Hardware Implementation

HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
8051 microcontroller
Fig 5.2.1 microcontroller

8051 microcontroller is an internally Harvard architecture, complex instruction
set computing(CISC) instruction set, single chip microcontroller (µC) series
technologically advanced by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. Intel’s
original versions were popular in the 1980s and early 1990s and
enhanced binary compatible products remain popular today.
Intel’s original MCS-51 family was developed using N-type metal-oxide-
semiconductor (NMOS) technology like its predecessor Intel MCS-48, but later
versions, identified by a letter C in their name (e.g., 80C51) used
complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology and consume
less power than their NMOS predecessors. This made them more suitable for
battery-powered devices.
The family was persistent in 1996 with the enhanced 8-bit MCS-151 and the
8/16/32-bit MCS-251 family of binary compatible microcontrollers. While Intel
no longer manufactures the MCS-51, MCS-151 and MCS-251 family,
enhanced binary compatible derivatives made by numerous vendors remain
popular today. Some derivatives integrate a digital signal processor (DSP).
Beyond these physical devices, several companies also offer MCS-51
derivatives as IP cores for use in field-programmable gate array (FPGA)
or application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) designs. ROM of 4KB and
RAM of 128 byte.
5.2.2 Voltage regulator (7805)
Fig 5.2.2 Voltage regulator (7805)
The 7805 (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-contained

fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly
used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-
of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two
digits, signifying the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5-volt output,
while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage
regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground.
There is a linked line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative
voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide
positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.
78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO-220 form
factor, although they are available in surface-mount, TO-92, and TO-
3 packages. These devices support an input voltage anywhere from around 2.5
volts over the projected output voltage up to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts
depending on the model, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current.
5V Spot Relay
This is an electromagnetic switch which is activated when a current is applied

to it. A relay uses small currents to switch huge currents. Most relays use
principle of electromagnetism to operate but still other operating principles like
solid state are also used. A contactor is a type of relay which can handle a high
power required to control an electric motor or other loads directly. Solid state
relays have no moving parts and they use semiconductor devices to perform
switching.
LCD Module
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) screen is an electronic display module. An LCD
has a wide range of applications in electronics. The most basic and commonly
used LCD in circuits is the 16x2 display. LCDs are commonly preferred in
display because they are cheap, easy to programme and can display a wide
range of characters and animations. A 16x2 LCD have two display lines each
capable of displaying 16 characters. This LCD has Command and Data
registers. The command register stores command instructions given to the LCD
while the Data register stores the data to be displayed by the LCD.
Crystal Oscillator ( 11.0592 Mhz)

11.0592 MHz Crystal Oscillator provides clock pulses of 11.0592 MHz
frequency, a commonly used clock for 8051 based AVR microcontrollers. It is
also suitable for use as UART clock as this frequency provides integer division
to several popular UART baud rates.
Ultrasonic module
At its core, the HC-SR04 Ultrasonic distance sensor consists of two ultrasonic
transducers. The one acts as a transmitter which converts electrical signal into
40 KHz ultrasonic sound pulses. The receiver listens for the transmitted pulses.
If it receives them it produces an output pulse whose width can be used to
determine the distance the pulse travelled. As simple as pie!
The sensor is small, easy to use in any robotics project and offers excellent non-
contact range detection between 2 cm to 400 cm (that’s about an inch to 13 feet)
with an accuracy of 3mm. Since it operates on 5 volts, it can be hooked directly
to an Arduino or any other 5V logic microcontrollers.
DC motor
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical motors that converts direct
current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely
on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have
some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically
change the direction of current in part of the motor.
DC motors were the first form of motor widely used, as they could be powered
from existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's
speed can be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply
voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC
motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can operate
on direct current but is a lightweight
Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits,
resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide
voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other
uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as
heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as
test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change
slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be
used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or
as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic
circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as
discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms.
Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.
Capacitor
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It is

a passive electronic component with two terminals.
The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some capacitance
exists between any two electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a
capacitor is a component designed to add capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor
was originally known as a condenser or condensator.[1] This name and
its cognates are still widely used in many languages, but rarely in English, one
notable exception being condenser microphones, also called capacitor
microphones.
The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and
many types of capacitor are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least
two electrical conductors often in the form of metallic plates or surfaces
separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sintered
bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase
the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics
include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, air, and oxide layers.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy,
although real-life capacitors do dissipate a small amount. (See Non-ideal
behavior) When an electric potential, a voltage, is applied across the terminals
of a capacitor, for example when a capacitor is connected across a battery,
an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive charge to
collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the other plate. No
current actually flows through the dielectric. However, there is a flow of charge
through the source circuit. If the condition is maintained sufficiently long, the
current through the source circuit ceases. If a time-varying voltage is applied
across the leads of the capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing current due
to the charging and discharging cycles of the capacitor.
Battery
The lead–acid battery was invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston
Plante and is the earliest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low
energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, its ability to supply
high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively large power-to-weight
ratio. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in
motor vehicles to provide the high current required by starter motors.
As they are inexpensive compared to newer technologies, lead–acid batteries
are widely used even when surge current is not important and other designs
could provide higher energy densities. Large-format lead–acid designs are
widely used for storage in backup power supplies in cell phone towers, high-
availability settings like hospitals, and stand-alone power systems. For these
roles, modified versions of the standard cell may be used to improve storage
times and reduce maintenance requirements. Gel-cells and absorbed glass-
mat batteries are common in these roles, collectively known as VRLA (valve-
regulated lead–acid) batteries.

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HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

Fig 5.2.1 microcontroller

The 7805 (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-contained

This is an electromagnetic switch which is activated when a current is applied

Crystal Oscillator ( 11.0592 Mhz)

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It is

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