PLANT AND

ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION
 What is Reproduction?
The process by which mature individuals produce offspring.
An essential characteristic of all living organisms.
Importance of Reproduction
1)Procreation - reproduction sustains the species so that it does not become extinct.

2) Quality improvement - it allows for the mixing of genetic materials leading

to variation among individuals in a species.

Two types of Reproduction
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
does not involve gametes, instead parts of a mature organism may develop to new individuals.

SEXUALREPRODUCTION
Involves fertilization, the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
A. Plant Reproduction
The propagation of flowering plants by sexual and asexual
reproduction forms the basis of agriculture. We will explore the
reproductive biology of flowering plants in much greater detail because
they are the most important group of plants in most terrestrial
ecosystems and in agriculture.
The life cycles of plants are characterized by an alternation of
generations, in which the haploid (n) and diploid (2n) generations take
turns producing each other. The sporophyte (diploid plant) produces
haploid spores by meiosis, which
then divide by mitosis and giving rise to the gametophytes (the small
male and female haploid plants that produce gametes: sperm and eggs).
Fertilization results in diploid zygotes, which divide by mitosis and form
new sporophytes.
 FLOWER STRUCTURE
Flowers, the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm sporophyte, are
typically composed of four whorls of highly modified leaves called floral
organs, which are separated by very short internodes.
They are called determinate shoots-they stop growing after the flower
and fruit are formed.
The floral organs – sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels (pistils) – are
attached to a part of the stem called the receptacle.
Stamens and carpels are reproductive organs.
Sepals and petals are sterile. Sepals, which enclose and protect the floral
bud before it opens, are usually green and more leaflike in appearance
than the other floral organs. In most cases, petals are more brightly
colored than sepals and attract the flower to insects and other pollinators.
A stamen consists of a stalk called the filament and a terminal structure
called the anther; within the anther are chambers called pollen sacs, in
which pollen is produced. A carpel has an ovary at its base and a long,
slender neck called the style. At the top of the style is the sticky structure
called the stigma that serves as a landing platform for pollen. Within the
ovary are one or more ovules, with the number depending on the species.
The term pistil is sometimes used to refer to a single carpel or to group of
fused carpels.
Types of flowers based on the presence of the whorls:
A. Complete
is a plant biology term that is used to describe a flower that is built with four
parts which include the sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens.
B. Incomplete
If any of the sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens, which are integral in
forming a flower, is missing, a flower is called an incomplete flower.
Types of flowers based on the presence of the reproductive whorls:
B. Perfect/Bisexual
is one in which both male and female reproductive structures are present. Both androecium (whorl of
stamens) and gynoecium (whorl of carpels or pistil) are located on the same flower.
Example: Roses

B. Imperfect/Unisexual
flower that does not have both male and female structures.
b.1. staminate flower (male)
b.2. carpellate/pistillate flower (female)
Examples: squashes, cucumbers, corn, and grasses
 DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
After landing on a receptive stigma, a pollen grain
absorbs moisture and germinates; that is, it produces
a pollen tube that extends down between the cells of
the style toward the ovary.
After double fertilization, each ovule develops into
a seed, and the ovary develops into a fruit enclosing
the seed(s). As the embryo develops from the
zygote, the seed stockpiles proteins, oils, and starch
to varying extents, depending on the species. This is
why seeds are such major sugar sinks. Initially, these
nutrients are stored in the endosperm, but later in
seed development in many species, the storage
function of the endosperm is more or less taken over
by the swelling cotyledons of the embryo.
 From Ovary to Fruit

While the seeds are

developing from ovules, the
ovary of the flower is
developing into a fruit,
which protects the enclosed
seeds. Fertilization triggers
hormonal changes that
cause the ovary to begin its
transformation into a fruit. If
the flower has not been
pollinated, fruit usually does
not develop, and the entire
flower withers and falls
away.
During fruit development,
the ovary wall becomes the
pericarp, the thickened wall
of the fruit. As the ovary
grows, the other parts of the
flower wither and are shed.
B. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Just like the plants, animals reproduce with two principal modes: a) asexual (without sex)
b)sexual (fusion of gametes) reproduction.
Asexual reproduction
is the creation of new individuals whose genes all come from one parent without the
fusion of egg and sperm. It has several potential advantages:
it enables animals living in isolation to produce offspring without locating mates.
It can also create numerous offspring in a short amount of time, which is ideal for
colonizing a habitat rapidly.

Sexual reproduction
is the creation of offspring by the fusion of haploid gametes to form a zygote (fertilized
egg), which is diploid. It increases genetic variability (one of its advantages over asexual
reproduction) among offspring by generating unique combinations of genes inherited
from two parents that produces offspring having a variety of phenotypes.
 Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction, a singe parent splits, buds, or fragments to give rise to two or
more offspring that have hereditary traits identical with those of the parent.

Fission
separation of a parent into
two or more individuals of
approximately equal size.

Budding
new individuals arise from
outgrowths of existing ones.
Fragmentation
the breaking of the
body into several
pieces, some or all of
which develop into
complete adults.

Regeneration
the regrowth of lost
body parts; usually
accompanied with
fragmentation.
 Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two parents. Each contributes a specialized gamete (an egg or sperm); these fuse to form
the fertilized egg, or zygote. Fertilization, the fusion of sperm and egg, may take place inside the body
(internal fertilization) or outside the body (external fertilization).

TYPES OF FERTILIZATION
Internal Fertilization External Fertilization
The male generally delivers sperm cells Mating patners usually release eggs and
directly into the body of the female. Her sperms into the water simultaneously.
moist tissues provide the watery medium
required for movement of sperm.
 Some Reproductive Variations
Some animals show unique and tremendous diversity in their methods of
reproduction. Even members of the same class may differ markedly in their
reproductive process.

A. Metagenesis
also known as
‘transformation
development’, refers
to an alternation of
asexual and sexual
generations.
B. Parthenogenesis

Also known as ‘virgin development’, is a form of

reproduction in which an unfertilized egg develops
into an adult animal.
This occurs for several generations, after which males
develop, produce sperm, and mate with females to
fertilize their eggs. In some species, parthenogenesis
is advantageous in maintaining social order; in others,
it appears to be an adaptation for survival in times of
stressor when there is a serious decrease in
population.
Example: Honeybees. The queen honeybee is
inseminated by a male during the “nuptial flight”. The
sperm she receives are stored in a little pouch
connected with her genital tract but closed off by a
muscular valve. As the queen lays eggs, she can either
open this valve, permitting the sperm to escape and
fertilize the eggs, or keep the valve closed, so that the
eggs develop without fertilization.
C. Hermaphroditism
A single organism produces both eggs and
sperm. Although this form of reproduction is
still classified as sexual, (since both eggs and
sperms are involved), it is an exception to the
important generalization that sexual
reproduction involves two different
individuals.

D. VIVIPARITY
Viviparous animals give birth to living
young that have been nourished in
close contact with their mothers'
bodies. Humans, dogs, and cats are
viviparous animals.
E. Oviparity F. OVOVIVIPARITY
Oviparous animals are animals that lay their producing eggs that develop within the
eggs, with little or no other embryonic maternal body (as of various fishes or
development within the mother. reptiles) and hatch within or immediately
after release from the parent.