national or international
importance, such as principal towns and urban centers, must be
linked between each other by link roads. A typical link road has
over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values can range
between 50-10,000 AADT.
 I. Functional Classification of Roads.. (cond..)
22

 Main Access Roads (Class III): Centers of provincial importance

must be linked between each other by main access roads. First year
AADTs are between 30 and 1,000.
 Collector Roads (Class IV): Roads linking locally important centers
to each other, to a more important center, or to higher class roads
must be linked by a collector road. First year AADTs are between
25-400.
 Feeder Roads (Class V): Any road link to a minor center such as
market & local locations is served by a feeder road. First year AADTs
are between 0-100.
 I. Functional Classification of Roads…(cond..)
23
 I. Functional Classification of Roads..(cond..)
24

 the highway network plays in

providing:
 access to property: direct
access to adjacent property
 travel mobility: continuous
travel
 I. Functional Classification of Roads…(cond..)
25

 In this diagram, lines of travel desire are

shown as straight lines connecting trip
origins and destinations. Relative widths
of lines indicate relative amounts of travel
desire. Relative sizes of circles indicate
relative trip generating or attracting
power.
 Note that the heavy travel movements are
directly served or nearly so; and that the
lesser ones are channeled into somewhat
indirect paths.
 The facilities shown in the diagram have
been labeled local, collector and arterial;
terms which are descriptive of their
functional relationships. Note particularly
that this hierarchy of functional types
relates directly to the hierarchy of travel
distances which they serve.
 II. Topography and Land Use
26

 Topography, physical features and land use have a

great effect on road locations and geometrics.
 Design elements affected are:
 Grades affected by hills,
 Sight distance valleys, rivers
 Cross-sections steep slopes
 Speeds etc.
 Ethiopian Road Authority classifies terrain as:
 flat
 rolling
 mountainous and
 escarpment
 II. Topography and Land Use…(cont.)
27

1. Flat terrain:
 Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the
construction of a road, having continuously unrestricted horizontal
and vertical alignment
 transverse terrain slope up to 5 percent
 II. Topography and Land Use…(cont.)
28

2. Rolling terrain:
 Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and
fall moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered,
resulting in some restrictions in alignment
 transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent
 II. Topography and Land Use…(cont.)
29

3. Mountainous terrain:
 Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges.
 This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the
standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long
steep grades and limited sight distance.
 transverse terrain slope from 25 to 50%
 II. Topography and Land Use…(cont.)
30

4. Escarpment terrain:
 Other terrains not classified under the above terrain types.
 Transversal slope above 50%
 III. Design Vehicle
31

 Key controls in geometric highway design are the

physical characteristics and the proportions of
vehicles of various sizes using the highway and
turning capabilities of vehicles.
 Controls in geometric design:
 Max. gradient
 Lane width

 Horizontal curve Radius

 Horizontal curve widening

 Junction design
 III. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
32

 According to AASHTO there are 4 classes:

 Passenger cars
 Buses
 Trucks
 Recreational vehicles

 ERA’s four design vehicles:

 Utility vehicle DV1
 Single unit truck DV2
 Single unit bus DV3
 Semi-trailer combination DV4
 III. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
33

 Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting

design include:
 power to weight ratio
 minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn
 vehicle height and width

 The road elements affected include:

 the selection of maximum gradient
 lane width
 horizontal curve widening and
 junction design
 III. Design Vehicle ….(cont.)
34
 IV. Driver Characteristics
35

 Geometric design of a highway should consider users,

especially drivers’ performance limits.
 There are limits to a driver’s vision, perception, reaction,
concentration, comfort that could impact the highway
safety and operating efficiency.
 When driving, most drivers receive information visually
from views of the road roadway alignment, markings and
signs
 Example:
 the average brake-reaction time of a driver (including
decision time), is 2.5 sec
 Break-reaction time is important in determining sight
distance in highway geometric design
 V. Design Volume
36

 Traffic volume is number of vehicles that pass a point

along a roadway during a specified time period.
 It directly affects features of design such as:
 number of lanes, widths, alignments, and gradients.
 Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT): during a
period of 24 consecutive hours averaged over a period
of 365 days.
 Average Daily Traffic (ADT): is the average of 24-
hr counts collected over a number of days greater than
one but less than a year.
 The overall effect on traffic operation of one truck is
often equivalent to several passenger cars
 VI. Design Speed
37

 is a selected speed used to determine the various geometric

design features of the roadway.
 Depends on:
 Functional classification
 Land use of adjacent area
 Topography
 Expected operating speed
 Select as high a design speed as practical to attain a desired
degree of safety, mobility, and efficiency within the constraints
of environmental quality, economics, aesthetics, and social or
political impacts
 It is directly related to:
 Curvature (radius), superelevation, and sight distance
 And indirectly related:
 widths of lanes and shoulders and clearances to walls and rails.
 3.4. SIGHT DISTANCE
38

 Sight distance is the length of highway visible to

the driver of a vehicle.
 There are three different sight distances:
 Stopping sight distance
 Passing sight distance
 Decision sight distance

 It is necessary to ensure safe and efficient

operation of the road.
 SIGHT DISTANCE..(cont.)
39

Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance

 Sight distance is the distance along a roadway
throughout which an object of specified height is
continuously visible to the driver.
 This distance is dependent on the height of the
driver’s eye above the road surface, the specified
object height above the road surface, and the height
and lateral position of sight obstructions within the
driver’s line of sight.
 Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters
 Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
 Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters
 a) Stopping Sight Distance
40

 Stopping sight distance is the minimum distance

required to stop a vehicle traveling near a design speed
before it reaches a stationary object in the vehicle’s
path.
 The minimum stopping is based on the sum of two
distances:
 brake reaction distance
 thedistance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver
sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes
are applied
 braking distance
 thedistance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake
application begins
 a) Stopping Sight Distance (cont’d)
41

f = coefficient of friction
 a) Stopping Sight Distance (cont’d)
42

 In single lane roads, when two-way movement

of traffic is permitted then stopping sight distance
should be equal to twice of the stopping distance
plus 30 m safety distance.
 b) Passing Sight Distance
43

 Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight

distance on two-way single roadway roads that
must be available to enable the driver of one
vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle
traveling at the design speed.
 Assumptions about driver behaviors are:
 The overtaken vehicle travels at uniform speed
 The passing vehicle has reduced speed and trails the
overtaken vehicle as it enters a passing section.
 b) Passing Sight Distance (Cont’d)
44

 When the passing section is reached, the passing driver

needs a short period of time to perceive the clear passing
section and to react to start his or her maneuver.
 Passing is accomplished under what may be termed a
delayed start and a hurried return in the face of opposing
traffic. The passing vehicle accelerates during the
maneuver, and its average speed during the occupancy of
the left lane is 15 km/h [10 mph] higher than that of the
overtaken vehicle.
 When the passing vehicle returns to its lane, there is a
suitable clearance length between it and an oncoming
vehicle in the other lane.
 b) Passing Sight Distance (Cont’d)
45

 The minimum passing sight distance for two-lane

highways is determined as the sum of the following
four distances,
 d1—Distance traversed during perception and reaction time and
during the initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on the
left lane.
 d2—Distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the left
lane.
 d3—Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its
maneuver and the opposing vehicle.
 d4—Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of
the time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane, or 2/3 of d2
above
 b) Passing Sight Distance…(cont.)
46
 b) Passing Sight Distance (Cont’d)
47
 b) Passing Sight Distance (cont’d)
48
 b) Passing Sight Distance (Cont’d)
49
 c) Decision Sight Distance
50

 Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a

driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult-
to-perceive information source or condition in a
roadway environment then select an appropriate
speed and path, and initiate and complete the
maneuver safely and efficiently.
 Locations where it is desirable to provide decision
sight distance:
 exit ramps
 diverging roadway terminals
 intersection stop bars
 changes in cross section
 Refer the table on your hand out
 d) Intersection Sight Distance
51
 3.5. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
52

 Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the directional

transition of the highway in a horizontal plane.
 Horizontal alignment includes the straight (tangent) sections of
the roadway and circular curves that connect their change in
direction
 Why do we need horizontal curves?
 Terrain conditions, physical features, and right of way limitations
 Depends:
 primarily on the design speed
 type of curve
 friction
 super elevation and
 widening of pavements on curves
 Affects:
 safe vehicle operating speeds, sight distances, and opportunities for
phasing and highway capacity.
 3.3.4. GENERAL CRITERIA
53

 Horizontal alignment should meet these general considerations:

 Alignment should be as straight as possible within physical and
economic constraints. A flowing line that conforming generally to the
contours is always preferable from construction, maintenance and
aesthetic point of view to the one with long tangents that slashes
through the terrain.
 Alignment should be consistent. Try to avoid sharp curves at the ends
of long tangents and sudden changes from gently to sharply curving
alignment.
 Curves with small deflection angle (5o degrees or less) should be at least
150m (500ft) long and increased 30m (100ft) for every one-degree in
deflection angle, to avoid the appearance of kink.
 Avoid horizontal curvature on bridges when possible, however, when
curvature is unavoidable, place the entire bridge on a single curve as
flat as physical conditions permit. Ending or beginning curve on or near
a bridge can present design and construction problems with super
elevation transition.
 Avoid ―Brocken-back‖ – short tangent section between two curves in
the same direction.
 3.3.5.DESIGN ELEMENTS IN HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT
54

 I. Straight Line
 provide the shortest distance between two
established control points
 The following guidelines may apply concerning
the length of straights:-
 Maximum length should not be greater than
20*Velocity (in meter).
 Minimum length should not greater than 2*Velocity
for sight distance.
 In curves of the same direction intermediate straight
lines should be avoided or amounted to 6*Velocity.
 3.3.5.DESIGN ELEMENTS IN HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT..(cont.)
55

 II. Horizontal Curves

 four types of horizontal curves:
 Simple, Compound,
 Reverse, Spiral Curve

 A, Simple Curve: has a constant

radius
 NOTE:
 M-middle ordinate
 T-Tangent length
 C-Cord length
 L-Length of curve
 R-Radius of curve
 ∆-Central angle
 PC-point of curvature
 PT-Point of tangency
 PI- Point of intersection
 3.3.5.DESIGN ELEMENTS IN HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT..(cont.)
56

 B, Compound Curves: consisting

of a series of two or more simple
curves of different radii turning in
the same direction.
 intersection curb radii, ramps and
transitions into sharper curves.
 the radii of the flatter curve should
not be more than 50% greater than
that of sharper curve
 C, Reverse Curves: consists of two
simple curves with equal or
different radii turning in opposite
directions.
 3.3.5.DESIGN ELEMENTS IN HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT..(cont.)
57

 D, Spiral Curves (Transition Curves): have got a

radius of curvature gradually changing from
infinity to the designed radius.
 placed between tangents and circular curves or
between two adjacent circular curves having
substantially different radii.
 Other type of curves: Brocken back, Switch back..

 Reading assignment
 Refer your surveying courses
 3.3.6. SUPERELEVATION
58

 Superelevation(e) is the raising of the outer

edge of the travel lane to counterbalances
the centrifugal force, or outward pull, of a
vehicle traversing on the horizontal curve.
 To provide:
 safely
and comfortably navigating
through curves at higher speeds.
 How?
 bythe side friction between the
vehicle tires and the surfacing
 3.3.6.
59
SUPERELEVATION..(cont.)
 Analysis of superelevation:-

e
1

Wv 2 F
gR

N
 3.3.6.
60
SUPERELEVATION..(cont.)
 3.3.6.
61
SUPERELEVATION..(cont.)
 friction coefficients are dependent on:
 vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of roadway
surface, weather conditions and type and condition of
tires.
 maximum rate of superelevation is controlled by
four factors:
 climate conditions, terrain conditions, type of area and
frequency of vey-moving vehicles.
 In summary
 A rate of superelevation should not exceed 12%
 A rate of 4 % or 6 % is applicable for urban design in
areas with little or no constraints.
 As per ERA manual 4 % for urban and 8 % for rural.
 SUPERLEVATION
62
TRANSITION
 superelevation should be introduced and
removed uniformly over the length adequate for
likely travel speeds.(comfort and safety)
 Superlevaation transition section consists:
 Superelevation runoff
 tangent runout sections
 Superelevation runoff: - is the length of highway
needed to accomplish the change in cross-slope in
the outside-lane (flat) to of fully superelevation.
 Tangent runout: - consists of the length of the
roadway needed to accomplish a change in
outside-lane cross slope from the normal cross
slope rate to zero (flat).
 SUPERLEVATION
TRANSITION..(cont.)
63
 SUPERLEVATION
64
TRANSITION..(cont.)
 SUPERLEVATION
65
TRANSITION..(cont.)
 Minimum Length of Superelevation runoff:
 SUPERLEVATION
66
TRANSITION..(cont.)
 Superelevation Runoff Location:
 On simple curves, 67 % of the Superelevation runoff normally
is developed on tangent and 33 % on circular curve.
 AASHTO suggests a range of 60 % to 90 % of the runoff
placed on the tangent is acceptable.

 On spiral curves, the Superelevation runoff transition

is normally within the entire length of the spiral (TS
to SC and CS to ST)
 SUPERLEVATION
67
TRANSITION..(cont.)

 Minimum Length of Tangent Runout

 SUPERLEVATION
68
TRANSITION..(cont.)
 Methods of Attaining Superelevation
 Four methods are used to transition the
pavement to a superelevated cross-section.
These methods include
 Revolving a travelled way with normal cross-
slopes about the centerline profile.
 Revolving a traveled way with normal cross-
slopes about the inside-edge profile.
 Revolving a travel way with normal cross-slope
about the outside-edge profile.
 Revolving a straight cross-slope traveled way
about the outside-edge profile.
 Methods of Attaining
69 Superelevation…(cont.)
 Methods of Attaining Superelevation…(cont.)
70
 Axis of rotation with a Median
71

 Case I: - the whole of the traveled way, including the median is

superelevated as a plane section. The rotation in most cases is done
about the centerline of the median. This method is used only for
highways with narrow medians and moderate superelevation
(specifically to width of 4 m or less)
 Case II: - The median is held horizontal plane and two traveled
ways are rotated separately around the median edges. This method
is used mainly for pavements with median widths of 4 m and 18 m,
although it can be used for any median.
 Case III: - the two travelled ways are treated separately for runoff
with a resulting variable difference in elevation at median edges.
This design can be used with wide medians of 18 m or more.
 Widening of Curves
72

 As vehicle turns, the design vehicle occupies a greater width

because the rear wheels generally track inside front wheels
(offtracking) in negotiating curves.
 drivers experience difficulty in steering their vehicles in the
center of the lane.
 Total widening is computed by adding the mechanical
widening and psychological widening.
 Widening of Curves…(cont.)
73
 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORIZONTAL
CURVES
74

Where there are sight obstructions (such as walls, cut

slopes, buildings, and longitudinal barriers) on the
inside of curves or the inside of the median lane on
divided highways
make the appropriate adjustments to provide adequate
sight distance

Where sufficient stopping sight distance is

not available
(1) increase the offset to the obstruction,
(2) increase the radius,
(3) reduce the design speed.
 SSD ON HORIZONTAL
75
CURVES..(Cont.)
 3.6. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
76

 Vertical alignment is composed of a series of straight-line

gradients connected by curves, normally parabolic in form.
 direct effect on the safety and comfort of the driver
 Steep grades: slow down large, heavy vehicles in the uphill
direction and stopping ability in the downhill direction.
 Grades that are flat or nearly flat: pavement surface drains.
 VERTICAL CURVES
77

 Vertical curves are used to provide gradual change from

one tangent grade to another so that vehicles may run
smoothly as they traverse the highway.
 VERTICAL CURVES…(cont.)
78

r = rate of change of grade per section (%)

y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters)
x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve
(meters)
Ex = elevation of a point on the curve
 GRADES
79

 the rate of rise or fall along the length of highway.

 affected by the grades provided:
 The cost of operation of vehicles, the speed of vehicles
and the capacity of a highway
 Maximum and minimum Gradients.
 minimum gradient for the usual case 0.5%
 Length of Crest Vertical Curves
80

 Minimum length of crest vertical curves based on sight

distance criteria, generally are satisfactory from the
standpoint of safety, comfort and appearance.

Use:
When the height of eye and the height of
object are 1080mm and 600mm,
respectively
 Length of Crest Vertical
81
Curves…(cont.)
 Stopping Sight
distance:
 Use: the height of eye
and the height of
object are 1080mm
and 600mm,
respectively
 Passing Sight
Distance:
 Use: the height of eye
and the height of
object are 1080mm
and 1080mm,
respectively
 Length of Sag Vertical Curves
82

 The selection of minimum length of a sag vertical curve is

controlled by the following criteria:
 Headlight SSD
 Passenger Comfort
 Drainage Control
 General appearance
 A)Minimum length based on SSD (for Headlight SSD)
 Length of Sag Vertical
83
Curves..(cont.)
 Sight Distance at Undercrossing:

 Driver Comfort:
 L=(V2A)/395
 Length of Crest and Sag Vertical Curves Based on K
factors
84

 The reciprocal L/A is the

horizontal distance in
meters needed to make 1%
change in gradient
 K = L/A
 Where
 K = limiting value,
horizontal distance required
to achieve a 1% change in
grade
 L = length of vertical curve
(m)
 A = Algebraic difference in
approach and exit grades (%)
 Vertical Alignment Considerations
85

 Vertical Alignment Considerations:

 The profile should be smooth with gradual changes
consistent with the type of facility and the character of
the surrounding terrain.
 A ―roller-coaster‖ or ―hidden dip‖ profile should be
avoided.
 Undulating grade lines involving substantial lengths of
steeper grades should be appraised for their effect on
traffic operation, since they may encourage excessive
truck speeds.
 Broken-back grade lines (two vertical curves—a pair of
either crest curves or sag curves—separated by a short
tangent grade) should generally be avoided.
 3.7 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL
ALIGNMENTS
86

 implies their coordination so that the line of the road

appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the
creation of hazards and visual defects.
 horizontal curves will be longer than vertical curves.
 It is generally more pleasing to the driver when vertical
curvature can be superimposed on horizontal curvature.
 Sharp horizontal curves should not be introduced at or
near the top of a pronounced crest vertical curve or at or
near the low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve.
 On two-lane roadways, long tangent sections (horizontal
and vertical) are desirable to provide adequate passing
sections.
 Horizontal and vertical curves should be as flat as possible
at intersections where sight distances along both roads and
streets is important and vehicles may have to slow or stop.
 THANK YOU
87

QUESTIONS?