Adaptive Lighting System for Automobiles

Summated by:

Introduction
Adaptive Lighting System for Automobiles needs no manual operation for switching ON and OFF headlight/downlight when there is vehicle coming from front at night. It detects itself weather there is light from front coming vehicle or not. When there is light from front coming vehicle it automatically switches to the downlight and when the vehicle passes it automatically switch back to head light. The sensitiveness of the Adaptive Lighting System for Automobiles can be adjusted. In our project we have used four L.E.D for indication of headligh/downlight but for high power lamp switching one can connect Relay (electromagnetic switch) at the output of pin 1 of I.C LM358 Then it will be possible to turn ON/OFF high power headlight/downlight of the vehicle.
PRINCIPLE:

This circuit uses a popular timer I.C LM 358. I.C LM358 is connected as comparator with pin-6 connected with positive rail, the output goes high(1) when the trigger pin 3 is at lower then voltage level at pin no 2. Conversely the output goes low (0) when it is above pin no 2 level. So small change in the voltage of pin-2 is enough to change the level of output (pin-1) from 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. The output has only two states high and low and can not remain in any intermediate stage. It is powered by a 12V power supply. The circuit is economic in power consumption. Pin 4 is ground and pin 8 is connected to the positive supply and pin 1 is grounded. To detect the present of an object we have used LDR and a source of light. LDR is a special type of resistance whose value depends on the brightness of the light, which is falling on it. It has resistance of about 1 mega ohm when in total darkness, but a resistance of only about 5k ohms when brightness illuminated. It responds to a large part of light spectrum. We have made a potential divider circuit with LDR and 10K variable resistance connected in series. We know that voltage is directly proportional to conductance so low voltage we will get from this divider when LDR is getting light and high voltage in darkness. This divided voltage is given to pin 2 of IC LM358. Variable resistance is so adjusted that it crosses potential of 1/2 in darkness and fall below 1/2 in light. Sensitiveness can be adjusted by this variable resistance. As soon as LDR gets light the voltage of pin 2 drops of the supply voltage and pin 3 gets high and LED or buzzer that is connected to the output gets activated. Component 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Voltage Regulator 7812 12 V transformer Diode IN4007 LM358 Relay Switch General Purpose PCB LEDs Variable Resistance used

10) Resistor , capacitors etc COMPONENTS a) Power Supply: For 12v power supply we can use 12 v step down transformer, bridge rectifier, 12 v regulator. b) Switch: Any general-purpose switch can be used. Switch is used as circuit breaker. c) L.D.R: (Light Depending Resistance) it is a special type of resistance whose value depends on the brightness of light, which is falling on it. It has resistance of about 1mega ohm when in total darkness, but a resistance of only about 5k ohms when brightness illuminated. It responds to a large part of light spectrum. d) L.E.D: A diode is a component that only allows electricity to flow one way. It can be thought as a sort of one way street for electrons. Because of this characteristic, dioded are used to transform or rectify AC voltage into a DC voltage. Diodes have two connections, an anode and a cathode. The cathode is the end on the schematic with the point of the triangle pointing towards a line. In other words, the triangle points toward that cathode. The anode is, of course, the opposite end. Current flows from the anode to the cathode. Light emitting diodes, or LEDs, differ from regular diodes in that when a voltage is applied, they emit light. This light can be red (most common), green, yellow, orange, blue (not very common), or infa red. LEDs are used as indicators, transmitters, etc. Most likely, a LED will never burn out like a regular lamp will and requires many times less current. Because LEDs act like regular diodes and will form a short if connected between + and -, a current limiting resistor is used to prevent that very thing. LEDs may or may not be drawn with the circle surrounding them. e) Variable resistance: (Potentiometer) Resistors are one of the most common electronic components. A resistor is a device that limits, or resists current. The current limiting ability or resistance is measured in ohms, represented by the Greek symbol Omega. Variable resistors (also called potentiometers or just "pots") are resistors that have a variable resistance. You adjust the resistance by turning a shaft. This shaft moves a wiper across the actual resistor element. By changing the amounts of resistor between the wiper connection and the connection (s) to the resistor element, you can change the resistance. You will often see the resistance of resistors written with K (kilohms) after the number value. This means that there are that many thousands of ohms. For example, 1K is 1000 ohm, 2K is 2000 ohm, 3.3K is 3300 ohm, etc. You may also see the suffix M (mega ohms). This simply means million. Resistors are also rated by their power handling capability. This is the amount of heat the resistor can take before it is destroyed. The power capability is measured in W (watts). Common wattages for variable resistors are 1/8W, 1/4W, 1/2W and 1W. Anything of a higher wattage is referred to as a rheostat. f) P.C.B: (Printed Circuit Board) with the help of P.C.B it is easy to assemble circuit with neat and clean end products. P.C.B is made of bakelite with surface pasted with copper track-layout. For each components leg, hole is made. Connection pin is passed through the hole and is soldered.

Description Of Components: Power Supply

TRANSFORMER: A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils or "windings". Except for air-core transformers, the conductors are commonly wound around a single iron-rich core, or around separate but magnetically-coupled cores. A varying current in the first or "primary" winding creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the transformer. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the "secondary" winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in the secondary winding of the transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit to the load connected in the secondary circuit. The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary VP by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings:

By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating voltage to be stepped up by making NS more than NP or stepped down, by making it BASIC PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER In its most basic form a transformer consists of:

A primary coil or winding. A secondary coil or winding. A core that supports the coils or windings.

Refer to the transformer circuit in figure as you read the following explanation: The primary winding is connected to a 60-hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow through the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and secondary windings.

THE COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some cases the coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core material is air and the transformer is called an AIR-CORE TRANSFORMER. Transformers used at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz and 400 hertz, require a core of low-reluctance magnetic material, usually iron. This type of transformer is called an IRON-CORE TRANSFORMER. Most power transformers are of the ironcore type. The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:

The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux. The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source. The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and delivers it to the load. The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and mechanical damage.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.
Basic operation

According to the conventional model of current flow originally established by Benjamin Franklin and still followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to flow through electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free electrons in a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast majority of applications, however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in the discussion below the conventional model is retained. In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is positive, and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper supply terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.

When the input connected to the left corner is negative, and the input connected to the right corner is positive, current flows from the lower supply terminal to the right along the red path to the output, and returns to the upper supply terminal via the blue path.

In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output from an AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal functioning of DC-powered equipment when batteries have been installed backwards, or when the leads (wires) from a DC power source have been reversed, and protects the equipment from potential damage caused by reverse polarity. Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was always constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge configuration became a standard commercial component and is now available with various voltage and current ratings.

Output smoothing For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be desired because the bridge alone supplies an output of fixed polarity but continuously varying or "pulsating" magnitude (see diagram above).

The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor (or smoothing capacitor) is to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC output voltage waveform from the bridge. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be canceled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This charge flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of load current and voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the capacitor. Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change in output voltage / current. The simplified circuit shown has a well-deserved reputation for being dangerous, because, in some applications, the capacitor can retain a lethal charge after the AC power

source is removed. If supplying a dangerous voltage, a practical circuit should include a reliable way to safely discharge the capacitor. If the normal load cannot be guaranteed to perform this function, perhaps because it can be disconnected, the circuit should include a bleeder resistor connected as close as practical across the capacitor. This resistor should consume a current large enough to discharge the capacitor in a reasonable time, but small enough to minimize unnecessary power waste. Because a bleeder sets a minimum current drain, the regulation of the circuit, defined as percentage voltage change from minimum to maximum load, is improved. However in many cases the improvement is of insignificant magnitude. The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC where C and R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer than the time of one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a smoothed DC voltage across the load. In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The smoothing can then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitorresistor pairs, often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise. The idealized waveforms shown above are seen for both voltage and current when the load on the bridge is resistive. When the load includes a smoothing capacitor, both the voltage and the current waveforms will be greatly changed. While the voltage is smoothed, as described above, current will flow through the bridge only during the time when the input voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage. For example, if the load draws an average current of n Amps, and the diodes conduct for 10% of the time, the average diode current during conduction must be 10n Amps. This non-sinusoidal current leads to harmonic distortion and a poor power factor in the AC supply. In a practical circuit, when a capacitor is directly connected to the output of a bridge, the bridge diodes must be sized to withstand the current surge that occurs when the power is turned on at the peak of the AC voltage and the capacitor is fully discharged. Sometimes a small series resistor is included before the capacitor to limit this current, though in most applications the power supply transformer's resistance is already sufficient. Output can also be smoothed using a choke and second capacitor. The choke tends to keep the current (rather than the voltage) more constant. Due to the relatively high cost of an effective choke compared to a resistor and capacitor this is not employed in modern equipment. Some early console radios created the speaker's constant field with the current from the high voltage ("B +") power supply, which was then routed to the consuming circuits, (permanent magnets were then too weak for good performance) to create the speaker's constant magnetic field. The speaker field coil thus performed 2 jobs in one: it acted as a choke, filtering the power supply, and it produced the magnetic field to operate the speaker. REGULATOR IC (78XX)

It is a three pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts unregulated DC current into regulated DC current.

Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the output of the filtered DC (see in above diagram). It can also be used in circuits to get a low DC voltage from a high DC voltage (for example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V). There are two types of voltage regulators 1. fixed voltage regulators (78xx, 79xx) 2. variable voltage regulators (LM317) In fixed voltage regulators there is another classification 1. +ve voltage regulators 2. -ve voltage regulators POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS This include 78xx voltage regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and 7812. 7805 gives fixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage is in (7.5V, 20V).

The Capacitor Filter

The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The application of the simple capacitor filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely highvoltage, low-current power supplies for cathode ray and similar electron tubes, which require very little load current from the supply. The capacitor filter is also used where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical; this frequency can be relatively high. The capacitor (C1) shown in figure 4-15 is a simple filter connected across the output of the rectifier in parallel with the load.

Full-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter.

When this filter is used, the RC charge time of the filter capacitor (C1) must be short and the RC discharge time must be long to eliminate ripple action. In other words, the capacitor must charge up fast, preferably with no discharge at all. Better filtering also results when the input frequency is high; therefore, the full-wave rectifier output is easier to filter than that of the half-wave rectifier because of its higher frequency. For you to have a better understanding of the effect that filtering has on E avg, a comparison of a rectifier circuit with a filter and one without a filter is illustrated in views A and B of figure 4-16. The output waveforms in figure 4-16 represent the unfiltered and filtered outputs of the half-wave rectifier circuit. Current pulses flow through the load resistance (RL) each time a diode conducts. The dashed line indicates the average value of output voltage. For the half-wave rectifier, Eavg is less than half (or approximately 0.318) of the peak output voltage. This value is still much less than that of the applied voltage. With no capacitor connected across the output of the rectifier circuit, the waveform in view A has a large pulsating component (ripple) compared with the average or dc component. When a capacitor is connected across the output (view B), the average value of output voltage (Eavg) is increased due to the filtering action of capacitor C1. UNFILTERED

Half-wave rectifier with and without filtering.

FILTERED

The value of the capacitor is fairly large (several microfarads), thus it presents a relatively low reactance to the pulsating current and it stores a substantial charge. The rate of charge for the capacitor is limited only by the resistance of the conducting diode, which is relatively low. Therefore, the RC charge time of the circuit is relatively short. As a result, when the pulsating voltage is first applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges rapidly and almost reaches the peak value of the rectified voltage within the first few cycles. The capacitor attempts to charge to the peak value of the rectified voltage anytime a diode is conducting, and tends to retain its charge when the rectifier output falls to zero. (The capacitor cannot discharge immediately.) The capacitor slowly discharges through the load resistance (RL) during the time the rectifier is nonconducting. The rate of discharge of the capacitor is determined by the value of capacitance and the value of the load resistance. If the capacitance and load-resistance values are large, the RC discharge time for the circuit is relatively long. A comparison of the waveforms shown in figure 4-16 (view A and view B) illustrates that the addition of C1 to the circuit results in an increase in the average of the output voltage (Eavg) and a reduction in the amplitude of the ripple component (Er), which is normally present across the load resistance. Now, let's consider a complete cycle of operation using a half-wave rectifier, a capacitive filter (C1), and a load resistor (RL). As shown in view A of figure 4-17, the capacitive filter (C1) is assumed to be large enough to ensure a small reactance to the pulsating rectified current. The resistance of RL is assumed to be much greater than the reactance of C1 at the input frequency. When the circuit is energized, the diode conducts on the positive half cycle and current flows through the circuit, allowing C1 to charge. C1 will charge to approximately the peak value of the input voltage. (The charge is less than the peak value because of the voltage drop across the diode (D1)). In view A of the figure, the heavy solid line on the waveform indicates the charge on C1. As illustrated in view B, the diode cannot conduct on the negative half cycle because the anode of D1 is negative with respect to the cathode. During this interval, C1 discharges through the load resistor (RL). The discharge of C1 produces the downward slope as indicated by the solid line on the waveform in view B. In contrast to the abrupt fall of the applied ac voltage from peak value to zero, the voltage across C1 (and thus across RL) during the discharge period

gradually decreases until the time of the next half cycle of rectifier operation. Keep in mind that for good filtering, the filter capacitor should charge up as fast as possible and discharge as little as possible. Figure. - Capacitor filter circuit (positive and negative half cycles). POSITIVE HALFCYCLE

Figure. - Capacitor filter circuit (positive and negative half cycles). NEGATIVE HALFCYCLE

Since practical values of C1 and RL ensure a more or less gradual decrease of the discharge voltage, a substantial charge remains on the capacitor at the time of the next half cycle of operation. As a result, no current can flow through the diode until the rising ac input voltage at the anode of the diode exceeds the voltage on the charge remaining on C1. The charge on C1 is the cathode potential of the diode. When the potential on the anode exceeds the potential on the cathode (the charge on C1), the diode again conducts, and C1 begins to charge to approximately the peak value of the applied voltage. After the capacitor has charged to its peak value, the diode will cut off and the capacitor will start to discharge. Since the fall of the ac input voltage on the anode is considerably

more rapid than the decrease on the capacitor voltage, the cathode quickly become more positive than the anode, and the diode ceases to conduct. Operation of the simple capacitor filter using a full-wave rectifier is basically the same as that discussed for the half-wave rectifier. Referring to figure, you should notice that because one of the diodes is always conducting on alternation, the filter capacitor charges and discharges during each half cycle. (Note that each diode conducts only for that portion of time when the peak secondary voltage is greater than the charge across the capacitor.) Figure - Full-wave rectifier (with capacitor filter).

Another thing to keep in mind is that the ripple component (E r) of the output voltage is an ac voltage and the average output voltage (Eavg) is the dc component of the output. Since the filter capacitor offers relatively low impedance to ac, the majority of the ac component flows through the filter capacitor. The ac component is therefore bypassed (shunted) around the load resistance, and the entire dc component (or Eavg) flows through the load resistance. This statement can be clarified by using the formula for X C in a halfwave and full-wave rectifier. First, you must establish some values for the circuit. As you can see from the calculations, by doubling the frequency of the rectifier, you reduce the impedance of the capacitor by one-half. This allows the ac component to pass through the capacitor more easily. As a result, a full-wave rectifier output is much easier to filter than that of a half-wave rectifier. Remember, the smaller the X C of the filter capacitor with respects to the load resistance, the better the filtering action. Since

the largest possible capacitor will provide the best filtering. Remember, also, that the load resistance is an important consideration. If load resistance is made small, the load current increases, and the average value of output voltage (Eavg)

decreases. The RC discharge time constant is a direct function of the value of the load resistance; therefore, the rate of capacitor voltage discharge is a direct function of the current through the load. The greater the load current, the more rapid the discharge of the capacitor, and the lower the average value of output voltage. For this reason, the simple capacitive filter is seldom used with rectifier circuits that must supply a relatively large load current. Using the simple capacitive filter in conjunction with a full-wave or bridge rectifier provides improved filtering because the increased ripple frequency decreases the capacitive reactance of the filter capacitor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY

Voltage Comparator LM 358 The LM158 series consists of two independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage. Application areas include transducer amplifiers, dc gain blocks and all the conventional op amp circuits, which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For example, the LM158 series can be directly operated off of the standard +5V power supply voltage, which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics without requiring the additional 15V power supplies. The LM358 and LM2904 are available in a chip sized pack-age (8-Bump micro SMD) using Nationals micro SMD pack-age technology. Unique Characteristics In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the output voltage can also swing to ground, even though operated from only a single power supply voltage. The unity gain cross frequency is temperature compensated.

 The input bias current is also temperature compensated Advantages n Two internally compensated op amps n Eliminates need for dual supplies n Allows direct sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND n Compatible with all forms of logic n Power drain suitable for battery operation

Features n Available in 8-Bump micro SMD chip sized package, (See AN-1112) n Internally frequency compensated for unity gain n Large dc voltage gain: 100 dB n Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1 MHz (temperature compensated) Wide power supply range: Single supply: 3V to 32V or dual supplies: 1.5V to 16V Very low supply current drain (500 A)essentially independent of supply voltage n Low input offset voltage: 2 mV n Input common-mode voltage range includes ground n Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage n Large output voltage swing

RELAY
The relay takes advantage of the fact that when electricity flows through a coil, it becomes an electromagnet. The electromagnetic coil attracts a steel plate, which is attached to a switch. So the switch's motion (ON and OFF) is controlled by the current flowing to the coil, or not, respectively. A very useful feature of a relay is that it can be used to electrically isolate different parts of a circuit. It will allow a low voltage circuit (e.g. 5VDC) to switch the power in a high voltage circuit (e.g. 100 VAC or more). The relay operates mechanically, so it can not operate at high speed.

Fig. 2.24 Internal circuit of Relay

Fig. 2.25 Relays There are many kind of relays. You can select one according to your needs. The various things to consider when selecting a relay are its size, voltage and current capacity of the contact points, drive voltage, impedance, number of contacts, resistance of the contacts, etc. The resistance voltage of the contacts is the maximum voltage that can be conducted at the point of contact in the switch. When the maximum is exceeded, the contacts will spark and melt, sometimes fusing together. The relay will fail. The value is printed on the relay.

DIODES
A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow through it in only one direction. Although a transistor is also a semiconductor device, it does not operate the way a diode does. A diode is specifically made to allow current to flow through it in only one direction. Some ways in which the diode can be used are listed here. A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) for a power supply device. Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies. Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current.

Fig. 2.26 Diode Symbol This symbol symbol is Current flows is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram. The meaning of the (Anode) from (Cathode). the anode side to the cathode side.

Although all diodes operate with the same general principle, there are different types

suited to different applications. For example, the following devices are best used for the applications noted. Voltage The regulation circuit diode (Zener symbol Diode) is .

It is used to regulate voltage, by taking advantage of the fact that Zener diodes tend to stabilize at a certain voltage when that voltage is applied in the opposite direction. Light The (Forward biased) circuit emitting symbol is diode .

This type of diode emits light when current flows through it in the forward direction.

Fig. 2.27 Characteristics of Diode The graph above shows the electrical characteristics of a typical diode. When a small voltage is applied to the diode in the forward direction, current flows easily. Because the diode has a certain amount of resistance, the voltage will drop slightly as current flows through the diode. A typical diode causes a voltage drop of about 0.6 - 1V (VF) (In the case of silicon diode, almost 0.6V) This voltage drop needs to be taken into consideration in a circuit which uses many diodes in series. Also, the amount of current passing through the diodes must be considered.

When voltage is applied in the reverse direction through a diode, the diode will have a great resistance to current flow. Different diodes have different characteristics when reverse-biased. A given diode should be selected depending on how it will be used in the circuit. The current that will flow through a diode biased in the reverse direction will vary from several mA to just A, which is very small. The limiting voltages and currents permissible must be considered on a case by case basis. For example, when using diodes for rectification, part of the time they will be required to withstand a reverse voltage. If the diodes are not chosen carefully, they will break down.

Fig. 2.28

Diodes

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Fig. 2.29

LEDs

Light emitting diodes must be choosen according to how they will be used, because there are various kinds. The diodes are available in several colors. The most common colors are red and green, but there are even blue ones. The device on the far right in the photograph combines a red LED and green LED in one package. The component lead in the middle is common to both LEDs. As for the remaing two leads, one side is for the green, the other for the red LED. When both are turned on simultaneously, it becomes orange. When an LED is new out of the package, the polarity of the device can be determined by looking at the leads. The longer lead is the Anode side, and the short one is the Cathode side. The polarity of an LED can also be determined using a resistance meter, or even a 1.5 V battery. When using a test meter to determine polarity, set the meter to a low resistance measurement range. Connect the probes of the meter to the LED. If the polarity is correct, the LED will glow. If the LED does not glow, switch the meter probes to the opposite leads on the LED. In either case, the side of the diode which is connected to the black meter probe when the LED glows, is the Anode side. Positive voltage flows out of the black probe when the meter is set to measure resistance. It is possible to use an LED to obtain a fixed voltage. The voltage drop (forward voltage or VF) of an LED is comparatively stable at just about 2V.

RESISTORS
Resistors

The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current. There are two classes of resistors; fixed resistors and the variable resistors. They are also classified according to the material from which they are made. The typical resistor is made of either carbon film or metal film. There are other types as well, but these are the most common. The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit. The "tolerance" and the electric power ratings of the resistor are also important. The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual rated resistence value. For example, a 5% tolerance would indicate a resistor that is within 5% of the specified resistance value.

Fixed Resistors
A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change.

Carbon film resistors

This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of the resistance value is 5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used. Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be electrically noisy. Metal film resistors are recommended for use in analog circuits. However, I have never experienced any problems with this noise. The physical size of the different resistors is as follows.

Rough size Rating power Thickness Length From the top of the photograph (W) 1/8 1/8W 1/4 1/4W 1/2 1/2W Fig.2.31 The physical size of the different resistors (mm) 2 2 3 (mm) 3 6 9

Variable Resistors
There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the variable resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of Radio. The other is semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be adjusted by anyone but a technician. It is used to adjust the operating condition of the circuit by the technician. Semi-fixed resistors are used to compensate for the inaccuracies of the resistors, and to fine-tune a circuit. The rotation angle of the variable resistor is usually about 300 degrees. Some variable resistors must be turned many times to use the whole range of resistance they offer. This allows for very precise adjustments of their value. These are called "Potentiometers" or "Trimmer Potentiometers."

Fig. 2.32 Variable Resistors In the photograph to the left, the variable resistor typically used for volume controls can e seen on the far right. Its value is very easy to adjust. The four resistors at the center of the photograph are the semi-fixed type. These ones are mounted on the printed circuit board. The two resistors on the left are the trimmer potentiometers.

Fig.2.33 Resistance value Vs. Rotation Angle There are three ways in which a variable resistor's value can change according to the rotation angle of its axis. When type "A" rotates clockwise, at first, the resistance value changes slowly and then in the second half of its axis, it changes very quickly. The "A" type variable resistor is typically used for the volume control of a radio, for example. It is well suited to adjust a low sound subtly. It suits the characteristics of the ear. The ear hears low sound changes well, but isn't as sensitive to small changes in loud sounds. A larger change is needed as the volume is increased. These "A" type variable resistors are sometimes called "audio taper" potentiometers. As for type "B", the rotation of the axis and the change of the resistance value are directly related. The rate of change is the same, or linear, throughout the sweep of the axis. This type suits a resistance value adjustment in a circuit, a balance circuit and so on. They are sometimes called "linear taper" potentiometers. Type "C" changes exactly the opposite way to type "A". In the early stages of the rotation of the axis, the resistance value changes rapidly, and in the second half, the change occurs more slowly. This type isn't too much used. It is a special use. As for the variable resistor, most are type "A" or type "B".

Color Black Brown Example (Brown=1),(Black=0),(Orange=3) 10 x 10

3

Value Multiplier 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -1 -2 -

Tolerance (%) 1 2 0.05 0.5 0.25 0.1 5 10 20

1 Red = = 10k ohm 5%

Orange 3 Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White Gold 4 5 6 7 8 9 -

Tolerance(Gold)

Example (Yellow=4),(Violet=7),(Black=0),(Red=2) 470 x 102 = 47k

2 ohm

Silver None

Tolerance(Brown) = 1% Fig. 2.34 Resistor color code

CAPACITORS
Capacitors
The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC). This symbol F is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram. The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing each other, but separated by an insulator. When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing when the capacitor has fully charged.

Types of Capacitor

Fig. 2.35 Types of Capacitor

Breakdown voltage
when using a capacitor, we must pay attention to the maximum voltage which can be used. This is the "breakdown voltage." The breakdown voltage depends on the kind of capacitor being used. We must be especially careful with electrolytic capacitors because the breakdown voltage is comparatively low. The breakdown voltage of electrolytic capacitors is displayed as Working Voltage. The breakdown voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause the dielectric (insulator) inside the capacitor to break down and conduct. When this happens, the failure can be catastrophic.

Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors)

Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization membrane. Large values of capacitance can be obtained in comparison with the size of the capacitor, because the dielectric used is very thin. The most important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that they have polarity. They have a positive and a negative electrode. [Polarised] This means that it is very important which way round they are connected. If the capacitor is subjected to voltage exceeding its working voltage, or if it is connected with incorrect polarity, it may burst. It is extremely dangerous, because it can quite literally explode. Make absolutely no mistakes. Generally, in the circuit diagram, the positive side is indicated by a "+" (plus) symbol. Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1F to thousands of F. Mainly this type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter

in a power supply circuit, or as a filter to bypass low frequency signals, etc. Because this type of capacitor is comparatively similar to the nature of a coil in construction, it isn't possible to use for high-frequency circuits. (It is said that the frequency characteristic is bad.) The photograph on the left is an example of the different values of electrolytic capacitors in which the capacitance and voltage differ.

Fig. 2.36 Electrolytic Capacitors From the left to right: 1F (50V) [diameter 5 mm, high 12 mm] 47F (16V) [diameter 6 mm, high 5 mm] 100F (25V) [diameter 5 mm, high 11 mm] 220F (25V) [diameter 8 mm, high 12 mm] 1000F (50V) [diameter 18 mm, high 40 mm] The size of the capacitor sometimes depends on the manufacturer. So the sizes shown here on this page are just examples.

Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials such as titanium acid barium used as the dielectric. Internally, these capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so they can be used in high frequency applications. Typically, they are used in circuits which bypass high frequency signals to ground. These capacitors have the shape of a disk. Their capacitance is comparatively small. The capacitor on the left is a 100pF capacitor with a diameter of about 3 mm. The capacitor on the right side is printed with 103, so 10 x 103pF becomes 0.01 F. The diameter of the disk is about 6 mm. Ceramic capacitors

have no polarity. Ceramic capacitors should not be used for analog circuits, because they can distort the signal.

Fig. 2.37 Ceramic Capacitors

Variable Capacitors
Variable capacitors are used for adjustment etc. of frequency mainly. On the left in the photograph is a "trimmer," which uses ceramic as the dielectric. Next to it on the right is one that uses polyester film for the dielectric. The pictured components are meant to be mounted on a printed circuit board.

Fig. 2.38 Variable Capacitors When adjusting the value of a variable capacitor, it is advisable to be careful. One of the component's leads is connected to the adjustment screw of the capacitor. This means that the value of the capacitor can be affected by the capacitance of the screwdriver in your hand. It is better to use a special screwdriver to adjust these components.

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS

LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000 000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically

Fig. 2.39 Light Dependent Resistor

Circuit Diagram

DIFFERENT PRECAUTIONS
COMPONENTS PRECAUTION:
a) LDR used should be sensitive. Before using in the circuit it should be tested with multimeter. b) I.C should not be heated much while soldering, too much heat can destroy the I.C. For safety and easy to replace, use of I.C base is suggested. While placing the I.C pin no 1 should be made sure at right hole. c) Opposite polarity of battery can destroy I.C so please check the polarity before switching ON the circuit. One should use diode in series with switch for safety since diode allows flowing current in one direction only. d) L.E.D glows in forward bias only so incorrect polarity of L.E.D will not glow. Out put voltage of our project is 7.3 volt therefore 3 LED in series can be easily used with out resistance. e) Each component should be soldered neat and clean. We should check for any dry soldered. f) LDR should be so adjusted that it should not get light from streetlight itself.

DURING SOLDERING:
The bit of soldering iron should be kept clean with the help of file at time to time. The solder wire should be of smaller thickness.

We should not use extra solder because it may be a cause of short circuit in the conductive path. The components should not be overheated. The leads of the components should be clean before soldering, by the sand paper. The bit of a new soldering iron should be clean properly before soldering. The joint should be heated up to required temperature by which, the solder melts and comes around the joint. The joint should not be disturbed before setting the solder. The good joint looks pointed spot.

b.) DURING USING POWER SUPPLY: switches and fuses should be used in a project circuit. Earthing is essential in wiring. We should use insulated wires. Power supply should be switched off, when it is not required. If there is a fault in the circuit, then firstly we should repair it. After repairing it connect again the power supply.

c.) DURING TESTING OF PROJECT:

Each component should be checked before checking the project. Potentiometer should be adjusted at proper range. Battery of the testing equipment should be properly checked otherwise it will not measure the actual reading. The components, which are not doing function properly, should be changed as soon as possible; otherwise, other components may also be damaged by it. Testing equipment should be in proper range when output measured at any point of the circuit, or component. Otherwise testing equipment may be showed the wrong reading.