Reproduction and Inheritance

3.1 understand the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Fertilisation of two sex cells (one gamete from each parent) produced by Meiosis to form
a zygote which will develop into non-identical offspring

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Reproduction by a single parent to produce genetically identical offspring (clones) via
Mitosis

3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote that undergoes cell division
and develops into an embryo

FERTILISATION: Fusion of haploid gamete to produce diploid zygote that undergoes Mitosis to develop into an
Embryo

EXPLANATION: An Egg Cell and Sperm Cell are haploid gametes, containing 23 chromosomes (half of the 46
chromosomes in a Zygote). Due to this, reproducing requires the fusion of two haploid gametes via fertilisation to form
 a diploid Zygote containing 46 chromosomes (half from each parent). As diploid Zygote carries a mixture of genetic
information from both parents, Zygote will undergo Mitosis to develop into an embryo exhibiting genetic variation

REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

3.3 describe the structures of an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower and explain how each is adapted for pollination

3.4 understand that the growth of the pollen tube followed by fertilisation leads to seed and fruit formation

THE GROWTH OF THE POLLEN TUBE - Unlike the male gametes in animals (sperm), the pollen grain has no ‘tail’ to swim
to the ovary of the flower. Instead, in order to reach the ovum nucleus, the pollen grain grows a pollen tube. This only happens
if the pollen grain has landed on the right kind of stigma (i.e. of the same species as the flower the pollen came from). The
nucleus inside the pollen grain moves down the tube as the tube grows down the style towards the ovary (which contains the
ovule that, in turn, contains the ovum). Once the nucleus of the pollen grain and the nucleus of the ovum have fused (joined
together), that particular ovule has been fertilised and a zygote has been formed. The zygote will then start to divide (it is the
structure that eventually develops into an embryo plant).

SEEDS AND FRUIT FORMATION - After fertilisation, the ovule (that contains the zygote) develops into the seed. The wall of
the ovule develops into the seed coat, known as the testa. The parts of the flower surrounding the ovule (mainly the ovary walls)
develop into the fruit, which contains the seeds. The fruit provides a mechanism for seed dispersal (getting the seeds away from
the parent plant). Some fruits are eaten by animals, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings (the tough outer coat of
seeds stops them from being digested). Some other fruits have sticky hooks that get caught in the fur of passing animals As
different plants have different numbers of ovules, this explains why different fruits have different numbers of seeds (which
develop from the ovules).

3.5 practical: investigate the conditions needed for seed germination

GERMINATION: Process by which Seed emerges from period of dormancy and begins to sprout

CONDITIONS NEEDED FOR SEED GERMINATION:

Water - allows the seed to swell up, which causes the seed coat (testa) to burst, allowing the growing embryo
plant to exit the seed. Water also allows the enzymes in the embryo to start working so that growth can occur
(increases metabolic activity)

Oxygen - required for respiration, so that energy can be released for germination

Warmth - germination improves as temperature rises (up to a certain point) as the reactions which take place are
controlled by enzymes, which cannot function effectively when temperatures are too low

METHOD: Set up 4 test tubes, with each containing 10 cress seeds on cotton woolLabel the test tubes A, B, C and D:
For test tube A, leave the cotton wool dry; For test tube B, add enough water to the cotton wool so that it
becomes moist; For test tube C, add enough water to cover the cotton wool and seeds, then carefully add a layer of
oil on top of the water; For test tube D, add enough water to the cotton wool so that it becomes moist. Leave tubes A, B
and C at room temperature or incubated at a specific temperature (e.g. 20°C). Place tube D in a fridge (approximately
4°C). Leave all tubes for a set period of time (e.g. 3 - 5 days). Ensure the cotton wool in tubes B and D remains
moist throughout this time by adding more drops of water if required. Compare the results and see which tube has
the greatest number of germinated seeds

RESULTS: The test tubes are set up so that each of the factors required for germination (water, oxygen and warmth)
can be tested, by selectively removing each in turn: In test tube A, water is removed; Test tube B is the control tube,
where all factors are present; In test tube C, oxygen is removed (oxygen cannot pass through the oil and water layers on
top of the seeds); In test tube D, warmth is removed. As germination cannot occur if the conditions are not right (i.e. if
even one of the three factors required is absent), it would be expected that  only the seeds in the control tube will
germinate. 

3.6 understand how germinating seeds utilise food reserves until the seedling can carry out photosynthesis

Germination is the start of growth in the seed. The seed contains the zygote (the fertilised egg cell), which divides into
cells that then develop into the embryo plant. When the seed germinates, this embryo begins to grow into the
young seedling. Structures known as cotyledons surround the embryo; Some plants have one cotyledon, whereas others
have two; The cotyledons contain food reserves that supply the young seedling with food (and, therefore, energy for
growth) when the seed starts to germinate; The cotyledons fulfil this role until the young plant grows its own leaves and
becomes capable of making its own food via photosynthesis. After taking in water, the seed coat (testa) splits. This
leads to the production of the plumule (the first emerging shoot) and radicle (the first emerging root)

3.7 understand that plants can reproduce asexually by natural methods (illustrated by runners) and by artificial methods
(illustrated by cuttings)

Asexual reproduction only involves one parent and all offspring produced are exact genetic copies of each other and the parent
plant – they are clones (genetically identical). Asexual reproduction in plants can occur naturally or humans can control asexual
reproduction in plants artificially for their own uses.

RUNNER - In Runners, cells split off from parent plant to grow side branches that forms Plantlets, specialising into root hair
cells. As a result, Plantlets will grow roots and plant will evolve, forming plant that is genetically identical to parent plant via
asexual reproduction (clone).

CUTTING - The method for taking cuttings is as follows: Gardeners take cuttings from good parent plants (i.e. those that are
healthiest and best-looking); A section of the parent plant with a new bud is cut off; This cutting can either be placed into water
until new roots grow or can sometimes be placed directly into soil; Sometimes, the stem of the cutting may first be dipped into
'rooting powder', which contains plant growth regulators (rooting hormones) that encourage new root growth; These cuttings are
then planted and eventually grow into adult plants that are genetically identical to the original plant. Plants cloned by taking
cuttings can be produced cheaply and quickly

REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

3.8 understand how the structure of the male and female reproductive systems are adapted for their functions

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

BLADDER - Muscular sac that stores Urine to expel it from body through Urethra via excretion

OVIDUCT -Tube lined with ciliated cells to brush released Ovum from Ovary to Uterus for fertilisation

OVARY - Tissue where Egg cell matures prior to Ovulation, and responsible for Estrogen and Progesterone secretion

UTERUS - Organ with thick muscular walls with soft lining where fertilised Egg cell will be implanted to develop into
Fetus

CERVIX- Ring of muscle that closes to protect developing Fetus and opens to form birth canal

URETHRA - Tube that passes Urine out of the body from the Bladder via excretion

VAGINA - Muscular passage leading to Uterus by which penis can enter during sexual intercourse to deliver sperm

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

BLADDER - Muscular sac that stores Urine to expel it from body through Urethra via excretion

SEX GLAND - Gland that secretes fluid containing Nutrients (Fructose) and Mucus with Sperm cells to form Semen

SPERM DUCT - Long tube which conducts Sperm from Testes to be mixed with fluids in sex gland (which connects to
the Urethra) during ejaculation

URETHRA - Tube inside Penis that conducts Sperm/Semen from Sex gland to outside of body via Penis (also convey
Urine)

TESTIS - Two oval-shaped organs held outside the body by Scrotum (to maintain optimum temperature below core
body temeprature) to synthesize Sperm and Tetosterone

PENIS - Passes Urine Out of the Body from the Bladder and Allows Semen to Pass into the Vagina of a Woman during
Sexual Intercourse

3.9 understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle

3.10B understand the roles of FSH and LH in the menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle is a recurring process which takes around 28 days. During the process which takes around 28 days. During
the process, the lining of the uterus is prepared for pregnancy. If implantation of the fertilised egg into the uterus lining does not
happen, the lining is then shed. This is known as menstruation (also called a period. The loss of blood and tissue from the lining
of the uterus through the vagina during the menstrual cycle). After menstruation finishes, the lining of the uterus starts to
thicken again in preparation for possible implantation in the next cycle.

Day event
1 Bleeding from the vagina begins. This is caused by the loss of the lining of the uterus. This is called
menstruation or having a period.
5 Bleeding from the vagina begins. This is caused by the loss of the lining of the uterus. This is called
menstruation or having a period.
14 Ovulation occurs. The ovum travels through the oviduct towards the uterus.
28 If the ovum does not join with a sperm cell in the oviduct, the lining of the uterus begins to break
 down again and the cycle repeats.
ROLE OF OESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE - The menstrual cycle is controlled by the hormones oestrogen and
progesterone. Oestrogen is produced by the ovaries and makes the lining of the uterus repair itself and grow again after
menstruation. Progesterone is produced by the empty follicle in the ovary after the egg has been released. This hormone
maintains the lining of the uterus during the second half of the menstrual cycle. If a woman becomes pregnant the follicle
continues to produce progesterone and a placenta is formed. If pregnancy does not occur, then both hormone levels drop
towards the end of the menstrual cycle, the lining breaks down and menstruation occurs.

ROLE OF FSH AND LH - Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH) are both produced by the pituitary
gland in the brain and are transported in the blood. Low progesterone levels allow FSH levels to stimulate an egg (in a follicle in
the ovary) to be matured. This encourages the production of oestrogen which repairs the uterus wall and stimulates a surge of
LH. This triggers ovulation. After the egg is released from the follicle, it develops into the corpus luteum. This produces
progesterone which maintains the lining of the uterus and so stops menstruation. Progesterone inhibits FSH and LH and so
remains high during pregnancy.

3.11 describe the role of the placenta in the nutrition of the developing embryo

Placenta is lined with Chorionic vili to increase surface area to volume ratio for diffusion of materials between Mother and
Fetus, allowing efficient material exchange. Additionally, Foetal capillaries within Chorionic vili and Maternal Capillaries are
close to Placental membrane to minimise distance of diffusion between Mother and Fetus, allowing efficient material exchange.
Materials including Oxygen, Nutrients, Vitamins, Antibodies and Water diffuse across Placenta from Mother to Fetus. Waste
materials including Carbon Dioxide, and other waste substances diffuse across the Placenta from Fetus to Mother. Placenta
takes over Hormonal role of Ovaries to produce Oestrogen and Progesterone. Oestrogen stimulates the growth of Uterine
muscles (used to initiate Uterine contractions to give birth) and development of Mammary gland in Breasts. Progesterone
maintains the Uterus lining, as well as reducing uterine contractions and potential Maternal immune response

3.12 understand how the developing embryo is protected by amniotic fluid

The embryo is surrounded by amniotic fluid (a fluid made from the mother’s blood plasma) that is held in by the amniotic
membrane (also known as the amniotic sac). The amniotic fluid protects the embryo during development by cushioning it from
bumps to the mother’s abdomen.

3.13 understand the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in the development of secondary sexual characteristics

Some changes occur to both males and females, including the growth of sexual organs and growth of body hair. Emotional
changes also occur due to the increased levels of hormones in the body. These include more interest in sex and increased mood
swings.