Internetworking Models

Internetworking models (OSI & DoD)
When networks first came into being, computers could typically communicate only with computers from
the same manufacturer. For example: Companies ran either a complete DECnet solution or an IBM
solution, never both together.
In the late 1970s, the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model was created by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to break through this barrier.
OSI reference model is a conceptual blueprint of how communication should take place. It addresses all
the processes required for effective communication and divides them into logical groupings called layers
OSI reference model has the following seven layers:
7 Application PDU File print, message, database and application services

6 Presentation PDU Data encryption, compression and translation services
5 Session PDU Telnet/ keeps different applications’ data separate
4 Transport segment Pvc /svc /error correction / flow control/ Windowing
3 Network packet Routing/define best path/device addressing/logical addressing
2 Data Link frame Switching / MAC addressing / physical transmission of data
1 Physical bit Hub / repeater/ Ethernet / moves bits between devices
Advantages of Reference Models:

 It divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler components, facilitating
component development, design, and troubleshooting
 It allows multiple vendor development through the standardization of network components.
 It encourages industry standardization by clearly defining what functions occur at each layer of the
model.
 It allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.
 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers to expedite development.
OSI seven different layers, divided into two groups:
 Top three layers define how the application within end stations will communicate with each other
 The bottom four layers define data is transmitted end to end
The upper layers:
Application  Provides a user interface

Presentation  Presents data
 Handles processing of such as encryption
Session  Keeps different applications’ data separate
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The bottom layers:
Transport  Provides reliable or unreliable delivery

 Performs error correction before retransmission
Network  Provides logical addressing, which routers use for path determination
Data Link  Combines packets into bytes and bites into frames
 Provides access to media using MAC address
 Performs error detection not correction
Physical  Moves bits between devices
 Specifies voltage, wire speed, and pinout of cables
Department of Defense (DoD) model because the development of the networking method was funded
by the United States Department of Defense through DARPA. Its implementation is a protocol stack.
OSI Model DoD Model
Application
Process/
Presentation
Application
Session
Transport Host-to-Host
Network Internet
Data Link Network

Physical Access
The Internet protocol (IP) suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying how data should be
packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite:
Layer Protocols
Process/Application Telnet, TFTP, FTP, SMTP, LPD, NFS, SNMP, X Windows, SSH,
HTTP, HTTPS, NTP, DNS, DHCP, BootP
Host-to-Host TCP, UDP
Internet ICMP, ARP, RARP, IP
Network Access Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gig Ethernet
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Transmission Control Protocol vs. User Datagram Protocol:
TCP UDP
Sequenced Unsequenced
Reliable Unreliable
Connection-oriented Connectionless
Virtual circuit Low overhead
Acknowledgement No acknowledgement
Window flow control No window flow control
A protocol is a set of rules and guidelines for communicating data. Rules are defined for each step and
process during communication between two or more computers. Networks have to follow these rules to
successfully transmit data.
A port number is a unique identifier used with an IP address. A port is a 16-bit unsigned integer, and the
total number of ports available in the TCP/IP model is 65,535 ports. Therefore, the range of port
numbers is 0 to 65535
Well known Protocols and Port Numbers:

Protocol Elaboration Port number
FTP File Transfer Protocol 21
Telnet Teletype Network 23
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 25
DNS Domain Name Service 53
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 67
TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol 69
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol 80
SQL Structured Query Language 118
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol 161
HTTPS Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure 443
Flow Control: Since floods and losing data can both be tragic; we have a fail-safe solution in place known
as flow control. Flow control prevents a sending host on one side of the connection from overflowing
the buffers in the receiving host. It uses connection-oriented with following characteristics:
 A virtual circuit, or “three-way handshake” is setup

 It uses sequencing
 It uses acknowledgement
 It uses flow control
Windowing: The quantity of data segments, measured in bytes, that the transmitting machine is allowed
to send without receiving an acknowledgement is called a window. Windows are used to control the
amount of outstanding, unacknowledged data segment.
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If the window size is set to 1, sending will wait for and acknowledgement for each data segment it
transmits before transmitting but will allow three to be transmitted before receiving an acknowledgement if
the window size I set to 3.
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Internetworking Models

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Internetworking models (OSI & DoD)

OSI reference model has the following seven layers:

7 Application PDU File print, message, database and application services

Advantages of Reference Models:

OSI seven different layers, divided into two groups:

The upper layers:

Application  Provides a user interface

Transport  Provides reliable or unreliable delivery

OSI Model DoD Model

Data Link Network

TCP/IP Protocol Suite:

Well known Protocols and Port Numbers:

 A virtual circuit, or “three-way handshake” is setup

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