Unit 8 Computer Networks

Computer Network
WRITTEN BY
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Computer network, two or more computers that are connected with one another
for the purpose of communicating data electronically. Besides physically
connecting computer and communication devices, a network system serves the
important function of establishing a cohesive architecture that allows a variety of
equipment types to transfer information in a near-seamless fashion. Two popular
architectures are ISO Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) and IBM’s Systems
Network Architecture (SNA).
Two basic network types are local-area networks (LANs) and wide-area networks
(WANs). LANs connect computers and peripheral devices in a limited physical area,
such as a business office, laboratory, or college campus, by means of links
(wires, Ethernet cables, fibre optics, Wi-Fi) that transmit data rapidly. A
typical LAN consists of two or more personal computers, printers, and high-
capacity disk-storage devices called file servers, which enable each computer on
the network to access a common set of files. LAN operating system software,
which interprets input and instructs networked devices, allows users to
communicate with each other; share the printers and storage equipment; and
simultaneously access centrally located processors, data, or programs (instruction
sets). LAN users may also access other LANs or tap into WANs. LANs with similar
architectures are linked by “bridges,” which act as transfer points. LANs with
different architectures are linked by “gateways,” which convert data as it passes
between systems.
WANs connect computers and smaller networks to larger networks over greater
geographic areas, including different continents. They may link the computers by
means of cables, optical fibres, or satellites, but their users commonly access the
networks via a modem (a device that allows computers to communicate
over telephone lines). The largest WAN is the Internet, a collection of networks
and gateways linking billions of computer users on every continent.
Networking
Computer communication may occur through wires, optical fibres, or radio
transmissions. Wired networks may use shielded coaxial cable, similar to
the wire connecting a television to a videocassette recorder or an antenna. They
can also use simpler unshielded wiring with modular connectors similar to
telephone wires. Optical fibres can carry more signals than wires; they are often
used for linking buildings on a college campus or corporate site and increasingly for
longer distances as telephone companies update their networks. Microwave
radio also carries computer network signals, generally as part of long-distance
telephone systems. Low-power microwave radio is becoming common for wireless
networks within a building.
Local area networks

Local area networks (LANs) connect computers within a building or small group of
buildings. A LAN may be configured as (1) a bus, a main channel to which nodes or
secondary channels are connected in a branching structure, (2) a ring, in which
each computer is connected to two neighbouring computers to form a
closed circuit, or (3) a star, in which each computer is linked directly to a central
computer and only indirectly to one another. Each of these has advantages,
though the bus configuration has become the most common.
local area networks (LANs)

Simple bus networks, such as Ethernet, are common for home and small office configurations. The most
common ring network is IBM's Token Ring, which employs a “token” that is passed around the network to
control which location has sending privileges. Star networks are common in larger commercial networks
since a malfunction at any node generally does not disrupt the entire network.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Even if only two computers are connected, they must follow rules, or protocols, to
communicate. For example, one might signal “ready to send” and wait for the
other to signal “ready to receive.” When many computers share a network,
the protocol might include a rule “talk only when it is your turn” or “do not talk
when anyone else is talking.” Protocols must also be designed to handle network
errors.
The most common LAN design since the mid-1970s has been the bus-
connected Ethernet, originally developed at Xerox PARC. Every computer or other
device on an Ethernet has a unique 48-bit address. Any computer that wants to
transmit listens for a carrier signal that indicates that a transmission is under way.
If it detects none, it starts transmitting, sending the address of the recipient at the
start of its transmission. Every system on the network receives each message but
ignores those not addressed to it. While a system is transmitting, it also listens,
and if it detects a simultaneous transmission, it stops, waits for a random time, and
retries. The random time delay before retrying reduces the probability that they
will collide again. This scheme is known as carrier sense multiple access with
collision detection (CSMA/CD). It works very well until a network is moderately
heavily loaded, and then it degrades as collisions become more frequent.
The first Ethernet had a capacity of about 2 megabits per second, and today 10-
and 100-megabit-per-second Ethernet is common, with gigabit-per-second
Ethernet also in use. Ethernet transceivers (transmitter-receivers) for PCs are
inexpensive and easily installed.
A recent standard for wireless Ethernet, known as Wi-Fi, is becoming common for
small office and home networks. Using frequencies from 2.4 to 5 gigahertz (GHz),
such networks can transfer data at rates up to 600 megabits per second. Early in
2002 another Ethernet-like standard was released. Known as HomePlug, the first
version could transmit data at about 8 megabits per second through a building’s
existing electrical power infrastructure. A later version could achieve rates of 1
gigabit per second.
Wide area networks

Wide area networks (WANs) span cities, countries, and the globe, generally using
telephone lines and satellite links. The Internet connects multiple WANs; as its
name suggests, it is a network of networks. Its success stems from early support by
the U.S. Department of Defense, which developed its precursor, ARPANET, to let
researchers communicate readily and share computer resources. Its success is also
due to its flexible communication technique. The emergence of the Internet in the
1990s as not only a communication medium but also one of the principal focuses
of computer use may be the most significant development in computing in the
past several decades. For more on the history and technical details of Internet
communication protocols, see Internet.
Internet, a system architecture that has revolutionized communications and

methods of commerce by allowing various computer networks around the world
to interconnect. Sometimes referred to as a “network of networks,” the Internet
emerged in the United States in the 1970s but did not become visible to the
general public until the early 1990s. By 2020, approximately 4.5 billion people, or
more than half of the world’s population, were estimated to have access to the
Internet.

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Computer Network

Local area networks

local area networks (LANs)

Wide area networks

Internet, a system architecture that has revolutionized communications and

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