ME 2101: ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING

Chapter 1: Heat and Mass Transfer Introduction

Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach 8th Edition by Yunus A. Çengel, Michael A. Boles
 THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
• Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as
a result of temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.
• Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers
as well as variation of temperature.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher- temperature medium
to the lower-temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation
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HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
– thermal,
– mechanical,
– kinetic,
– potential,
– electrical,
– magnetic,
– chemical,
– nuclear.
• Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit mass basis) of a system.
• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system.
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HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
• Internal energy: May be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies of the molecules.
• Sensible heat: The kinetic energy of the molecules.
• Latent heat: The internal energy associated with the phase of a system.
• Chemical (bond) energy: The internal energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule.
• Nuclear energy: The internal energy associated with the bonds within
the nucleus of the atom itself.

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ENERGYTRANSFER
Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by two
mechanisms:
heat transfer and work.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat
transferred per unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to
the direction of heat transfer.
Power: The work done per unit time.

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ENERGYTRANSFER

when
is constant:

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THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy principle) states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change
forms.
 The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a
process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the total
energy leaving the system during that process.
 The energy balance for any system undergoing any process in the rate form

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THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

In heat transfer problems it is convenient to

write a heat balance and to treat the
conversion of nuclear, chemical,
mechanical, and electrical energies into
thermal energy as heat generation.

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ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS (FIXED MASS)
A closed system consists of a fixed mass.
The total energy E for most systems
encountered in practice consists of the
internal energy U.
This is especially the case for stationary
systems since they don’t involve any
changes in their velocity or elevation during
a process.

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ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS (FIXED MASS)

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ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS (FIXED MASS)

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Cooling of a Hot Fluid in a Tank
 A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being
stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the internal energy of the
fluid is 800 kJ. During the cooling process, the fluid loses 500
kJ of heat, and the paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the
fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid. Neglect
the energy stored in the paddle wheel.

 Assumptions: Tank is stationary and thus KE=PE=0.

 Analysis: Q-W=U2-U1
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ENERGY BALANCE FOR STEADY-FLOW SYSTEMS
 A large number of engineering devices such as water heaters and car radiators
involve mass flow in and out of a system, and are modeled as control volumes.
 Most control volumes are analyzed under steady operating conditions.
 The term steady means no change with time at a specified location.
 Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing through a cross section of a flow
device per unit time.
 Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid flowing through a pipe or duct per unit
time.

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ENERGY BALANCE FOR STEADY-FLOW SYSTEMS

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SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE
 A surface contains no volume or mass, and
thus no energy. Thereore, a surface can be
viewed as a fictitious system whose energy
content remains constant during a process.

This relation is valid for both steady and

transient conditions, and the surface energy
balance does not involve heat generation since
a surface does not have a volume.

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HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
• Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result
of temperature difference.
• A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of heat transfer
as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.
• The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers is
the heat transfer.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature medium to the
lower-temperature one, and heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
– conduction
– convection
– radiation 16
 CONDUCTION
 Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones
as a result of interactions between the particles.
 In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
 In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
 The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the layer
and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to the
thickness of the layer. Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
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and area A.
CONDUCTION

Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A. 18
CONDUCTION

In heat conduction
analysis, A represents
the area normal to the
direction of heat
transfer.

The rate of heat conduction

through a solid is directly
proportional to its thermal 19
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity: The rate of
heat transfer through a unit thickness
of the material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity of a
material is a measure of the ability of
the material to conduct heat.
A high value for thermal conductivity
indicates that the material is a good
heat conductor, and a low value
indicates that the material is a poor
heat conductor or insulator. A simple experimental setup
to determine the thermal
conductivity of a material. 20
 The thermal conductivities of gases such
as air vary by a factor of 104 from those
of pure metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the
highest thermal conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat

conduction in different
phases of a substance.
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 THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity per unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity per unit volume
 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents how fast heat
diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a

low heat capacity will obviously have a large
thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the
propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat
is mostly absorbed by the material and a small
amount of heat is conducted further. 22
MATH EXAMPLE

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MATH EXAMPLE

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 CONVECTION
 Convection: The mode of energy transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
 The faster the fluid motion, the greater the
convection heat transfer.
 In the absence of any bulk fluid motion,
heat transfer between a solid surface and
the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.

Heat transfer from a hot surface to air

by convection.
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CONVECTION
 Forced convection: If the fluid
is forced to flow over the surface
by external means such as a
fan, pump, or the wind.
 Natural (or free) convection: If
the fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are induced
by density differences due to the The cooling of a boiled egg by
variation of temperature in the forced and natural convection.
fluid.
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during
the process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the
fall of the liquid droplets during condensation. 26
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 · °C

As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not

a property of the fluid.
It is an experimentally determined parameter
whose value depends on all the variables
influencing convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity 27
PROBLEM

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PROBLEM

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STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION IN PLANE WALLS

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STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION IN PLANE WALLS

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STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION IN PLANE WALLS

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STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION IN PLANE WALLS

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HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE WALL

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HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE WALL

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MATH PROBLEM

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MATH PROBLEM

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MATH PROBLEM

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 RADIATION
 Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves
(or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the
atoms or molecules.
 Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not
require the presence of an intervening medium.
 In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth.
 In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of
radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
 All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
 Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit,
absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
 However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids.
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RADIATION
Heat rate through radiation mode can be calculated from Stefan–Boltzmann law

Where
𝑄 = heat transfer per unit time (W)
A = area of the emitting body (m2)
 = 5.670  108 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant

Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.

Radiation emitted by real surfaces

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RADIATION
Emissivity  : A measure of how closely a
surface approximates a blackbody for which 
= 1 of the surface. 0   1.

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum

amount of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at a specified temperature.
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RADIATION
 Absorptivity : The fraction of the
radiation energy incident on a surface
that is absorbed by the surface. 0   1.
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation
incident on it ( = 1).
 Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the
absorptivity of a surface at a given
temperature and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on

an opaque surface of absorptivity .

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 When a surface is completely enclosed by a
Net radiation heat transfer: The difference much larger (or black) surface at
between the rates of radiation emitted by temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such
as air) that does not intervene with
the surface and the radiation absorbed.
radiation, the net rate of radiation heat
The determination of the net rate of heat transfer between these
transfer by radiation between two surfaces is two surfaces is given by
a complicated matter since it depends on
• the properties of the surfaces
•their orientation relative to each other
•the interaction of the medium between the
surfaces with radiation

Radiation is usually significant

relative to conduction or natural
convection, but negligible relative to
forced convection. Radiation heat transfer between a
surface and the surfaces surrounding it. 47
When radiation and convection occur
simultaneously between a surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined

Includes the effects of both convection and radiation

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MATH EXAMPLE

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MATH EXAMPLE

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HEAT EXCHANGER
 A heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer thermal energy
(enthalpy) between two or more fluids, between a solid surface and a fluid,
or between solid particulates and a fluid, at different temperatures and in
thermal contact.
 A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer
from one medium to another (hot and cold fluid).

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HEAT EXCHANGER
Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

• In parallel flow heat exchangers, the • In counter flow heat exchangers the
two mediums enter the exchanger fluids enter the exchanger from
at the same end, and travel in parallel opposite ends
to one another to the other side

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HEAT EXCHANGER

Cross Flow Heat COMPACT FLOW HEAT

Exchanger EXCHANGER

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HEAT EXCHANGER
Shell and tube type  Mediums: Transfers heat from a liquid to a
liquid/gas (fluid)
 One process fluid flows through the tubes
of the exchanger while the other flows
outside of the tubes within the shell.
 Uses: Shell and Tube exchangers are
known to be used in situations with high-
pressure fluids or vacuums. Also, given the
containment properties of shell and tube
exchangers, they are equally ideal for
situations where the fluids are extremely
hot or dangerous to human health.
 These are frequently used within the oil,
gas and chemical industries. 56
HEAT EXCHANGER

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MATH EXERCISE

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