POWER SUPPLY

LAYOUT

A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to one or more electric loads.
The term is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to
another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (e.g.,
mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls
the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant
despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy
source. Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy
it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. A power supply may be
implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device that is hardwired to its
load. In the latter case, for example, low voltage DC power supplies are commonly integrated
with their loads in devices such as computers and household electronics.

An AC powered unregulated power supply usually uses a transformer to convert the

voltage from the wall outlet (mains) to a different, nowadays usually lower, voltage. If it is used
to produce DC, a rectifier is used to convert alternating voltage to a pulsating direct voltage,
followed by a filter, comprising one or more capacitors, resistors, and sometimes inductors, to
filter out (smooth) most of the pulsation. A small remaining unwanted alternating voltage
component at mains or twice mains power frequency (depending upon whether half- or full-
wave rectification is used)—ripple—is unavoidably superimposed on the direct output voltage.
For purposes such as charging batteries the ripple is not a problem, and the simplest
unregulated mains-powered DC power supply circuit consists of a transformer driving a single
diode in series with a resistor.

Before the introduction of solid-state electronics, equipment used valves (vacuum tubes)
which required high voltages; power supplies used step-up transformers, rectifiers, and filters to
generate one or more direct voltages of some hundreds of volts, and a low alternating voltage
for filaments. Only the most advanced equipment used expensive and bulky regulated power
supplies.

Mains input aspects

 Usually, the ac input is 240V rms, 50Hz mains supply.

 Take extra care when handling mains powered equipment, make sure of your safety
when constructing and testing.
 PLUS make sure that adequate insulation and construction techniques are employed in
the unit.
  Mains powered equipment must be properly protected by a fuse and double pole power
switch.
 The mains powered equipment container (box) must be earthed if metallic or double
insulation techniques employed to provide input to output isolation.
 A lot of consumer electronic units (TV, DVD players and the like) utilise double insulation
techniques, so their mains input power lead only contains Live and Neutral wires, rather
than also including an earth wire as well.
 Double insulation techniques present at least two ‘high voltage’ insulation barriers
between the mains input circuitry and the system being powered. For example, the
mains transformer has its primary (high voltage) winding on one bobbin and its
secondary winding an a separate bobbin. Thus, if the primary winding burns up, the
mains voltage cannot reach the ‘secondary side’.

DIODE

A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the and the. Most
diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or selenium. Some
diodes are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber evacuated or filled with a pure elemental
gas at low pressure. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal
limiters, voltage regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulators,
and oscillators.

The fundamental property of a diode is its tendency to conduct electric current in only one
direction. When the cathode is negatively charged relative to the anode at a voltage greater
than a certain minimum called forward breakover, then current flows through the diode. If the
cathode is positive with respect to the anode, is at the same voltage as the anode, or is negative
by an amount less than the forward breakover voltage, then the diode does not conduct current.
This is a simplistic view, but is true for diodes operating as rectifiers, switches, and limiters. The
forward breakover voltage is approximately six tenths of a volt (0.6 V) for silicon devices, 0.3 V
for germanium devices, and 1 V for selenium devices.

The above general rule notwithstanding, if the cathode voltage is positive relative to the anode
voltage by a great enough amount, the diode will conduct current. The voltage required to
produce this phenomenon, known as the avalanche voltage, varies greatly depending on the
nature of the semiconductor material from which the device is fabricated. The avalanche voltage
can range from a few volts up to several hundred volts.

When an analog signal passes through a diode operating at or near its forward breakover point,
the signal waveform is distorted. This nonlinearity allows for modulation, demodulation, and
signal mixing. In addition, signals are generated at harmonics, or integral multiples of the
input frequency. Some diodes also have a characteristic that is imprecisely termed negative
resistance. Diodes of this type, with the application of a voltage at the correct level and the
polarity, generate analog signals at microwave radio frequencies.

Semiconductor diodes can be designed to produce direct current (DC) when visible light,infrared
transmission (IR), or ultraviolet (UV) energy strikes them. These diodes are known as
photovoltaic cells and are the basis for solar electric energy systems and photosensors. Yet
another form of diode, commonly used in electronic and computer equipment, emits visible light
or IR energy when current passes through it. Such a device is the familiar light-emitting diode
(LED).
 104 DISK CAPACITOR

A ceramic capacitor is a fixed value capacitor in which ceramic material acts as the dielectric. It
is constructed of two or more alternating layers of ceramic and a metal layer acting as the
electrodes. The composition of the ceramic material defines the electrical behavior and therefore
applications. Ceramic capacitors are divided into two application classes:
  Class 1 ceramic capacitors offer high stability and low losses for resonant circuit
applications.
 Class 2 ceramic capacitors offer high volumetric efficiency for buffer, by-pass, and
coupling applications.

Ceramic capacitors, especially the multilayer style (MLCC), are the most produced and used
capacitors in electronic equipment that incorporate approximately one trillion pieces (1000
billion pieces) per year.[1]

Ceramic capacitors of special shapes and styles are used as capacitors for RFI/EMI suppression,
as feed-through capacitors and in larger dimensions as power capacitors for transmitters.

FILTER CAPACITOR 1000uf

Electrolytic capacitor is the generic term for three different capacitor family members:
  Aluminum electrolytic capacitors,
 Tantalum electrolytic capacitors and
 Niobium electrolytic capacitors

All electrolytic capacitors (e-caps) are polarized capacitors whose anode electrode (+) are made
of a special metal on which an insulating oxide layer originates by anodization (forming), which
acts as the dielectric of the electrolytic capacitor. A non-solid or solid electrolyte which covers
the surface of the oxide layer in principle serves as the second electrode (cathode) (-) of the
capacitor.

Due to their very thin dielectric oxide layer and enlarged anode surface electrolytic capacitors
have—based on the volume—a much higher capacitance-voltage product compared to ceramic
capacitors or film capacitors, but a much smaller CV value than electrochemical supercapacitors.

The large capacitance of electrolytic capacitors makes them particularly suitable for passing or
bypassing low-frequency signals up to some mega-hertz and storing large amounts of energy.
They are widely used for decoupling or noise filtering in power supplies and DC link circuits for
variable-frequency drives, for couple signals between amplifier stages, and store energy as in a
flashlamp.

Standard electrolytic capacitors are polarized components due to their asymmetrical

construction, and may only be operated with a higher voltage on the anode than on the cathode at
all times. Voltages with reverse polarity, or voltage or ripple current higher than specified, can
destroy the dielectric and thus the capacitor. The destruction of electrolytic capacitors can have
catastrophic consequences (explosion, fire).

Bipolar electrolytic capacitors which may be operated with either polarity are special
constructions with two anodes connected in reverse polarity.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-contained fixed linear
voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits
requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the
family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805
has a 5-volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage
regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related
line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs
can be used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.

78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor, although
smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These devices support an input
voltage anywhere from a few volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 to
40 volts depending on the make, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though
smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating).
 RESISTOR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as

a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust
signal levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-
power resistors, that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of
motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable
resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or
as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various
compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors
are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.
 LED

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction

diode, which emits light when activated.[4] When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads,
electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the
form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used
to shape its radiation pattern.[5]

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[6] the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available
across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-
segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs
have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting
diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and lighted wallpaper. As of 2015,
LEDs powerful enough for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require more
precise current and heat management, than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable
output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also used in advanced communications technolog