Heat and Mass Transfer, 3rd Edition

Yunus A. Cengel
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2007

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC
CONCEPTS
M. Kanoglu, Y. Pelez
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Objectives
Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer are
related to each other,
Perform general energy balances as well as surface
energy balances,
Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer,
which are conduction, convection, and radiation, and
Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's law of
cooling, and the StefanBoltzmann law of radiation
Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur
simultaneously in practice
Develop an awareness of the cost associated with heat
losses
Solve various heat transfer problems encountered in
practice

INTRODUCTION
Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one system
to another as a result of temperature difference.
Thermodynamics concerned with the amount of heat transfer as
a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to
another, and makes no reference to how long the process will
take.
Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
The transfer of energy as heat is always from the highertemperature medium to the lower-temperature one.
Heat transfer stops when two mediums reach the same
temperature.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from
one equilibrium state to another. Heat transfer deals with systems
that lack thermal equilibrium, and thus it is a nonequilibrium
phenomenon.
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Heat Transfer
The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of
a temperature difference.
The second law requires that heat
be transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
The temperature difference is the driving force for heat
transfer.
The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends on
the magnitude of the temperature gradient in that
direction.
The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of
heat transfer.

Application Areas of Heat

Transfer

Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by two
mechanisms:

heat transfer, and

work.

The amount of heat transferred during a process is denoted

by Q.

The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called heat

transfer rate, and is denoted by Q.
The total amount of heat transfer Q during a time interval t
t
can be determined from

&
Q = Qdt

(J)

The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the

direction of heat transfer is called heat flux, and the
average heat flux is expressed as
Q&
2

q& =

(W/m )

The First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed
during a process; it can only change forms.
Total energy
entering the
system

Total energy
leaving the
system

Change in the
total energy of
the system

The energy balance for any system undergoing

any process can be expressed as (in the rate
form)
E& in E& out

Rate of net energy

transfer
by heat, work, and mass

dEsystem dt

(W)

Rate of change in internal

kinetic, potential, etc.,
energies

In heat transfer problems it is convenient to write a

heat balance and to treat the conversion of
nuclear, chemical, mechanical, and electrical
energies into thermal energy as heat generation.
The energy balance in that case can be expressed
as
Qin Qout + Egen =
Net heat
transfer

Heat
generatio
n

Ethermal , system

(J)

Change in
thermal
energy of the
system

CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of
the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by
free electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the
layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.

When x 0

Fouriers law of
heat conduction

Thermal conductivity, k : A measure of the ability

of a material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx : the slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with
increasing x. The negative sign in the equation
ensures that heat transfer in the positive x direction
is a positive quantity.

In heat conduction
analysis, A represents
the area normal to the
direction of heat
transfer.

The rate of heat conduction

through a solid is directly
proportional to its thermal
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conductivity.

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Thermal
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity:
The rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness
of the material per unit
area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity
of a material is a
measure of the ability of
the material to conduct
heat.
A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates
A simple experimental setup
that the material is a
to determine the thermal
good heat conductor,
and a low value indicates conductivity of a material.
that the material is a
poor heat conductor or
insulator.

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The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various
materials at
room
temperature.

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The thermal conductivities of gases such as air

vary by a factor of 104 from those of pure
metals such as copper. Pure crystals and
metals have the highest thermal conductivities,
and gases and insulating materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat

conduction in different
phases of a substance.

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The variation of
the thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.

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Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg C: Heat capacity
per unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3 C: Heat capacity
per unit volume
Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents
how fast heat diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal

conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means
that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat is
conducted further.
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CONVECTION = Conduction + Advection

(fluid motion)
Convection: The mode of
energy transfer between a
solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion, and it involves
the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion,
the greater the convection
heat transfer.
In the absence of any bulk
fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and
the adjacent fluid is by pure
conduction.

Heat transfer from a hot surface to air

by convection.

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Forced convection: If the

fluid is forced to flow over
the surface by external
means such as a fan,
pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free)
convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are
induced by density
differences due to the
variation of temperature in
the fluid.

The cooling of a boiled egg by forced

and natural convection.

Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during
the process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the
fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
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Newtons law of cooling

h
As
Ts
T

convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 C

the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
the surface temperature
the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

The convection heat transfer

coefficient h is not a property of
the fluid.
It is an experimentally
determined parameter whose
value depends on all the
variables influencing convection
such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity

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RADIATION

Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic

waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.

Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does

not require the presence of an intervening medium.

In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.

In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is

the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.

All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.

Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and

gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.

However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon

for solids.
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StefanBoltzmann law
= 5.670 108 W/m2 K4 StefanBoltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.
Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity : A measure of how closely
a surface approximates a blackbody for
1.
which = 1 of the surface. 0

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum

amount of radiation that can be emitted from
a surface at a specified temperature.

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11

Absorptivity : The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a

surface that is absorbed by the surface. 0
1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoffs law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at
a given temperature and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on

an opaque surface of absorptivity .
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Radiation heat transfer between

Net radiation heat transfer:
a surface and the surfaces
The difference between the
rates of radiation emitted by the surrounding it.
surface and the radiation
absorbed.
The determination of the net
rate of heat transfer by radiation
between two surfaces is a
complicated matter since it
depends on
the properties of the surfaces
their orientation relative to
each other
the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with
radiation
When radiation and convection occur
simultaneously between a surface and a gas
Radiation is usually
significant relative to
conduction or natural
convection, but
Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined
negligible relative to
Includes the effects of both convection and radiation
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forced convection.

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SIMULTANEOUS HEAT
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids,
but by conduction and radiation in semitransparent
solids.
A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or
radiation on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other
surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by
radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by
convection and radiation in a flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a
fluid is either by conduction or convection, depending
on the presence of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation.
Most gases between two solid surfaces
do not interfere with radiation.
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of
radiation.

Although there are three mechanisms of

heat transfer, a medium may involve
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only two of them simultaneously.

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Concluding Points
Differences between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer?

Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

Heat Transfer Modes?
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction?
Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Diffusivity?
Natural (or Free) and Forced Convection?
Convection and Newtons Law of Cooling?
Radiation and StefanBoltzman Law?
Blackbody and Emissivity?
Kirchhoffs Law of Radiation?
Combined Heat Transfer Coefficient?
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms?
37

Summary
Introduction
Conduction

Fouriers law of heat conduction

Thermal Conductivity

Thermal Diffusivity

Convection

Newtons law of cooling

Radiation

StefanBoltzmann law

Simultaneous Heat Transfer

Mechanisms
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