GCSE Chemistry

Revision
Contents
Paper 1 – Practicals
1) Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table (C1, C2)
2) Bonding, Structure and the Properties of Matter (C3)
3) Quantitative Chemistry (C4)
4) Chemical Changes (C5, C6)
5) Energy Changes (C7)

Paper 2 – Practicals
6) The Rate and Extent of Chemical Change (C8)
7) Organic Chemistry (C9, C10, C11)
8) Chemical Analysis (C12)
9) Chemistry of the Atmosphere (C13)
10) Using Resources (C14, C15)
SECTION 1
ATOMIC STRUCTURE & THE
PERIODIC TABLE
This section appears in Paper 1.
Chapters: C1, C2
C1.3-4) Separating Mixtures
Compounds Mixtures
Have a fixed proportion Have no fixed
• Filtration is used to separate a solvent from an insoluble solute
of elements proportion of elements
• Filter paper is used to separate the solvent (the filtrate) and the solute
(the residue) Can only be separated Can be separated by
• Crystallisation is used to obtain the substance with the higher by chemical reactions physical means
boiling point in a mixture Have chemical bonds Have no chemical bonds
• The substance with the lower boiling point is evaporated in an evaporating between atoms between atoms
dish in a water bath by a Bunsen burner

• Distillation is used to obtain the liquid with the lower boiling point in a mixture
• The liquid with the lower boiling point is boiled by heating in a flask, then it goes through a condenser where it is condensed back
into a liquid and is collected.
• In fractional distillation, a fractionating column is used to ensure the liquid with the higher boiling point is condensed back before it
can reach the condenser if it is boiled. A fractionating column has cool glass beads that can help make distillation more effective.

• Paper chromatography is used to separate substances with different solubilities in a mixture

• Chromatography paper with the solution on a line drawn by a pencil is placed into water in a beaker
• As the paper is soaked, the substances travel up the paper depending on how easily it dissolves. The more soluble, the further it
travels.
ALSO PAPER 2 CONTENT
C1.5) History of the Atom
• John Dalton suggested substances were made up of tiny, hard spheres called atoms that couldn’t be divided
or split
• He suggested each element had their own atoms with different masses, and that atoms rearranged and combined in reactions.

• JJ Thomson discovered the electron when experimenting by applying high voltages to gases at low pressure
• The beams of particles he fired were attracted to a positive charge, so they had to be negative.
• He came up with the plum pudding model, where negative electrons are embedded in a cloud of positive charge.

• Geiger and Marsden discovered the nucleus when firing alpha particles at a thin gold foil
• From this, Rutherford came up with the nuclear model, where electrons orbited a positive nucleus with protons

• Niels Bohr discovered atoms had shells with fixed energy levels, where electrons orbited around the nucleus
at fixed distances
• James Chadwick discovered the neutron to explain the missing undiscovered mass of an atom
 Shell # 1 2 3 4
Max electrons 2 8 8 8
C1.6-8) Structure of the Atom Relative charge Relative mass
• An atom has electrons orbiting a nucleus (made up of protons and Proton +1 (positive) 1
neutrons) in shells
Neutron 0 (neutral) 1
16
8𝑂
Mass number: protons + neutrons Electron -1 (negative) 0.0005
Atomic number: protons/electrons
2−Negative ion: 10 electrons (8 - -2)
• Neutrons = mass number – atomic number
𝑂
• An ion is a charged atom, with more (negative) or less (positive) electrons then it should have
• Isotopes are atoms with different amounts of neutrons – their mass numbers are thus different
• They have the same chemical properties but different physical properties
• Some isotopes are unstable (radioactive)
1 electron
• e.g. Oxygen-17 has a mass number of 17 and looks like 178𝑂
in Shell 2
• Once the first shell has 2 electrons (full), the second shell fills up and so on
• The electronic structure is [number of electrons in Shell 1],[number of electrons
in Shell 2]… etc. 2 electrons
in Shell 1
• The number of electrons in the outer (last) shell shows what group the atom (full)
is in, and determines the way the atom reacts
Thus the electronic structure is 2,1
C2.1-2) The Periodic Table
• John Newlands arranged the elements by order of mass where every eighth element was similar – his “law of
octaves”
• He assumed all the elements had been found, and there were many mistakes in his pattern and later it completely broke down, so his
work wasn’t accepted

• Mendeleev arranged the elements in a periodic table by order of mass – there was a regularly repeating pattern
in the properties of elements
• He left gaps for undiscovered elements, and could even predict the properties of some undiscovered elements using his table, so his work
was accepted
• Later on the periodic table was arranged by atomic number as ordering by mass had some problems

• Metals are to the left of the staircase, non-metals to the right, and metalloids are in the staircase
• Metals tend to lose ions to form positive ions, while non-metals tend to gain ions to form negative ions
• An atom will become an ion by gaining or losing electrons depending on which is easier, to have a full outer shell
• Non-metals are very unreactive as they have stable electron arrangements (they have full outer shells)
C2.3) Group 1 – the Alkali Metals
• The alkali metals are reactive as it’s easy for them to lose their electron, so they are stored in oil to stop them
reacting with the air
• As you go down the group, they get more reactive
• This is because they have more shells, thus there is a lower electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and the electrons in the outer
shell and more shielding from the inner shells, so it’s much easier to lose the electron.

• The alkali metals have low densities and are soft, and form 1+ ions
• Alkali metals react with water vigorously (and more as you go down the group)
• They float on the water fizzing as hydrogen gas is formed
• Potassium is so reactive that the hydrogen ignites to make a lilac flame Alkali metal + Water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
• The solution formed is alkaline 𝐿𝑖 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐿𝑖𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2
• Alkali metals react with chlorine vigorously to make chlorides
Alkali metal + Chlorine → Metal chloride
𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
C2.4-5) Group 7 – the Halogens
• The halogens are toxic non-metals with coloured vapours and low melting and boiling points, and are poor
conductors of heat and electricity
• The halogens are diatomic molecules (in pairs, e.g. 𝐹2 ) joined up in a covalent bond
• They are reactive as it’s easy for them to gain one electron, but get less reactive as you go down the group
• This is because they have more shells, thus there is a lower electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and the electrons in the outer
shell and more shielding from the inner shells, so it’s much harder to gain the electron.

• Halogens can react with other non-metals via covalent bonding

• A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen in its compound
• As you go down a group, there are more shells, so it’s easier to lose electrons and harder to gain them due to
shielding and lower electrostatic attractions between the nucleus and the outer shell (due to the greater
distances)
C2.6) Transition Elements
• Transition elements are hard, strong, dense, good conductors of heat and electricity, and have high melting
points
• Transition elements are quite unreactive and corrode very slowly, so they’re useful in construction
• Transition metals are important catalysts
• Transition elements form coloured compounds and can form several ions with different charges
• E.g. Iron(II) is 𝐹𝑒 2+ and Iron(III) is 𝐹𝑒 3+
SECTION 2
BONDING, STRUCTURE & THE
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
This section appears in Paper 1.
Chapters: C3
 Solid Liquid Gas
C3.1) States of Matter Fixed shape and
volume
Fixed volume, but can
flow and change shape
No fixed shape
or volume
Can’t be compressed Can be
• The hotter a particle, the faster it vibrates compressed
• Eventually, the vibrations become so strong the particles
break free, causing the particle to melt/sublimate Particles are Particles are close Particles have
packed closely together lots of space
• Changes of state are reversible together between them
• Substances with higher melting/boiling points have Particles vibrate Particles can slip and Particles zoom
stronger forces between their particles
around fixed slide over each other around
• When a substances changes state by increasing positions randomly randomly
temperature, the temperature stops rising at the
melting/boiling point and stays the same until it melts/boils completely before it
rises again
• Energy is used to break the particles instead of heating the substance
when it changes state

• The particle model assumes particles are solid spheres with no

forces acting between them
• Atoms are mostly space and vary greatly in size, and their shape can distort when interacting with
other atoms
C3.2-4) Ionic Bonding
• Ionic compounds are held together by strong forces of attraction between oppositely-charged ions
• In ionic bonding, the extra electron from a negative ion is given to the positive ion
• Ionic bonding is used to bond a positive (metal) and negative (non-metal) ion with the same charge
• E.g. Group 6 (2-) and Group 2 (2+) make ionic compounds – the Group 2 atom gives 2 electrons to the Group 6 atom

• Lots of energy is needed to break up ionic compounds as the electrostatic forces of attraction between the
ions are very strong – thus ionic compounds have high melting points
• The energy melts the ionic compound, so the ions become free to move around and carry their charge, which is why ionic compounds
conduct electricity when molten

• In water, the ions become separated so they move around and carry their charge, which is why ionic
compounds conduct electricity when dissolved in water
C3.5+7-8) Covalent Bonding
• Covalent bonding is used to bond non-metals
• In covalent bonding, the atoms share pairs of their electrons
• Each shared pair of electrons is a covalent bond
• E.g. 2 pairs of electrons (4 total) is a double covalent bond

• Many substances with covalent bonds are simple (small) molecules, but some have giant structures with very high
melting and boiling points
• Graphite has layers of covalently-bonded carbon atoms – there are no bonds between the layers so they can slide
over each other, making graphite soft and slippery
• Graphite can conduct heat and electricity because of delocalised electrons that can move along its layers

• Diamond has carbon atoms with a rigid covalent structure, so it is very hard
• Diamond and most other covalent structures can’t conduct heat or electricity as they don’t have delocalised electrons – all the electrons are
used for covalent bonding

• Fullerenes are hollow-shaped molecules of carbon, based on hexagonal rings of carbon atoms
• Fullerenes can make very thin and long shapes, so they have high tensile strength (useful in reinforcing composite
materials) and are good conductors of heat and electricity (they also have delocalised electrons)
• Graphene is a single layer of graphite, so is one atom thick
• It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity, has a very low density and are very strong
• In the future it could be used in the electronics industry
C3.6) Structure of Simple Molecules
• Substances made up of simple (small) molecules have low melting and boiling points as the intermolecular
forces between the atoms are weak – little energy is needed to overcome it and break up the bonds
• Simple molecules have no overall charge so they can’t conduct electricity
• There are several models used to help understand bonding
• Polymer chains that have repeating units can be shown
like this:

instead of this:
C3.9-10) Bonding in Metals
• Metallic bonding is used to bond metals
• The atoms in metals are closely packed together and arranged in regular layers
• Metallic bonding has positively-charged ions held together by delocalised electrons from the outer shell of
each atom
• The delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the metallic lattice

• Metals are malleable (can be bent/shaped without breaking) as their layers can slide over each other
• An alloy is a mixture of multiple elements, of which at least one is a metal
• Alloys are harder than pure metals as the regular layers in pure metals are distorted by atoms of different sizes in an alloy, so it’s
harder for the layers to slide over each other

• Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity because their delocalised electrons can easily flow
through the lattice
• Metals have high melting and boiling points because of the high electrostatic attraction between the positive
ions and the delocalised electrons, meaning lots of energy is needed to break these metallic bonds
C3.11-12) Nanoparticles
• Nanoscience is the study of small particles between 1-100nm (nanometres) in size, called nanoparticles
• Nanoparticles have a very high surface area to volume ratio, meaning a high percentage of their atoms are at
the surface of the particle, so their properties can be different from the same materials in bulk
• E.g. They’re much more reactive – so they’re very good catalysts

• Nanoparticles may result in smaller quantities of materials being needed for industrial processes, making
industries more sustainable – their uses include:
• Titanium oxide nanoparticles are used in glass to automatically wipe off dirt, and in sunscreens, where they are coated in silica to
make them more effective at blocking sunrays
• Nanoparticles are widely used in cosmetics – they’re used in deodorants and face creams as they can be absorbed deeper into the
skin
• Nanocages of gold can be injected into tumours, and when heated by lasers can kill the tumour cells without damaging surrounding
healthy cells – this can help treat cancer
• Silver nanoparticles are widely used to inhibit the growth of microorganisms – this is used in fridges, textiles and biomedical devices
• These new applications of nanoparticles need to be researched for possible risks and issues for health and the environment in the
future, e.g. aquatic life and inhaling them
SECTION 3
QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY
This section appears in Paper 1.
Chapters: C4
C4.1-3) Relative Masses, Moles, Equations &
Calculations
• Relative atomic/formula mass (𝐴𝑟 /𝑀𝑟 ) = Mass number of atom OR sum of mass numbers of atoms
• One mole of a substance is its relative A/R mass in grams
• The Avogadro constant (6.02×1023) is the number of atoms per mole Mass (g)
Moles =
Relative mass
• Balanced symbol equations tell you the number of moles of substances involved in a
chemical reaction – e.g. if 146g of hydrochloric acid is made from 𝐻2 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 2𝐻𝐶𝑙:
1. Work out the relative formula mass of HCl: 35.5 + 1 = 36.5
2. Work out the number of moles in HCl: 146 ÷ 36.5 = 4
3. Find out the ratio of hydrochloric acid to chlorine: 1Cl:2HCl = 1:2 – so you divide 4 by 2 to get 2 moles of chlorine
4. As the atomic formula mass of chlorine is 35.5, the amount of chlorine used is 2 × 35.5 = 70g

• The limiting reactant is the reactant in a reaction that gets used up first, which limits the amount of product
– to work out the limiting reactant (e.g. 4.8g of magnesium reacting with 7.3g of hydrochloric acid):
1. Work out the formula masses, then the number of moles for magnesium and hydrochloric acid (Mg: 0.2mol, HCl: 0.2mol)
2. Balance out the equation: 𝑀𝑔 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 - from there you can see the ratio of Mg:HCl = 1:2
3. Using the ratio, 2mol of HCl reacts with 1mol of Mg, so 0.4mol of HCl is needed but there’s only 0.2mol, so hydrochloric acid is the
limiting reactant
C4.4-6) Yield, Atom Economy &
Concentrations
• The yield is the mass of product made from a reaction Percentage yield (%) =
Actual mass of product (g)
× 100
• To find out percentage yield from the mass of a product, find Maximum possible mass of product (g)
out the masses of the reactants then compare them to the
actual mass by turning it into a percentage – the maximum percentage yield is 100%

• Factors affecting the yield of a chemical reaction include product left behind in the apparatus, the reaction
being reversible, some reactants making unexpected reactions, and loss of some of the product when
separating it from the reaction mixture
• It’s important to maximise atom economy in industrial
Relative formula mass of product
processes to conserve the Earth’s resources and Atom economy (%) = × 100
minimise pollution Sum of relative formula masses
of reactants
• 1dm3 = 1000cm3
• A more concentrated solution has more solute in the same volume of Mass of solute (X)
solution than a less concentrated solution Concentration (X/Y) =
Volume of solution (Y)
• Concentration can be increased by adding more solute in the same volume or
evaporating off some water from the solution to decrease the volume X can be g (grams) or mol
Y can be cm3 or dm3
C4.7-9) Titrations & Volumes of Gases
• A titration is done to accurately measure concentrations of acids and alkalis by measuring what volumes of
acid and alkali react together completely – it’s done by:
1. Add a few drops of indicator into a conical flask containing the alkali then swirl
2. Use a burette the add the acid to the indicator solution dropwise until the colour changes completely
3. Measure the volume of acid used through the burette reading – acids curve (known as a meniscus), so measure the volume from
the bottom of the meniscus
4. Repeat the titration twice or until the results are concordant (very close to each other)

• Titrations can be used to find the unknown concentration of a solution:

1. Use mass = concentration × volume to work out the number of moles in the known solution
2. Use the ratio the find the number of moles in the unknown solution
3. Use concentration = mass ÷ volume to work out the concentration of the unknown solution

• The volume of 1 mole of a gas at room temperature and pressure is 24dm3 – this can be used to calculate
the moles of gaseous substances from their volume and vice versa
SECTION 4
CHEMICAL CHANGES
This section appears in Paper 1.
Chapters: C5, C6
C5.1-3) The Reactivity Series &
Displacement Reactions
• The reactivity series is a list of metals in order of their reactivity →
• Hydrogen gas is given off when metals react with water or dilute acids
• A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its aqueous solution
• Displacement reactions are known as redox reactions, as reduction (gain of electrons) or oxidation (loss of
electrons) happens

e.g: Displacement of copper in copper sulfate (ionic equation)

𝑀𝑔 + 𝐶𝑢 2+ 𝑆𝑂42− → 𝑀𝑔2+ 𝑆𝑂42− + 𝐶𝑢

Copper is reduced, magnesium is oxidised

• When there is enough metal in a rock to make it economic to

extract the metal, the rock is called a metal ore
• Ores are mined from the ground and might need to be
concentrated before the metal is extracted and purified
C5.3-4) Extracting Metals & Salts from Metals
e.g: Extraction of lead from lead oxide
𝑃𝑏𝑂 + 𝐶 → 𝑃𝑏 + 𝐶𝑂2
• Gold and some other unreactive metals can be found in their native state
e.g: Making sodium chloride (salt)
• Whether it’s worth extracting a particular metal depends on how easy it is to 𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2
extract, how much metal the ore has and the demand for the metal
• Carbon displacement is used to extract metals less reactive than it from its ore
• Carbon can only be used to displace metals from their oxides Electrolysis needed
• The ore must be heated to displace the meta to extract
• Metals more reactive than carbon are extracted by electrolysis of its
molten metal compound
• A salt is a compound formed when hydrogen in an acid is replaced by a metal
Carbon
• They can be made by reacting a suitable (not too reactive) metal with an acid
displacement
• Once reacted, the salt can be extracted by crystallisation

• The reaction between a metal and acid is a redox reaction, as the metal
atoms are oxidised and the hydrogen ions are reduced
• The metal atoms give electrons to the hydrogen ions before displacing it Found in their
native state
 C5.5-6) Making Salts
• Bases are compounds that can neutralise acids, while alkalis are
bases that are soluble in water Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
e.g. 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
• When an acid reacts with a base/alkali, a neutralisation reaction
occurs, producing a salt and water Acid + Base → Salt + Water
e.g. 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐶𝑢𝑂 → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
• The sum of the charges on the ions in a salt add up to 0, so the formula of the
salts can be worked out if you know the charges of the ions Acid + Alkali → Salt + Water
e.g. 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂
• When reacting an acid with an alkali, a pH indicator or a titration is needed to
know when the reaction is done and extract a pure salt
• Acids react with metal carbonates to produce a salt, water and carbon dioxide

Mg = +2 2 + 2(-1) = 0,
so you need 2 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2
Cl = -1 chlorines
C5.7-8) pH and Acids e.g. Acids and Alkalis in Water
Acid: 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐻 + + 𝐶𝑙 −
Alkali: 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎 + + 𝑂𝐻−

The 𝐻 + and 𝑂𝐻 − ions make a solution

• Acids are substances that produce 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) ions when added to water
acidic and alkaline respectively
• Alkalis are substances that produce 𝑂𝐻 −(𝑎𝑞) ions when added to water
• The pH scale is used to show how acidic or alkaline a solution is
• pH > 7 is alkaline, pH = 7 is neutral (e.g. pure water), pH < 7 is acidic

• The pH of a solution can be found out via: Explaining neutralisation through ions
• A universal indicator – a dye that changes colour showing the pH 𝐻 + + 𝑂𝐻− → 𝐻2 𝑂
• A pH meter – an electronic device used to find out the pH more accurately, attached to a glass probe dipped into the solution

• The more concentrated an acid in a solution, the lower its pH value

• Carboxylic acids are called weak acids, as opposed to strong acids, e.g. hydrochloric acid

• Strong acids ionise (release 𝐻 + ions) completely and irreversibly in solutions, while weak acids ionise
partially and reversibly
• In weak acids, equilibrium will be reached where both whole molecules (the majority) and 𝐻 + ions (the minority) are present – which
is why strong acids have a lower pH than weak acids at the same concentration

• When the pH decreases by 1, the hydrogen ion (𝐻 + ) concentration of the solution increases by ×10

Concentration of 𝐻+ (𝑎𝑞) ions [mol/dm3] = 10-pH

C6.1-2) Electrolysis
• Electrolysis breaks down a substance with electricity
• Electrodes are conducting rods connected to the circuit
• The anode is the positive electrode, the cathode the negative electrode
• The ions move to the electrode of the opposite charge. At the electrodes they lose their charge as they lose/gain electrons
(oxidation/reduction reactions).
• Electrodes are made of unreactive substances so they don’t react with the electrolyte

• The electrolyte is the compound to be broken down

• Only ionic compounds that are molten or dissolved in water can be electrolysed, so their ions can be free to
move to the electrodes (covalent compounds can’t)
• Oxidation reactions involve losing electrons; reduction reactions involve gaining electrons
• OILRIG – Oxidation is loss, Reduction is gain
• e.g. At the anode negative ions are reduced, at the cathode positive ions are oxidised
e.g: Reaction of 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 (half-equation)
• Half-equations are used to show what’s happening at each electrode
• At the anode, you either get a halide (halogen) ion or oxygen Anode: 4𝑂𝐻− → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2 + 4𝑒 −
Cathode: 2𝐻+ + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2
• At the cathode, you get the least reactive element
C6.3-4) Extracting Aluminium & Aqueous
Solutions
• Electrolysis is used to displace metal ores more reactive than carbon, e.g. aluminium oxide from bauxite
• The aluminium oxide is mixed with molten cryolite to reduce its melting point, reducing the energy needed
to extract the aluminium
• This is because electrolysis needs a lot of energy so can be very expensive, plus the metal needs to be melted too

• The graphite anode needs to be regularly replaced as the oxygen formed reacts with it, forming carbon
dioxide, which slowly burns it away
Electrolysis of 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 (half-equation)
• In aqueous solutions, hydrogen is formed at the cathode if the metal is more
reactive than it Anode: 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 3𝑒 − → 𝐴𝑙
• This is because in the aqueous solution water molecules break down, making hydrogen and Cathode: 2𝑂2− → 𝑂2 + 4𝑒 −
oxygen ions
SECTION 5
ENERGY CHANGES
This section appears in Paper 1.
Chapters: C7
C7.1-3) Exothermic and Endothermic
Reactions & Reaction Profiles
• Energy is conserved in chemical reactions: it’s not created or destroyed
• In an exothermic reaction, energy exits the reaction, often heating up the surroundings
• Exothermic reactions include combustion and neutralisation
• Exothermic changes are used in hand warmers and self-heating cans

• In an endothermic reaction, energy enters the reaction, often cooling down the surroundings
• Because of this, whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic can be checked by measuring the change in temperature
• Endothermic reactions include thermal decomposition
• Endothermic changes are used in instant cold packs for sports injuries

• Reaction profiles show the difference in the energy of reactants and products
• In an exothermic reaction, the energy is higher in the reactants line than the products line
• In an endothermic reaction, the energy is lower in the reactants line than the products line

• Bond making is exothermic, while bond

breaking is endothermic
• Both happen at the same time – comparing the overall
energy used to break and make the bonds can help
show whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic
C7.4-6) Bond Energy Calculations, Chemical
Cells, Batteries and Fuel Cells
• In chemical reactions, energy is used to break bonds, while energy is released when bonds are made
• Bond energies are used to calculate the overall energy change in a chemical Burning of hydrogen as fuel
reaction: 2𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐻2 𝑂
1. Calculate the energy used to break the bonds of the reactants (also, 𝑛𝐻2 = 𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠(𝐻 − 𝐻))
2. Calculate the energy released when making the bonds of the products Half-equations:
3. Overall energy change = bonds broken – bonds made 2𝐻2 + 4𝑂𝐻− → 4𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 −
𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 − → 4𝑂𝐻−
• When two metals are dipped in a salt solution and joined by a wire, the more
reactive metal gives electrons to the less reactive metal, forming a simple electrical cell with a current
• The more reactive (oxidised) metal is the negative terminal; the less reactive (reduced) metal is the positive terminal
• The greater the difference in reactivity between the metals, the higher the voltage produced
• Some cells can be recharged if they can reverse the reactions at each electrode – others can’t, so stop
working when one of the reactants run out

• Hydrogen is an alternative fuel to fossil fuels – it can be burned in combustion engines

or used in fuel cells to power vehicles
• The hydrogen gas is oxidised to provide electrons – the only waste product is water
• Hydrogen fuel cells don’t need to be electrically recharged and no pollutants are produced, but hydrogen is
very flammable and difficult to store
SECTION 6
THE RATE AND EXTENT OF
CHEMICAL CHANGE
This section appears in Paper 2.
Chapters: C8
C8.1-5) Rate of Reaction & Collision Theory
Reactants used OR
products formed (X)
Rate of reaction (X/s) =
• The rate of a chemical reaction can be found by monitoring the amount of Time (s)
reactants used up or the amount of products formed over time
X can be g (grams) or cm3
• The gradient of the line from a graph of the reaction represents the rate of reaction
• To calculate the rate of reaction at a specific point of the graph, draw a tangent to the curve, then calculate its
gradient

• According to collision theory, particles must collide with a certain minimum amount of
energy, called activation energy, before they can react
• The rate of a reaction can be increased by:
• Increasing the surface area to volume ratio of the solid reactants – this increases the frequency of collisions between reacting
particles as more particles are exposed
• Increasing the temperature – the particles collide more frequently, due to their higher speeds, and with more energy, meaning more
collisions have the activation energy required
• Increasing the concentration of the reactants in solutions – this increases the frequency of collisions between reacting particles
• Increasing the pressure of reacting gases / decreasing the volume – more particles in gases with less room collide more often
• Using catalysts – they speed up the rate of reaction, by reducing the activation energy or changing the reaction
mechanism, without being used up and remaining chemically unchanged; different catalysts are used for different reactions
• Catalysts are used whenever possible in industry to increase rate of creation and reduce energy costs by decreasing pressure, energy
and temperature required, which can help combat climate change
C8.6-8) Reversible Reactions & Equilibrium
• In reversible reactions, the products of a reaction can react to make the original reactants
• The direction of reversible reactions can be changed by changing the conditions

• Reversible reactions are shown through the ⇌ symbol (e.g. A + B ⇌ C + D)

• In reversible reactions, one reaction is exothermic and the other is endothermic
• The amount of energy transferred to the surroundings is exothermic reversible reactions is the
same as the energy transferred back when the reaction is reversed

• When a reversible reaction is in equilibrium, the rate of the forward and

backward reactions is equal
• This happens in a closed system, as no reactants or products can get in or out

• Le Châtelier’s principle states that changing the reaction conditions can change the amount of products and
reactants in a reaction mixture at dynamic equilibrium
• E.g. if the concentration of one reactants is decreased, the reaction is no longer at dynamic equilibrium, so the rate of the forward
reaction decreases and the rate of the backward reaction increases, which means more reactant is made until equilibrium is
established again, and vice versa – the system responds to counteract the change
• This principle is very important in industry, as in reversible reactions conditions are needed to give as much product as possible as
quick as possible
C8.9) Altering Conditions
• Increasing pressure favours the reaction that forms fewer molecules of gas to reduce the pressure back to
equilibrium, and vice versa
• E.g. for 2𝑁𝑂2 ⇌ 𝑁2 𝑂4 , there are 2 molecules of brown 𝑁𝑂2 and 1 molecule of pale yellow 𝑁2 𝑂4 , so increasing the pressure favours
the forward reaction producing 𝑁2 𝑂4 , leading to more of it being made in the mixture, making the colour of the mixture lighter

• Increasing temperature favours the endothermic reaction to reduce the temperature back to equilibrium,
and vice versa
• E.g. for 2𝑁𝑂2 ⇌ 𝑁2 𝑂4 , the 2𝑁𝑂2 ← 𝑁2 𝑂4 part of the reaction is endothermic, so increasing the temperature favours the backward
reaction producing 𝑁𝑂2 , leading to more of it being made in the mixture, making the colour of the mixture darker
SECTION 7
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
This section appears in Paper 2.
Chapters: C9, C10, C11
C9.1-2) Hydrocarbons & Fractional Distillation
• Crude oil is a finite resource found in rocks – it’s the remains of ancient biomass consisting mainly of
plankton buried in mud
• It’s a mixture of mainly lots of hydrocarbons, which are molecules made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms

• Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, with as many hydrogen atoms as possible in their molecules
• Their general formula is 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2
• The first four alkanes are called methane (𝐶𝐻4 ), ethane (𝐶2 𝐻6 ), propane (𝐶3 𝐻8 ) and butane (𝐶4𝐻10 )

• Crude oil is separated into fractions with similar boiling points by fractional distillation
• The properties of each fraction depends on whether it’s short-chain or long-chain:
• Long-chain fractions have a higher boiling point and viscosity (how easily it flows)
• Short-chain fractions have higher flammability – they make better fuels as they ignite easily and burn
well with cleaner and less smoky fumes, which is why they’re a lot more wanted in industry

• Fractions produced during fractional distillation are used to produce many fuels
like petrol, diesel oil, kerosene, heavy fuel oil and liquefied petroleum gases
• The petrochemical industry also produces solvents, lubricants, polymers and detergents from hydrocarbons
C9.2-4) Fractional Distillation, Burning
Hydrocarbon Fuels & Cracking
• In fractional distillation, crude oil is heated and fed in near the bottom of a fractioning
column as hot vapour
• The column is hot as the bottom but gets cooler further up – as a result, the gases move up the column
until it condenses at its boiling point before being collected
• Short-chain hydrocarbons evaporate further up than long-chain hydrocarbons
• The fractions are processed before they can be used by the petrochemical industry

• When hydrocarbon fuels are burned with lots of air, the carbon and
hydrogen in the fuel are completely oxidised, producing carbon dioxide and water
• This is called complete combustion
• Complete combustion can be tested for with a limewater test for carbon dioxide

• When there isn’t enough oxygen to go around when the hydrocarbons are burnt, incomplete combustion
happens, producing carbon monoxide, a colourless, odourless and toxic gas
• Long-chain hydrocarbon molecules can be broken up into smaller, more useful ones by cracking
• Cracking is done by passing hydrocarbon vapours over a hot catalyst (catalytic cracking), or mixing them with steam then heating it to
a very high temperature (steam cracking)
COMPLETE COMBUSTION
• The hydrocarbons are cracked due to thermal decomposition – the large molecules
break apart due to the high temperature Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water
e.g. 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
C9.4+C10.1) Cracking Hydrocarbons & the
Nature of Alkenes
• Cracking produces saturated alkanes, which are used as fuels, and unsaturated alkanes
• Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and react with bromine water, which is used as a test for alkenes
• Bromine water is orange, but when reacted with alkenes it turns colourless

• There is a high demand for short-chain alkanes in industry as they are

good fuels
• They’re used to produce polymers and as starting materials for the production of many
other chemicals

• Alkenes are a hydrocarbons with the functional group 𝐶 = 𝐶 bond, and

their general formula is 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛
• A homologous series is a sequence of compounds with the same functional group, a
collection of atoms with similar reactions and properties
• They’re unsaturated as they have 2 less hydrogen atoms than alkanes with the same number of carbon atoms
• The first four alkenes are called ethene (𝐶2𝐻4 ), propene (𝐶3𝐻6 ), butene (𝐶4 𝐻8 ) and pentene (𝐶5 𝐻10 )

• Complete combustion of an alkene forms carbon dioxide and water

• Alkenes tend to burn in air with smoky flames because of incomplete
combustion, which explains how they’re not very energy-efficient, which
explains why alkanes are used as fuels but not alkenes
C10.1-2) Reactions of the Alkenes & Structures
of Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
• The carbon-carbon double bond 𝐶 = 𝐶 makes alkenes far more reactive than alkanes
• Molecules that react with alkenes “add” to the alkene across their double bond so that
it becomes a single bond and it saturates the alkene, like →
• Reactions where molecules add across the alkene’s double bond include
reactions with hydrogen, halogens and steam
• For the reactions with halogens and steam, a
catalyst is needed Alkane + Halogen → (Di)haloalkane
e.g. 𝐶2 𝐻4 + 𝐵𝑟2 → 𝐶2 𝐻4 𝐵𝑟2
• The homologous series of alcohols has the Ethene + Bromine → Dibromoethane
−𝑂𝐻 functional group
• The −𝑂𝐻 is attached with one of the carbon atoms at the end of the chain
Alkene + Hydrogen → Alkane
• Their general formula is 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 𝑂
e.g. 𝐶2 𝐻4 + 𝐻2 → 𝐶2 𝐻6
• The first four alcohols are methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol
Ethene + Bromine → Ethane
• The homologous series of carboxylic acids has the −𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
functional group Alkane + Steam → Alcohol (with basename)
• The carbon atom at the end of the chain has a double bond with oxygen (𝐶 = 𝑂) e.g. 𝐶2 𝐻4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻
and another bond with hydroxide (𝐶 − 𝑂 − 𝐻)
Ethene + Steam → Ethanol
• Their general formula is split between each carbon atom and its surrounding
hydrogens, followed by last carbon atom’s formula (𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻) – e.g. for propanoic acid, 𝐶𝐻3 then 𝐶𝐻2 then 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
• The first four carboxylic acids are methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid and butanoic acid
C10.2-4) Structure & Reactions of Alcohols,
Carboxylic Acids and Esters
• The homologous series of esters has the −𝐶𝑂𝑂 − functional group Alcohol + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water
• The formula for ethyl ethanoate is 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3 – this is the only ester whose e.g. 𝐶2 𝐻6 𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
name you need to know
• Alcohols are used as solvents and fuels
• They burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water
• They react with sodium metal to form a solution of sodium alkoxide,
producing hydrogen gas
• Ethanol is the main alcohol in alcoholic drinks
• It can be oxidised to form ethanoic acid, either via chemical oxidising
agents or by the action of microbes in the air
• Aqueous solutions of ethanol are produced when sugar solutions
are fermented in yeast
• Solutions of carboxylic acids are acidic Carboxylic acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water
• They are weak acids, as their 𝐻 + ions only ionise partially in water and their e.g. Ethanoic acid + Ethanol → Ethyl ethanoate + Water
pH is higher than those of strong acids with the same concentration
• Carboxylic acids react with carbonates to release carbon dioxide gas
• Esters are made by reacting a carboxylic acid with an alcohol, in the presence of a strong acid catalyst
• They are volatile (boil at a low temperature), fragrant compounds with a fruity smell, so are used in flavourings and perfumes
C11.1-3) Addition Polymerisation, Condensation
Polymerisation & Natural Polymers
• Alkenes can be used to make polymers such as poly(ethene) and poly(propene) by addition polymerisation
• In addition polymerisation, many small molecules (monomers) join together to form long chains of molecules (polymers)

• In addition polymerisation, the repeating unit (what repeats) has the same atoms as the monomers – thus,
when the 𝐶 = 𝐶 bond opens up in polymerisation no other molecule is formed in the reaction
• The 𝐶 = 𝐶 double bonds become a single bond (𝐶 − 𝐶)

• Condensation polymerisation involves two monomers with two

functional groups
• When they react they join together, usually losing small molecules like water
• The repeating unit in the middle is represented as a box, e.g.
becomes

• Polyesters are formed from the condensation

polymerisation of a diol and a dicarboxylic acid – water is given off in the reaction
• Glucose monomers polymerise to make polymers such as starch and cellulose, giving off water
• Amino acids have an acidic and basic functional group in the same molecule
• They react together in condensation polymerisation to make polypeptides and proteins made of long sequences of different amino
acids (the monomers)
C11.4) DNA
• DNA is a large molecule essential for life
• It encodes genetic instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms and viruses

• Most DNA molecules are made up of two polymer chains in the shape of a double helix, made from four
different monomers called nucleotides
SECTION 8
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
This section appears in Paper 2.
Chapters: C12
C12.1-2) Pure Substances and Mixtures &
Analysing Chromatograms
• A pure substance is a single element or compound not mixed with any other substance Distance moved by
substance
• An impure substance is a mixture of multiple different elements or compounds Rf =
Distance moved by
• Pure elements and compounds melt and boil at specific fixed temperatures solvent
• Melting and boiling point data can be used to distinguish pure substances from impure substances

• A formulation is a mixture designed as to be useful as possible by mixing its components in carefully

measured proportions, to ensure the product has the best properties to carry out its function
• Many products are complex mixtures where each chemical has a particular purpose
• Formulations include fuels, cleaning agents, paints, medicines, alloys, fertilisers and foods

• Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures and give information to help identify substances
• It involves a stationary phase (the actual paper) and a mobile phase (the solvent that moves through the paper, carrying the
substances with it) – separation depends on the distribution of substances between the phases

• The Rf value is the ratio of the distance moved by a compound from its spot of origin, to the distance moved
by the solvent
• Different compounds have different Rf values in different solvents, which can be used to identify the substances

• Compounds in a mixture may separate into different spots depending on the solvent, but a pure compound
will always produce a single spot in all solvents
C12.3-5) Testing for Gases & Tests for Ions
• Tests for common gases include:
• Hydrogen – using a lighted splint held at the open end of a test tube, hydrogen burns rapidly with a pop sound
• Oxygen –a glowing splint put into a test tube relights in oxygen
• Carbon dioxide – an aqueous solution of limewater turns milky/cloudy when carbon dioxide bubbles through it
• Chlorine – damp litmus paper is bleached and turns white by the chlorine gas
Compound Flame colour
• Flame tests are used to identify some cations (positive metal ions), like →
Lithium Crimson
• If a sample with a mixture of cations is used, some flame colours can be masked Sodium Yellow
• Sodium hydroxide solution can also be used to identify some cations Potassium Lilac
• Solutions of aluminium, calcium and magnesium ions form white precipitates in it, but only the aluminium
hydroxide precipitate dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution Calcium Orange-red
• In sodium hydroxide, copper(𝐼𝐼) solutions form a blue precipitate, iron(𝐼𝐼) solutions form a green precipitate Copper Green
and iron(𝐼𝐼𝐼) solutions form a brown precipitate
• Carbonate ions react with dilute acid to form carbon Metal + Sodium hydroxide → Metal hydroxide precipitate + Sodium
dioxide gas (causing the solution to fizz) e.g. 𝐴𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝑁𝑎
• The presence of carbon dioxide can be identified with limewater
• Halide (halogen) ions in a solution precipitate with silver nitrate solution in the presence of dilute nitric acid
• Silver chloride is white, silver bromide is cream and silver iodide is yellow
C12.5-6) Tests for Negative Ions &
Instrumental Analysis
• Sulfate ions in a solution produce a white precipitate when reacted with barium chloride, in the presence of
dilute hydrochloric acid
• Elements and compounds can be detected and identified with instrumental methods
• They are much more accurate, sensitive, and rapid than chemical tests, and enable very small
samples to be analysed effectively

• Flame emission spectroscopy is an instrumental method, used to analyse metal

ions in solutions
• The sample is put into a flame, and the light given out is passed through a spectroscope
• The output is a line spectrum that can be analysed to identify the metal ions in the solution, and
measure their concentrations
SECTION 9
CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
This section appears in Paper 2.
Chapters: C13
C13.1-2) History of Our Evolving Atmosphere
• The Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago – theories about what was in the Earth’s atmosphere and how it
formed have changed and developed over time
• One theory suggests that for the first billion years there was intense volcanic activity that released gases forming the early
atmosphere, as well as water vapour that condensed to form the oceans
• Volcanoes also produced nitrogen, which gradually built up the atmosphere – they may have been small proportions of methane and
ammonia
• The early atmosphere may have been like Venus or Mars’ atmosphere today, with lots of carbon dioxide and little to no oxygen gas

• As plants spread over the Earth, the levels of oxygen in the atmosphere increased
• Photosynthesis by algae and plants since 2.7 billion years ago decreased the percentage of carbon dioxide in the early atmosphere
• Over the next billion years, plants evolved and the percentage of oxygen increased to the point animals could evolve

• When the oceans formed, carbon dioxide dissolved in the water and carbonates were precipitated,
producing sediments like limestone, which reduced the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
• Coal was formed from thick deposits of plant material – they were buried in the absence of oxygen and compressed over many years
• Crude oil and natural gas were formed from the remains of plankton deposited in muds on the seabed – they were covered by
sediments that became layers of rock when compressed over millions of years

• Today, the atmosphere is made up of 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen

• There are also small proportions of other gases like carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases
C13.3-4) Greenhouse Gases & Global Climate
Change
• Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere maintain temperatures on Earth high enough to support life
• E.g. carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane

• Greenhouse gases let short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation pass through, but absorb long-wavelength
radiation like infrared radiation emitted by the Earth, which was supposed to cool it down
• As a result, the temperature rises as the radiation is stuck in the atmosphere – this is called the greenhouse effect

• Some human activities increase the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, like:
• Using fossil fuels for energy and electricity and as fuel, burning carbon dioxide into the atmosphere in the process
• Methane emissions from the increasing number of grazing cattle used for food – their waste also releases methane

• Based on peer-reviewed evidence, many scientists believe that human activities is causing the Earth’s
temperature to increase, which will result in global climate change
• However, it’s difficult to model and predict the effects of complex systems like climate change, which
leads to simplified models, speculation and opinions in the media that may be biased or based on only
parts of the evidence

• Potential effects of global climate change include:

• Rising sea levels due to melting ice caps and the expansion of warmer oceans
• Increasingly common extreme weather events, and changes to the distribution of wildlife species
• Changes in temperature and the amount, timing and distribution of rainfall, which can affect food production
C13.4-5) Carbon Footprint & Atmospheric
Pollutants
• The carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted over a
product’s full life cycle
• It can be reduced by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and methane, by using alternative sources of energy and by conserving
energy – however, this can be difficult to do as the economies of developed countries are based on energy from fossil fuels, so
changes will be very expensive to implement

• The combustion of fuels is a major source of atmospheric pollutants

• Most fuels (e.g. coal) include carbon or hydrogen, and may contain traces of sulfur
• The gases released into the atmosphere when a fuel is burned include carbon dioxide, water vapour, nitrogen oxides and carbon
monoxide, as well as solid particles and unburnt hydrocarbons that form particulates

• Sulfur impurities in fuels burn to form sulfur dioxide, which can cause acid rain and respiratory problems
• Sulfur can be removed from fuel before they’re burned, or sulfur dioxide can be removed from flue gas

• Carbon monoxide is a toxic, colourless and odourless gas that can’t be easily detected
• It’s produced by incomplete combustion when there’s not enough oxygen inside an engine to form only carbon dioxide

• Particulates, produced in diesel engines, cause global dimming and health problems for humans like cancer
• Nitrogen oxides are toxic and can cause acid rain
• It’s formed in engines when the temperature is so high that nitrogen, which is normally unreactive, reacts with oxygen
SECTION 10
USING RESOURCES
This section appears in Paper 2.
Chapters: C14, C15
C14.1-2) Finite and Renewable Resources &
Water Safe to Drink
• We use the Earth’s resources to provide warmth, shelter, food and transport
• Natural resources, supplemented by agriculture, provide food, timber, clothing and fuels
• Finite resources from the Earth, ocean and atmosphere are processed to provide energy and materials

• Chemistry plays an important role in improving agricultural and industrial processes to provide new products
and sustainable development (development able to carry on for many years to allow future generations to
meet their needs as well as us)
• Natural products include biofuels and fertilisers
• Renewable resources will never run out as they are replenished at the same rate they’re used, while finite
resources will eventually run out as they are used at a faster rate then they’re replenished
• Estimates of the time left before fossil fuels run out can only be rough estimates, because of the uncertainty involved in calculations

• Water of appropriate quality is essential for life

• Potable water is water that is safe to drink – it’s not pure as it has dissolved substances and may be slightly alkaline or acidic, but for
humans low levels of dissolved salts and microbes is safe – pure water is neutral and has no dissolved substances
• The methods used to produce potable water depends on available water and local conditions
C14.2-3) Water Safe to Drink & Treating Waste
Water
• In the UK, rain provides water with low levels of dissolved substances collected in the ground, lakes and
rivers – potable water is made by:
1. Choosing an appropriate source of fresh water, e.g. from a river or lake
2. Passing it through filter beds, to remove undissolved solids
3. Sterilising it using sterilising agents like chlorine, ozone and ultraviolet light – they destroy harmful microbes

• If supplies of fresh water are limited, desalination of dirty water or sea water may be required
• Desalination can be done by distillation or using partially permeable membranes in reverse osmosis (to separate dissolved salts from
salty water), which requires lots of energy so is expensive

• Urban lifestyles and industrial processes produce lots of waste water that needs treatment at a sewage
works before being released into the environment
• Sewage, agricultural and industrial waste water require removal of organic matter, harmful chemicals and/or microbes

• Sewage treatment is done by:

• Screening and grit removal, followed by sedimentation to produce sewage sludge and effluent
• Anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge, then aerobic biological treatment of effluent – this produces fertiliser and a source of
renewable energy

• Getting potable water from waste waster is easier than from ground and salt water as it can provide
renewable energy, instead of needing a lot of energy
C14.4-5) Extracting Metals from Ores & Life
Cycle Assessments
• Most copper is extracted by smelting (roasting) copper-rich ores, although supplies of ores
are becoming scarcer
• Copper can be extracted from solutions of copper compounds by electrolysis or
displacement using scrap iron
• Electrolysis is also used to purify impure copper, e.g. the copper metal obtained from smelting

• New ways of extracting copper from low-grade ores include:

• Bioleaching – uses bacteria to produce leachate solutions with metal compounds in their waste by biological and chemical processes
• Phytomining – growing plants that absorb metal compounds in the soil; the plants are harvested then burned to produce ash with
the metal compounds, obtained by adding sulphuric acid to get a solution of metal sulphate

• Life cycle assessments (LCAs) are carried out to assess the environmental impacts of products in:
• Extracting and processing raw metals → Manufacturing and packaging → use and operation during its lifetime → disposal at the end
of its useful life, including transportation and distribution at each stage

• Use of water, resources, energy sources and production of some waste can be easily quantified
• However, calculating the effects of pollutants made is more complex and subjective judgments are used, so LCAs aren’t fully objective

• LCAs are used to evaluate a product, but they can be misused to reach wrong conclusions, e.g. in support of
claims for advertising purposes
C14.6+C15.1) Recycling & Rusting
• Recycling and reusing metals more and using metals less can save energy from finite metal ores and fossil
fuels, which can also reduce pollution from the mining and extraction of metals and fossil fuels
• There are socioeconomic and environmental issues about exploiting the Earth’s limited supplies of raw materials, such as metal ores
• The amount of separation needed for recycling depends on the material and the properties of the final product – e.g. scrap steel can
be added to iron from a blast furnace to reduce the amount of iron that needs to be extracted from iron ore

• Examples of how using finite materials and fossil fuels and reusing materials has impacts include:
• Metals, glass and most plastics are produced from finite raw materials and resources, which has environmental impacts
• Some products like glass bottles can be reused, but others can’t be reused so are recycled for a different use
• Metals can be recycled by melting and recasting or reforming into different products

• Corrosion is the destruction of materials by chemical reactions with substances in the environment
• Both air (oxygen) and water are needed for iron to rust – rusting is an example of corrosion
• Corrosion and rusting can be prevented by applying a coating that acts as a barrier, e.g. greasing, painting or
electroplating
• Aluminium has an oxide coating that protects it from further corrosion
• Some coatings are more reactive than the metal to provide sacrificial protection, e.g. zinc is used to galvanise (coat) iron
• The metal can also be coated with paint, grease (e.g. oil) or plastic
C15.2-3) Useful Alloys & the Properties of
Polymers
• Most metals in everyday use are alloys, often to make them harder and give better properties for their use
• Aluminium alloys are low density
• Alloys of copper include:
• Bronze – an alloy of copper and tin, often used to make ornaments
• Brass – an alloy of copper and zinc, often used in hinges and screws
• Gold used as jewellery is usually an alloy with silver, copper and zinc
• The proportion of gold in the alloy is measured in carats – 24-carat is 100% gold (pure),
while 18-carat is 75% gold
• Steels are alloys of iron with specific amounts of carbon and other metals – they’re used in construction
• High-carbon steel is strong and brittle, while low-carbon steel is softer and more easily shaped
• Stainless steels (steels with chromium and nickel) are hard and resistant to corrosion
• The properties of polymers depend on the monomers they are made from and their reaction conditions
• They are often poor conductors
• Low density (LD) and high density (HD) poly(ethene) are made from ethene
• LD poly(ethene) is produced under very high pressure with a trace of oxygen – the polymer chains are randomly branched and can’t
pack closely together, which is why it is less dense
• HD poly(ethene) is produced using a catalyst at 50°C and a slightly raised pressure – the polymer chains are straighter and can pack
closely, so they are dense as they have more atoms per unit volume
C15.3-4) Polymers, Glass, Ceramics &
Composites
• Thermosoftening polymers melt when heated as their intermolecular forces are relatively weak, while
thermosetting polymers don’t, as their intermolecular forces are stronger
• Thermosetting polymers don’t soften because of their “cross-linking” of their polymer chains by strong covalent bonds, but will
eventually char if heated very strongly

• Soda-lime glass is made by heating a mixture of sand, sodium carbonate and

limestone
• Borosilicate glass, made from sand and boron trioxide, melts at higher temperatures than it
• Glass is transparent, brittle and has a high melting point, and is a poor conductor

• Clay ceramics, including pottery and bricks, are made by shaping wet clay then
heating it in a furnace
• They are hard and brittle electrical insulators, resistant to chemical attack

• Composites are usually made of two materials: a matrix or binder surrounding,

and the reinforcement consisting of fibres or fragments of the other material
• Composites include fibreglass, which are strong, stiff and lightweight, and concrete, which is very hard and strong

• Metals are malleable and ductile, so can be bent or made into wires, and are good conductors
C15.5-7) The Haber Process & Fertilisers
• The Haber process is used to manufacture ammonia, which is used to produce nitrogen-based fertilisers
• The raw materials needed are hydrogen extracted from natural gas, and nitrogen extracted from the air

• The purified gases are passed over an iron catalyst at 450°C and 200 atmospheres pressure
• On cooling, the ammonia liquifies and is removed – the remaining hydrogen and nitrogen are recycled back into the reaction vessel

• The reaction is reversible, so a compromise in conditions is needed to maximise the yield of ammonia, like:
• A high enough pressure to favour the forward reaction, but not too high that explosions could happen – high pressures would also
make the chemical plant too expensive to build and run, due to the amount of energy needed
• A low enough temperature to favour the exothermic forward reaction, but not too low to decrease the rate of reaction by too much

• Compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are used as fertilisers Nitrogen + Hydrogen ⇌ Ammonia
to improve agricultural productivity 𝑁2 + 𝐻2 ⇌ 𝑁𝐻3
• NPK fertilisers are formulations that contain salt compounds of all three elements

• Industrial production of NPK fertilisers can be done with a variety of raw

materials in processes, like:
• Ammonia, to make ammonium salts and nitric acid – the nitric acid is reacted with ammonia again
to produce ammonium nitrate fertiliser
• Phosphate rock obtained by mining, which reacts with nitric acid to produce calcium nitrate, with
sulfuric acid to make calcium sulphate, or with phosphoric acid to make triple superphosphate
C15.8) Making Fertilisers in Industry
• Phosphate rock cannot be used directly as a fertiliser as it’s insoluble, so is treated with nitric acid or
sulphuric acid to produce soluble salts that can be used as fertilisers
• Other NPK rocks obtained by mining include potassium chloride and potassium sulphate

• Industrial production of fertilisers can be done on a much larger scale, faster and continuously
• The materials used are more concentrated, which can be potentially hazardous as it could cause explosions
• The equipment used (e.g. pipes and reaction vessels) need to be made of strong stainless steel to withstand the high pressures and
the corrosive nature of the materials used

• Laboratory production of fertilisers is done in smaller quantities, using dilute concentrations for safety
• The apparatus used is made of glass so is cheaper, but is slower and can’t be done continuously
APPENDIX
PAPER 1 PRACTICALS
This section appears in Paper 1.
Chapters: C4, C5, C6, C7
 1) Making Salts (C5.5)
Method
Equipment 1. Put a fixed volume of dilute sulphuric acid (the limiting reactant) into
• A beaker the beaker
• A gauze 2. Gently heat the acid until almost boiling, then turn off the Bunsen
• A Bunsen burner
burner
• A tripod
• A heatproof mat
3. Use a spatula to add small amounts of the metal oxide to the acid, then
• The metal oxide stir the solution with a glass rod
• Dilute sulphuric 4. The metal oxide will disappear and the solution will turn a blue colour –
acid continue adding the metal oxide if the solution continues to be clear
• An evaporating blue, until some powder remains after stirring
basin 5. Filter out the unreacted metal oxide
• Boiling water 6. Place the solution in an evaporating basin, then heat it gently over a
• Filtration
beaker of boiling water until around half of the solution remains
equipment
7. Leave the solution overnight in a cool place to allow crystals to form
8. Scrape the crystals onto a paper towel and gently pat them dry
APPENDIX
PAPER 2 PRACTICALS
This section appears in Paper 1.
Chapters: C8, C12, C14
 5a) Rates of Reaction (C8.4)
Conclusion (both 5a and 5b)
Both experiments show that the higher the concentration, the higher the rate of
reaction, therefore this finding is reproducible.

Method
1. Use a measuring cylinder to pour 50cm3 of hydrochloric acid into a conical flask
2. Attach the conical flask to a bung and a delivery tube, and place the delivery tube into a trough
half filled with water
3. Place an upturned measuring cylinder filled with water over the delivery tube Equipment
4. Add a metal ribbon to the hydrochloric acid, then start the stopwatch • Hydrochloric acid
5. Every 10 seconds, measure the volume of hydrogen gas in the measuring cylinder until no more • Water
• A water trough
hydrogen is given off
• A bung
6. Repeat the experiment, using different concentrations of hydrochloric acid • A delivery tube
• A conical flask
Variables • 2 measuring
Independent: Concentration of hydrochloric acid cylinders
Dependent: Volume of hydrogen gas given off every 10 seconds • A metal ribbon
Control: Volume of hydrochloric acid; mass of the metal ribbon; time before each recording of the volume • A stopwatch
 5b) Rates of Reaction via Turbidity (C8.4)
Equipment Method
• Sodium thiosulfate 1. Measure and pour 10cm3 of sodium thiosulfate solution into the conical
solution flask
• A conical flask 2. Measure and pour 40cm3 of water into the conical flask – this dilutes the
• Water sodium thiosulfate solution to a concentration of 8g/dm3
• A black cross 3. Put the conical flask on the black cross
• Hydrochloric acid
• A measuring cylinder
4. Measure and pour 10cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into the conical flask
• A stopwatch 5. Swirl the flask gently and start the stopwatch
6. Look down through the top of the flask – stop the timer when the cross can
no longer be seen
Sources of
7. Repeat the experiment, then calculate the mean time for that concentration
inaccuracy 8. Repeat this process using different concentrations of sodium thiosulphate
On its own, the
experiment isn’t very
reproducible as people Variables
have different eyesights, Independent: Concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution
so when the cross Dependent: Time taken for the cross to disappear
appears is subjective and Control: Size of cross; volume of water, sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid;
prone to human error concentration of hydrochloric acid
 6) Chromatography (C12.2)
Equipment Method
• Chromatography 1. Use a ruler and pencil to draw a horizontal line 2cm from the bottom of the chromatography
paper paper: this is the origin line
• A ruler 2. Mark 5 pencil spots at equal intervals across the origin line, with at least 1cm of space from the
• A pencil
edges of the paper
• A glass capillary
tube 3. Use a glass capillary tube to put a small spot of each colouring and the unknown mixture onto
• A glass rod each pencil spot
• Different 4. Pour water (the solvent) into a beaker to a depth of 1cm
colourings 5. Attach the paper to a glass rod, and carefully lower it into the beaker, so the bottom of the
• Water paper dips into the water but the origin line doesn’t
• A beaker 6. Wait until the water has travelled ¾ up the paper, then remove the paper and mark a line where
the water reached (the solvent front line)
Sources of 7. Hang the paper up to dry thoroughly
inaccuracy 8. Measure the distance from the solvent front line to the centre of each spot, which is the
Keep the spots small, distance moved by the substance
to prevent the colours 9. Measure the distance between the two pencil lines, which is the distance moved by the solvent
from spreading into
– use these two measurements to calculate the Rf of each spot
each other.
 7) Identifying Ions (C12.5)
Method
1. Do a flame test, carbonate test, sulfate test,
sodium hydroxide precipitate test or halide test to
test for the ions
2. For the flame, halide or sodium hydroxide
precipitate test, record the colour produced
3. For the carbonate test, check if there are any
bubbles in the limewater (if there is, carbon
dioxide is present)
4. For the sulfate test, check if a white precipitate is
formed
5. For the sodium hydroxide precipitate test, add
excess dilute sodium hydroxide and see if it
disappears to form a clear solution (if it does,
aluminium is present)
6. Use these results to work out the compound
 8) Water Purification (C14.2)
Equipment (both) Method 1 (Analysing water) – 8a
• A water sample 1. Check the pH of the water by placing a small amount onto a piece of universal
• A tripod indicator paper
• A gauze 2. If the paper is green, it is neutral and has a pH of 7, otherwise it’s not pure as it
• A Bunsen burner has some dissolved acid or alkali
3. If the water is neutral, use a balance to weigh an empty evaporating basin
+ Equipment (8a)
• Universal indicator
4. Fill the evaporating basin with the water, and place it on a tripod and gauze
paper 5. Use a Bunsen burner to gently heat the water until it has all evaporated
• An evaporating 6. Allow the evaporating basin to cool, then weigh it again
basin 7. If the mass is higher than before, the water isn’t neutral as some of its dissolved + Equipment
• A balance substances crystallised on the surface – otherwise, the water is neutral (8b)
• A conical
Sources of flask
inaccuracy (8a) Method 2 (Purifying water) – 8b • A delivery
The water could still 1. Place the water sample into the conical flask tube
not be pure, as it 2. Gently heat the water using the Bunsen burner until it evaporates • A test tube
could have dissolved 3. When the water evaporates, it goes through the delivery tube to the test tube, • A beaker with
gases. where the ice condenses it into distilled water ice and water