DIVISION 03 CONCRETE and calcareous (lime) materials with iron oxide and

small amounts of other ingredients.

Types of Portland cement:
 Cementing Materials
o slow-setting cement
 Storage of Cement
o quick-setting high early strength
 Concrete
cement
 Processed Concrete
o sulfate-resisting cement for
applications where alkaline water and
CEMENTING MATERIALS
soils occur
 LIME
o white cement (or stainless cement
One of the oldest manufactured building
which is free of iron impurities).
materials used as a mortar and plaster by all the early
STORAGE OF CEMENT
civilizations:
Cement should be protected at the building
o Egyptians used lime plaster before
site from injury through contact with dampness.
2600 B.C.
They should be stored in shed with a wood
o Greeks used it extensively for mortars
floor raised about 300mm (12”) from the ground.
and plasters Cement is soft and silky to the touch. If it has
o Romans developed a mixture of lime lumps that do not readily break, the cement has
putty and volcanic ash for the first real already absorbed a damaging amount of moisture.
cement. Cement should be used as soon as possible
Manufactured by the calcination of limestone
after delivery.
(carbonates of calcium and magnesium).
Piles should be limited to twelve sacks in
The carbonates decompose into carbon
height.
dioxide, which is expelled, and calcium oxide (CaO)
Warehouse set - when the cement is stored in
called quicklime.
high piles for long periods, there is a tendency for the
Before quicklime can be used, it must first be
lower layers to harden caused by the pressure above.
mixed with water in the process called slaking or
CONCRETE
hydration. Concrete is:
The lime has now become calcium hydroxide o a proportioned mixture of cement,
(Ca(OH)2), known as slaked lime or hydrated lime.
aggregate and water.
Hydrated lime mixed with water to make lime
o a plastic mass which can be cast, molded
putty, is used as an ingredient of hard-finish coat for
or formed into predetermined size or
two-and three-coat Portland cement plasters. It is
shape
also used for mixing with cement mortar or concrete o upon hydration, becomes stone-like in
to:
strength, hardness and durability. The
o increase its workability hardening of concrete is called setting.
o decrease its permeability to water o when mixed with water and a fine
o reduce cracking due to shrinkage
aggregate of less than 6mm (¼“) is known
A type of lime which will set under water is as mortar, stucco or cement plaster.
hydraulic lime, used only where slow underwater o when mixed with water, fine aggregate
setting is required. and a large aggregate of more than 6mm
 GYPSUM (¼”) in size produces concrete.
Gypsum plaster is rendered more plastic by o When strengthened by embedded steel, is
the addition of hydrated lime. called reinforced concrete.
Fiber or hair is also sometimes added for o when without reinforcement, is called
greater cohesiveness. The fiber may be hemp, sisal or plain or mass concrete.
jute; the hair is generally cleaned goat or cattle hair Qualities of Good Concrete
 CEMENT Concrete should be:
Portland cement is obtained by finely o Strong
pulverizing clinker produced by calcining a o Durable
proportioned mixture of argillaceous (silica, alumina) o of uniform quality, and
o thoroughly sound.
  Special Aggregates
such as cinders, blast furnace slag,
These are obtained through: expanded shale or clay, perlite, vermiculite,
o careful selection of materials and sawdust, may produce:
o correct proportioning o lightweight, nailable concrete
o thorough mixing o thermal insulating concrete.
o careful transporting and placing 3. Water
o proper curing or protection of the  should be free from oil, acid, alkali,
concrete after it is placed vegetable matter, or other deleterious
Materials of Concrete substances
1. Cement  should be reasonably clear and clean.
in reinforced-concrete construction  The use of sea or brackish water is not
should be high-grade Type 1 Portland cement allowed.
type C-150 conforming to the “Standard  Water combines with the cement to form
Specifications and Test for Portland Cement” a paste which coats and surrounds the
of the American Society for Testing Materials inert particles of aggregates.
(ASTM).  Upon hardening, it binds the entire mass
The kind of tests usually made are: together.
o soundness, or constancy of volume  The strength of the mixture therefore
o time of setting depends directly upon the strength of the
o fineness paste. If there be an excess of water the
o tensile strength paste becomes thin and weak and its
Each bag of cement is equivalent to holding power is reduced.
approximately 1 cu. ft. and weighs 94 lbs.  The water-cement ratio is the amount of
2. Aggregates water used per bag of cement.
inert mineral fillers used with cement and water in  This usually varies from 5 to 7 gallons,
making concrete, should be particles that are durable with 6.5 gallons as average for ordinary
strong, clean, hard and uncoated, and which are free job conditions. The less water used in
from injurious amount of dusts, lumps, soft and flaky mixing, the better the quality of concrete.
particles, shale, alkali, organic matter loam or other  The ideal mix is one that is plastic and
deleterious substances. workable. It should not be too dry that it
 Fine aggregates becomes too difficult to place in the
(aggregates smaller than 6mm (¼”) in forms, nor too wet that separation of the
size) consist of sand, stone screenings or ingredients result.
other inert materials of similar
characteristics.
Specs:80 to 95% shall pass a No. 4
wire cloth sieve and not more than 30% nor
less than 10% shall pass a No. 50 sieve.
 Coarse aggregates
(aggregate larger than ¼” in size) Slump Test
consists of crushed stones, gravel or other used for measuring the consistency of a
inert materials of similar characteristics. concrete mix.
Coarse aggregates should be well Consistency may be defined as the “state of
graded in size to a size which will readily pass fluidity of the mix”, and it includes the entire range of
between all reinforcing bars and between fluidity from the wettest to the driest possible
reinforcement and forms but not exceed mixtures.
25mm (1”) in size for reinforced beams, floor In this test the tendency of a mix to “slump”,
slabs, & thin walls. or reduce its height due to gravity action, is measured.
They may range up to 50mm (2”) for The apparatus consist of metal cone, the bottom
less highly reinforced parts of the structures opening being 200mm (8”) in diameter, the top
such as footings, thick walls, and massive
work.
opening being 100mm (4”), and the height exactly b) Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump
300mm (12”). test
In making the test, the slump tester is placed c) Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and
on a flat, smooth surface and is filled with newly fineness modulus
mixed concrete from mixer. In filling the mold with
concrete, the latter is tamped in with a 12mm (½”) I. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions
rod pointed at one end and the top of the concrete is a. Proportioning concrete by the
smoothed off exactly level. The mold is then slowly arbitrary selection of the proportions
raised vertically and the height deducted from the is the oldest, the most commonly
original height of 300mm (12”) represents the slump. used, the most convenient and the
least scientific method.
b. In this method, the aggregates are
measured by loose volume, that is, its
volume as it is thrown into a
measuring box.
c. One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu.
A harsh mix is efficient for slabs, pavements, ft.
or mass concrete where the lowest possible water- d. Enough water is used to give
cement ratio is desirable. the desired consistency.
The following table gives the permissible e. Common mixes expressed in
slump for various types of concrete in relation to their proportions by volumes of cement to
uses: fine aggregate to coarse aggregate
are as follows:

Proportioning of Concrete f. The proportion is to be read:

Briefly stated, the principles of proper  Class A : 1 part cement is to 2
proportioning are as follows: parts sand is to 4 parts
a) Use good quality materials: Portland gravel.
cement, water, and aggregate.  Each ‘part’ is equivalent to
b) Determine the strength of the concrete one cubic foot which is the
using the water-cement ratio. (The strength measure of the box
increases as the water-cement ratio constructed to be 1 foot (12
decreases). inches) on each of the three
c) Determine the consistency of the mix sides.
using the slump test using as dry a mix as  Each bag of cement is
practicable. equivalent to approximately
d) Add correct proportions of aggregates to the one cubic foot.
cement and water as will give a mix of the II. Proportioning by the water-ratio and
desired consistency. slump test
e) Make a mix that’s workable, not harsh. There are two steps to be observed:
The strength of a workable concrete mix depends I. Select the amount of water to be
upon the water-cement ratio. added to the cement to give the
The economy of the mix depends upon the proper desired strength (see Table)
proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregates. II. Add just enough mixed aggregate
There are several methods of proportioning concrete: to the water and cement to give a
a) Proportioning by arbitrary proportions concrete mix the desired consistency.
 III. It is customary to specify mixer. The mixer should be cleaned at
o the cement in sacks frequent intervals while in use.
o the water in gallons per Concrete mixers may be divided into
sack of cement and two general classes:
o the mixed aggregate in cu. ft. o Batch Mixers - into which sufficient
per sack of cement. materials are placed at one time to
IV. Proportions of cement to fine make a convenient size batch of
aggregate to coarse aggregate may concrete, the whole amount being
be given if desired discharged in one mass after it is
III. Proportioning by the water-ratio, slump mixed.
and fineness modulus o Continuous mixers - into which the
a. This method is the same as the materials are fed constantly and from
second except that the proportions of which the concrete is discharged in a
the fine and coarse aggregate are steady stream.
determined by the fineness modulus Concrete mixers may also be classified as:
method. o drum mixers
b. For economy, proportion the fine o trough mixers
coarse aggregates so that the o gravity mixers, and
largest quantity of mixed aggregate o pneumatic mixers.
may be used with a given amount of The drum mixers are the most common type.
cement and water to produce a mix  Hand Mixing
of the desired consistency of slump. hand-mixing must be done on a
c. Comparatively, the coarse water-tight platform.
aggregate has a lesser total surface cement and fine aggregate shall first
to be covered with cement paste be mixed dry until the whole is a uniform
and, therefore, is more economical. color.
d. However, there must be enough fine water and coarse aggregate shall then
aggregate present to fill the voids in be added and the entire mass turned at least
the coarse aggregate, or extra three times, or until a homogeneous mixture
cement paste will be needed for this of the required consistency is obtained.
purpose. A well-graded aggregate since initial set of concrete takes
contains all sizes of fine and coarse place 1 to 3 hours after mixing, a batch may
particles in such proportions that the be used anytime before initial set takes place,
voids in the combined aggregate will provided that the mix is plastic.
be a minimum. Regaging or retempering of concrete
e. Reinforced-concrete work should that has been allowed to stand more than ½
be mixed by machine hour is not to be permitted.
f. Machine-mixed concrete is usually of Transporting and Placing
more uniform quality than that mixed  Fresh concrete should be transported from
by hand and is generally less the mixer as rapidly as practicable by methods
expensive when in large volume. that will permit the placing of the concrete in
g. The strength of concrete is the forms before initial set occurs and without
very largely dependent upon loss or separation of materials.
the thoroughness of mixing.  The delivery of the concrete from the mixer to
Mixing of Concrete the forms should be fairly continuous and
 Machine Mixing uninterrupted.
In machine-mixing, the mixing of each  The time of transportation should not exceed
batch should continue not less than one 30 minutes.
minute after all the materials are in the mixer The concrete may be transported by
and whenever practicable, the length of the means of barrows, buggies, buckets, cableways,
mixing time should be increased to 1.5 or 2 hoists, chutes, belts and pipes.
minutes. The entire contents of the drum
should be discharged before recharging the
 continues as long as the temperatures are favorable
When chutes are used, the slope should and moisture is present.
not be more than 1 vertical to 2 horizontal or less Three main factors that affect hardening are:
than 1 vertical to 3 horizontal. The delivery end of  age or time
the chutes shall be as close as possible to the  temperature, and
point of deposit.  moisture.
Before placing concrete, the forms shall The increase in strength is rapid during the
be cleaned and inspected, surfaces wetted or early ages and continues more slowly as time goes on.
oiled, and reinforcement properly secured. The compressive strength reaches about 60% of its
Concrete should be deposited in own maximum value at an age of 28 days and about
approximately horizontal layers in wall, column 80% at an age of 3 months.
and footing forms. They should not be piled up in Curing consists primarily in keeping the
the forms which may result in the separation of concrete from drying out too rapidly. This may be
the cement mortar from the coarse aggregate. done by:
Concrete should never be allowed to a) Covering the concrete. Floors shall be
drop freely over 5 ft. for unexposed work and covered with paper sacking wetted down at
over 3 ft. for exposed work. the edges or with burlap, sand or earth that
Shrinkage of Concrete & Temperature Changes is kept moist, after the concrete is hard
- Shrinkage of concrete due to hardening and enough to walk on.
contraction from temperature changes, b) Removal of forms at prescribed time. Forms
causes cracks the size of which depends on shall not be removed until after the time
the extent of the mass. They cannot be specified.
counteracted successfully but they can be c) Sprinkling with water. Beams, columns and
minimized by placing reinforcement so that walls are sprinkled or sprayed with water as
large cracks can be broken up to some soon as the forms are removed.
extent to smaller ones. d) Using curing compounds (see ADMIXTURES).
- In long continuous length of concrete, it is
better to place shrinkage or contraction
joints. Shrinkage cracks are likely to occur at
joints where fresh concrete is joined to
concrete which has already set, and hence
in placing the concrete, construction joints
should be made on horizontal and vertical
lines.
- Cracks in concrete
 Cracks of concrete structures can never
be totally eliminated, but the practitionar
should be aware of causes, evaluation
techniques, and the methods of repair.
 The cracks in a structure are broadly
classified in two categories: Superficial
cracks and structural cracks.
 Before any repair work is taken in hand,
the cause of damage must be clearly
identified, for which careful investigation
is required.
Curing of Concrete
Concrete must be allowed to “cure” or harden
after it is placed.
Hardening is a rather slow process in which
the cement and water unite to form compounds that
give strength and durability to the concrete. It  Concrete cures through hydration
  Must be kept moist until its required Disadvantages: may cause some loss
strength is achieved. of early strength and will therefore
 Takes a long time
 28 days typically
 If allowed to dry during the time it will
lose strength
Admixtures
Substances added to cements, mortars,
and concrete for the purpose of improving or
imparting particular properties, such as:
 To improve workability of concrete,
e.g. hydrated lime
 To improve durability by entrainment of air
 To accelerate setting or hardening
(accelerators) e.g. calcium
chloride
 To retard setting (retarders).
 To improve wear resistance
 To impart water-repellant or water-proofing
qualities e.g. hydrated lime, KAOLINE,
CELITE
 To impart water-repellant or waterproofing
qualities, e.g., hydrated lime, waterproofing
compounds, KAOLINE, CELITE.
 To impart color, MINERAL
OXIDES, COLORCON,
METALICHROME.
Admixtures may be grounded into three categories:
o those for mixing into concrete
o those for mixing into mortar
o those for surface application
or finish.
Admixtures come in powder, paste, and liquid form,
and are usually patented and sold under trademark
names.
 Concrete admixtured include:
o Accelerators - to speed up setting
time, to develop earlier strength, and
to reduce length of time for
protection. Principal ingredients are
calcium chloride. Maximum amount
added is 2 lbs. per bag of cement.
Disadvantages: they increase the
expansion and contraction of
concrete, reduce resistance to
sulfate attack, and increases
efflorescence and corrosion of high
tension steels.
o Retarders - to slow down the
hydration of the cement during
very hot weather. Principal
ingredients include zinc oxide,
calcium lignosulfonate, derivatives
of adipic acid.
 require careful control and more
frequent slump tests, also reduces
the expansion and contraction of
concrete.
 Air-entraining agents - introduce
minute air bubbles to greatly increase
the resistance of concrete to freezing
and thawing, increase plasticity and
reduce bleeding. The addition of air-
entraining admixtures is usually in the
proportion of 3 to 6% of the volume of
concrete. They are manufactured from
such ingredients as rosin, beef tallow,
stearates, foaming agents (soap).
Disadvantages: These require careful
control and more frequent slump tests.
They may also cause some loss of
strength.
 Inert, finely divided powders such as
powdered glass, silica sand, stone dust,
hydrated lime - are added to improve
workability, used as per manufacturer’s
directions. Hydrated lime is usually in
the proportion of 10 to 15% of the
cement by volume.
 Waterproofing (permeability-reducing)
compounds - reduce the capillary attraction
of the voids in the concrete or mortar, but
while it may decrease water absorption of
the concrete or mortar, it does not render
concrete waterproof. They are
manufactured from stearic acid or its
compounds, mainly calcium steareate, and
include asphalt emulsions. They are
introduced usually in the amounts of 0.1 to
4.0% of the weight of cement.
 Colored pigments are mainly to used to give
color to concrete floors. There are two
types:
o Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for
surface coloring. They are dusted
on, usually in two coats, after all
surface water has disappeared. The
surface is then finished with a steel
trowel .
o Integral colors, for body coloring.
Integral color pigments are
incorporated in the mortar topping.
They are mixed dry with the cement
and aggregate before water is
added. Amount of color pigment
required is not more than 10% of the
cement by weight, generally 3 to 6
lbs. per bag of cement
 1. 2-inch thick for
 Admixtures for mixing into mortar include: columns, beams and
o Accelerators girder bottoms
o plasticizing agents (correctly called 2. 1-inch thick for floor
water-reducing agents) to lower panels and beam and
water-cement ratio and make the girder sides
mix more workable 3. 2x4s for struts, posts,
o waterproofing agents, and shores, and uprights
o color pigments 4. 1 or 2-inch thick for
 Surface application finishes for concrete cleats
consist of: Use nails sparingly in the
o hardeners construction of forms because
o color pigments unnecessary nailing not only adds to
o special aggregates the labor of wrecking but also renders
o sealers the lumber unfit for continued use.
o abrasive materials Where nails must be used, leave the
o waterproofing agents, and head protruding so that they may be
o fillers and patchers. withdrawn without injury to the
Forms lumber.
1. Lumber Forms All forms for concrete require
Lumber used in form construction a coating of some lubricant to
should only be partially seasoned. prevent concrete from adhering to
a. Kiln-dried lumber has a tendency the wood and thus make a rough,
to swell when soaked by the unpleasant appearance. Crude oil and
concrete, and this swelling causes petroline preserve the forms against
bulging and distortion of the forms. damage by alternate wetting and
b. Green lumber, on the other hand, drying. The forms should preferably
dries out and shrinks if allowed to be oiled before they are set in place.
stand too long before the concrete is Oil should not be used, however, on
placed. This tendency of green forms against surfaces which are to
lumber to check and warp may, be plastered, as oil prevents adhesion
however, be prevented to some of the plaster. In such cases, wetting
extent by keeping the boards wit
thoroughly saturated with water. 2. PLYWOOD FORMS
c. Sheathing lumber dressed at least Works best where a smooth surface is
one side and both edges even are required. The plywood should be waterproof,
used where the removal and cleaning Grade “A” and at least 12mm (½”) thick.
of the forms are necessary for re-use 3. STEEL FORMS
. Steel forms may be in the form of
d. Sheathing lumber dressed on all pans for concrete joist construction or
four sides shall be used in face work, steeldecking or corrugated steel for concrete
where a smooth and true surface is slabs and slab-and-joist construction.
important. 4. PLASTIC FORMS FORMS
e. Tongue-and-groove lumber will Formwork is the term given to either
achieve tight joints between boards temporary or permanent moulds into which
in floor and wall panel construction. concrete or similar materials are poured
f. Simply dressing the lumber true to 5. POLYSTYRENE FORMS
edge form square of butt joints in the are now available for concrete work.
forms for columns, beams, and
girders.
i. Sizes of lumber
frequently used :
PROCESSED CONCRETE The major disadvantages of lightweight aggregates
Types of Processed Concrete are a result paradoxically of the physical qualities
1. AEROCRETE which make them weight saving and good insulators:
This is a lightweight, expanded structural  Porosity requires changes in the usual
concrete produced by adding a small amount of formulas for water and slump and closer
metallic aluminum powder to the mixture of Portland supervision of mixing. Very light aggregates
cement and sand of cinders. tend to float out of the mortar and some
On the addition of water, gas is generated coarse aggregate concrete mixtures require
which expands the wet mix and forms small air cells the addition of a fine aggregate like sand to
throughout the material. prevent harsh working and serious bleeding.
It is used for structural floor and roof slabs,  As aggregates become lighter they become
partition blocks for soundproofing, wall insulation, in structurally weaker so the strength of the
rooms of refrigerator plants, lightweight fill on top of matrix must be modified by adding more
the structural floor and roof slabs. cement. More cement is needed, also to
In addition to its lightweight, it has “wet” the greater aggregate surface area, due
excellent fire-resistive qualities. to the irregularity of the particles.
2. GUNITE Lightweight aggregates can be divided into four
This is the mixture of sand and cement general classifications :
deposited under high pneumatic pressure with a  Agreggates of Volcanic Origin
machine manufactured under the trade name o Pumice, weighing from 25 to 60 lbs. per
CEMENT GUN, to which the required supply of water cu. ft. is well qualified as a lightweight
is added just before the dry constituents emerge aggregate when dry and well graded. It is
from nozzle. hard to be handled and mixed without
GUNITE is used for encasing structural steel, excessive breakdown.
when reinforced, for floor and roof slabs and An undesirable feature, however, is its water
curtain walls. Ideal for swimming pool construction. absorption. This can be mitigated by wetting
3. PORETE the aggregate before it is mixed with cement.
A Portland cement concrete to which a o Perlite is composed of stable silicates, and
chemical foam is added to generate gases in the is inert and thus durable for use as a
process of deposition, resulting in light weight precast lightweight aggregate or for insulation. Its
or shop-made unit in both hollow and solid forms. It is disadvantages are its friability, small
manufactured in solid slabs for short spans roofs and particle size, and extreme lightness. The
siding of industrial buildings. small particle size requires more cement,
4. HAYDITE while its lightness, from 8 to 16 lbs. per
This is processed concrete added with cu. ft. increases the tendency to float out
lightweight aggregate . of the mortar. Perlite is useful where
Aggregates for Lightweight Concrete maximum strength is not required, as in
Lightweight aggregates have the following precast slabs and blocks and in floor fill,
advantages: fireproofing and plaster.
 Reduction of dead loads saves structural  Micaceous Minerals
steel, reduces bearing on foundation, and cuts o Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral that
the cost of concrete forms expands on the application of heat to as
 High insulating value is provided by numerous much as 30 times its original volume.
dead air spaces. Dried ground ore is subjected to about 1,800
 Rough texture of surfaces has good degrees heat for 4 to 8 seconds, after which it
acoustical properties. weighs only 6 to 12 lbs. per cubic ft.
 Lightweight allows easier handling of precast It is used as an aggregate in concrete
slabs and blocks fireproofing steel, for floor and roof fill, and
 Lightweight plaster has less tendency to crack for acoustic and fireproof plaster.
and its heat resistance makes it a good
material for fireproofing structural steel
 Expanded Shales and Clays
Lightweight aggregates from shales and clays
require heating the material in a kiln to a
temperature near its fusion point. The material
softens and coalesces to a sticky mass; escaping gases
are trapped, forming cellular structures and
expanding the volume of the material about 50%.
The crushing and firing operations are varied
with different processes. In some, the material is fired
to a clinker, then crushed and sized; the process is
often reversed with crushing operation first.
Examples of clay, shale aggregates are
“AIROX”, “ROCKLITE”, Diatomite, “HAYDITE”.
 By-Product Aggregates
o Expanded Slag or “foamed” slags are
made by treating molten blast
furnace slag with controlled
quantities of water or steam. Some
slags are expanded in pits in the
ground; others are made in
machines. Close control of steam is
very important because too much
granulates the slag, yielding soft,
friable particles; too little gives a
heavy aggregate.
o Foamed slag has been used for
precast blocks, cast-in-place walls of
houses, and for panel filling of steel-
framed buildings.
o Cinders are composed of the ash
components of the coal along with
various quantities of unburned or
partially burned combustible matter.
Cinders containing a minimum
amount of combustible material are
satisfactory for use in concrete but
are not particularly weight-saving.
Lightweight cinders often have
unsound physical and chemical
properties.

 Weight of Aggregate and Concrete by Type

of Aggregate