23cse083 - Eee Lab Manual

AMRITA VISHWA VIDYAPEETHAM
Amrita School of Engineering

Bengaluru Campus – 560035
23CSE083 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PRACTICE (CSE)
Year: 2023-2024(Odd Semester)
Name : ……………………………………..
Reg. No : ……………………………………..
Semester: ………………………………………
Branch :…………………………………………
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering, Bengaluru – 560035
Certified that this is the bonafide record of practical work done by
Sri/Kum…………....…………………………………………………………………., in the
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Practice laboratory, of this
institution, as prescribed by the Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham for the
FIRST Semester B. Tech during the year 2023-2024(odd Semester).
Staff In-Charge Chairperson
Registration Number: ……….…………………………
Submitted for the First Semester B. Tech Examination of the Amrita

Vishwa Vidyapeetham University conducted on ………………………….
Examiner – 1 Examiner – 2
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Always be careful
2. Do not energize any conductor unless you are sure that no one is working on it.
3. Do not tamper unnecessarily with any live electrical gear.
4. Do not disconnect any plug by pulling the flexible cable.
5. Before replacing a blown fuse, always remember to put the switch off.
6. Safety demands good earthing. Always keep earth connection in good condition.
7. Before using portable electrical things, see that those are well earthed.
8. While handling an electrical appliance like table fan, iron, heater etc. be sure that they
are disconnected from the supply. Switching off is not enough. Leaky insulation may
give serious shock.
9. Live wires should always be connected through a switch.
10. Do not use pliers as a hammer.
11. Do not put sharp edged tool in pockets.
12. Always hand - over any sharp tool like knife ,screw driver ,file etc., from handle
side to avoid injuries to others.
13. Do not use tool like file, knife, screwdriver etc. without handle, to avoid injuries to
others.
14. Apply grease on tools in rainy season to avoid rusting.
15. In case of electrical fire, do not throw water in live conductor and equipment,
instead disconnect the electrical supply immediately and then throw sand or dust
on the fire.
16. Every fire extinguisher cannot be used for electric fire, only CO2 or dry powder
extinguisher is used for this purpose. Never use water spray.
17. Always use safety belt and ladder for the work above ground on a pole or a tower.
18. The ladder must be held by another person so that it may not slip away.
19. Do not tie the clothes-lines to the electric poles.
20. Do not use multi-sockets for connecting different equipment to some socket.
Instead, use separate sockets for each plug.
21. Switch off the appliances when not in use.
22. Use proper MCB or fuse carrier and fuse wire of proper gauge to protect over
current and ELCB (RCCB) to avoid electric shock.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS (23CSE083)
Introduction and Study of Electrical protection systems

CYCLE 1
1. Wiring practice (Operate an incandescent lamp and a 3 pin socket using two
independent SPST switch)
2. Verification of Kirchhoff’s laws
3. VI characteristics of PN junction diode
4. Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
5. Implementation of Half Wave & Full wave rectifier
CYCLE 2
6. Transistor as a switch
7. Characteristics of BJT
8. Implementation of inverting and non-inverting amplifier using Op-amp
9. RC Phase Shift Oscillator
10.555 Timer in Astable Mode
VI characteristics of SCR (Demo)
Course Objectives
 To impart basic knowledge of electrical quantities and provide working

knowledge for the analysis of DC and AC circuits.
 To facilitate understanding of basic electronics and operational amplifier
circuits.
Course Outcomes
CO1: Create basic electrical connections for domestic applications.

CO2: Measure the various electrical parameters in the circuit.
CO3: Construct and analyse basic electronic circuits.
CO4: Develop amplifier circuits using Op-Amp.
Assessment and Evaluation:
Sl. No Evaluation Component Maximum Marks
6 weeks Task or Experiment 20

(before midterm exam)
1 CAC
6 weeks Task or Experiment 20
(after midterm exam)
2 Periodical Lab Exam II Midterm lab Exam 20
3 End Semester Exam Final Lab Exam 40
Total Marks 100

LAB RULES
1. Students must arrive 5mins before the prescribed time to every lab session.
2. Students must come to the lab with proper uniform and shoes.
3. Students should not possess any accessories during the lab sessions to avoid any
injury/electrical shock.
4. Girl students must tie their hair during the lab sessions to avoid any
injury/electrical shock.
5. Maintain a lab observation book. For each experiment, prepare the following,
 Circuit diagram
 Layout diagram
 Working diagram
 Length of wire calculation
 Tools and accessories required
 Tabular column for the observation
 Estimation of cost
6. Maintain a margin of minimum 2.5 cm on the left side of all pages (if unruled
book).
7. Always use pencil and ruler to draw the diagram to scale.
8. Show the observation book to the faculty and explain your readiness to conduct
the experiment.
9. Get the approval of faculty to conduct the experiment, then rig up the circuit and
get the wired circuit checked by staff in charge
10. NEVER TEST THE CIRCUIT WITHOUT THE APPROVAL OF THE
STAFF IN CHARGE.
11. After completing the experiment note down the readings and result in the
observation note book and get the signature from the staff in charge.
CONTENTS
Sl. Date TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT Marks Faculty

No.
obtained Signature
STUDY ON POWER SUPPLY AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Aim: To study the power supply and protective devices

AC Power supplies
Electricity is used for lighting, heating, cooling, electric motors and electronic equipment.
Electricity is generated in power station using an electrical generator which converts
mechanical energy to electrical energy. The windings of the generators are arranged in such a
way that it generates three phase sinusoidally varying alternating voltages and currents with a
phase difference of 1200 with same frequency. The typical value of voltage generated in India
will be around 11 to 33kV and frequency is 50Hz.
At the power station, transformers change the voltage from generators to a higher level suitable
for transmission in order to minimize losses. After further voltage conversions in the
transmission network, the voltage is finally transformed to the standard utilization before power
is supplied to customers.
The power supplied for household applications are generally single-phase and three phase
power supply is used for large consumers such as large buildings, apartments, commercial and
industrial applications. Normal values of single phase supply are 230 V, 50 Hz and three phase
is 415 V, 50 Hz.
The line wire or phase wire carries alternating current between power grid and the household.
The neutral wire completes the electrical circuit – remaining at a voltage in proximity to 0 V
and also carrying alternating current between the power grid and house hold. The neutral is
connected to the ground (Earth), and therefore has nearly the same electrical potential as the
earth. This prevents the power circuits from increasing beyond earth voltage, such as when
they are struck by lightning or become otherwise charged.
The earth wire or ground connects the chassis of equipment to earth ground as a protection
against faults (electric shock), such as if the insulation on a line wire becomes damaged and
the bare wire comes into contact with the metal chassis or case of the equipment. Various
earthing systems are used to ensure that the ground and neutral wires have the correct voltages,
to prevent shocks when touching grounded objects.
DC power Supplies
DC power supplies are used mainly for electronic applications. A dc power supply may obtain
energy from various types of energy sources, including electrical energy transmission systems,
energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells, electromechanical systems such as
generators and alternators, solar power converters, or another power supply. All power supplies
have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and a power output that
delivers energy to the load.
A regulated power supply is one that maintains constant output voltage or current despite
variations in load current or input voltage. Adjustable power supplies allow the output voltage
or current to be programmed by mechanical controls (e.g., knobs on the power supply front
panel), or by means of a control input, or both. An adjustable regulated power supply is one
that is both adjustable and regulated.
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Importance of protective devices

The safety features are inbuilt with electric power distribution. Under abnormal
condition there can be failure of insulations and current will flow through the undesired path
which can cause damage to equipment’s and more important the safety of the user. Sometimes
the user may inadvertently touch a live conductor and cause electric shock. The short circuit
current is much more than normal value of the current. The inbuilt safety features will isolate
the faulty circuit from the rest of the supply. Protective devices are needed to break short-circuit
and overload currents.
Types of protective devices (safety)
 Fuse
 Circuit breakers (MCB, MCCB, ELCB/RCCB)
 Earthing
Circuit breakers and fuses are used to protect the circuit from short circuits between the
line and neutral wires, or the drawing of more current than the wires are rated to handle
(overload protection) to prevent overheating and fire.
A fuse contains a short piece of wire which melts if too much current flows. Under
normal working condition the current flowing through the circuit is within safe limit. But when
some faults such as short circuit occurs the current exceeds the safe limit value, the fuse wire
gets heated and melts. This effectively disconnects the power supply from its load, and the
equipment stops working until the problem that caused the overload is identified and the fuse
is replaced. A fuse is connected in series with line wire of the circuit. Fuse wire is commonly
supplied to consumers as short lengths of 5 A and 15 A rated wire for lighting circuits and
power circuits respectively.
A circuit breaker contains an element that heats, bends and triggers a spring which shuts
the circuit down. Once the element cools, and the problem is identified the breaker can be reset
and the power restored. Modern consumer units usually contain miniature circuit
breakers (MCBs) instead of fuses.
Fuses have the advantages of often being less costly and simpler than a circuit
breaker for similar ratings. The blown fuse must be replaced with a new device which is less
convenient than simply resetting a breaker. Replacing a fuse without isolating the circuit first
can be dangerous in itself, particularly if the fault is a short circuit.
Selection of fuses/MCB in house hold appliances:
Sl.no Rating of appliances Rating of fuse MCB

1 Up to 700 Watts 3 Amp 6 Amp
2 Between 700 and 1000 Watts 5 Amp 10 Amp
3 Between 1000 and 2000Watts 15 Amp 16 Amp
Basically two types of protections are provided in the power supply system of domestic
consumers.
 Protection from over current
 Protection from leakage current due to failure of insulation or inadvertent contact with
live conductors by the user
Protection against electrocution
Electrocution is a passage of current through human body, which is dangerous.
Human sensitivity to electricity
500mA Immediate cardiac arrest resulting in death

70-100mA Cardiac fibillarillation; the heart begins beat at a steady
20-30mA Muscle contraction can cause respiratory paralysis
10mA Muscle contraction : the person remains stuck, to the conductor
1-10mA Prickling sensations
A person gets electrocuted by coming in contact with an object that has a different potential
from his/her own. The difference in potential causes the current to flow through the body.
The human body has known limits:

- Under normal dry condition, voltage limit = 50V.
- In damp surroundings, voltage limit = 25V
Types of Fuses
1. Rewirable fuse
2. Cartridge fuse
3. HRC fuse
Rewirable fuse:
This is the cheapest method for protecting a circuit from short circuit. Wires of different
diameters made of lead and tin are used in the circuit. When large current flows these wires
melts and disconnects the faulty circuit from the rest of the supply. There are different types of
fuses. The usual type is rewirable type in which the fuse wire is carried in a removable fuse
link. The fuse link is made of porcelain or other suitable insulating material. The fuse carrier
is push-fitted to the fuse base to make the connection through. An advantage of this type is that
the blown fuse wire can be replaced with negligible cost.
The semi enclosed rewirable fuses has the following draw backs:
1. There is a chance of selecting a wrong size of fuse wire.
2. It may sometimes lead to fire hazards, when the fuse wire blows.
Cartridge fuse:
Cartridge fuse consists of a tube with metal and caps at the both ends. The tube is usually made
of glass with more filling material. The fuse wire is placed inside the tube, connected between
the end caps. Since the tube is made of glass, the fuse element can be easily inspected for
breakage. When the fuse is blown, the whole cartridge has to be replaced. The advantages of
cartridge fuses are, quick and easy replacement and the fuse rating is marked on the end cap of
the cartridge itself. Cartridge fuses are mainly: used in various electrical and electronic
equipment.
High rupturing capacity fuse (HRC):
This is a completely enclosed cartridge type of fuse. These fuses are screwed or linked in the
circuit. Generally, it is used for high power circuits.
The HRC fuse has the following advantages:
1. It is very reliable and low temperature rise at rated load.

2. It has an enclosed fuse wire, therefore no chance its arc doing any damage to the
surroundings.
3. Maintenance free.
4. High rupturing capacity fuses can be rated to safely interrupt up to 300kA at 600 V AC.
The drawbacks are:

1. It is costly and takes time to replace the fuse.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):
Miniature circuit breakers are compact devices used in distribution boards for protection
against overload and short circuit. The overload protection is achieved by a thermal trip
mechanism using a bimetallic strip. An electromagnetic trip mechanism is also incorporated
for instantaneous tripping in the event of a short circuit.
When there is a sudden increase in current due to a short circuit, the circuit should open
immediately, but the bimetallic strip does not respond quickly. In this case, the solenoid attracts
the plunger and thus triggers the trip mechanism. After clearing the fault, the MCB can be
switched on manually.
The major advantages of MCB’s are
 Instantaneous opening of the contact on short circuit faults

 Can be designed to operate even for very small overload currents
 They can be quickly reset by hand
 They cannot be reclosed if fault persist
 In many cases they preferred over fuses as there is no need to rewire it.
Selection of MCB/MCCB
MCBs Current Voltage Short circuit Usage area

rating rating(AC/DC) capacity
Single pole 6A– 63A 230V 6kA-63kA Control circuit panels,
Residential distribution
2 pole MCB 10A-100A 230V 10kA-100kA Control circuit panels,
Residential and industrial
distribution
3 pole MCB 10A-100A 230V/415V(AC) 10kA-100kA Control circuit panels,
Residential, commercial
and industrial distribution
4 pole MCB 25A-100A 230V/415V(AC 25kA-100kA Control circuit panels,
Residential, commercial
and industrial distribution
3pole MCCB 63A-300A 230V/415V(AC) 63kA-300KA Commercial and industrial
distribution panels
4pole MCCB 100A-600A 230V/415V(AC) 100kA- Commercial and industrial
600kA distribution panels
MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker):
Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)
The earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a protective device, which will automatically trip,
when there is an earth leakage within the installation. It is also known as residual current circuit
breaker (RCCB). It works on the current balance principle. The main part is a core consisting
of three windings. Here one winding carries the phase current, the other winding carries the
neutral current and the third winding to the tripping circuit. Under normal operating conditions
the net flux in the core is zero as such no emf induced in the trip coil. However, when earth
fault occurs, the phase current and neutral current no longer balance and have a unbalanced
current (called residual current) which causes the emf induced in the trip coil and it is energized.
It then opens the circuit.
EARTHING
What is Earthing /Grounding?
Earthing or Grounding is the term used for electrical connection to the general mass of earth.
Equipment or a system is said to be ‘earthed’ when it is effectively connected to the ground
with a conducting object. Earthing provides protection to personal and equipment by ensuring
operation of the protective gear and isolation of faulty circuit during:
 Insulation failure
 Accidental contact
 Lightning strike
Earthing is classified as:

a. System earthing
b. Equipment earthing
System Earthing: It is the earthing of neutrals of generating stations and substations. It is

employed to limit the voltage of live conductors with respect to potential of general mass of
earth.
Equipment Earthing: It is the earthing of noncurrent carrying metal parts of electrical
equipment’s. As per Rules 33 and 61 of Indian Electricity Rule 1956 non-current carrying metal
parts must be earthed with two separate and distinct earth continuity conductors to an efficient
earth electrode.
Factors affecting the value of earth electrode resistance
 Electrode material.
 Electrode size.
 Material and size of earth wire.
 Moisture content of soil.
 Depth of electrode of underground.
 Quantity of dust and charcoal in earth pit.
Necessity of Earthing:
 To protect human being from disability or death from shock in case of human body
comes to contact with the frame of any electrical appliances.
 To maintain the line voltage constant
 To protect all building, structures and machines fed from overhead lines from
atmospheric lighting strikes.
 To serve the return conductor for telephone, telegraph and traction work
Methods of placing earth electrodes in soil
1. Pipe Earthing:
 Pipe earthing is done by permanently placing a pipe in wet ground.
 The pipe can be made of steel, galvanized iron or cast iron.
 Usually GI pipes having a length of 2.5m and an internal diameter of 38mm are
used.
 Fig shows an illustration of a typical pipe electrode
 The pipe should be placed at least 1.25m below the ground level
 It should be surrounded by alternate layers of salt, charcoal and sand for a
distance of around 15cm
 The purpose of this is to maintain the moisture level and to obtain low earth
resistance
 The earth lead of sufficient gauge should be firmly connected to the electrode
and it should be carried in a GI pipe at a depth of 60cm below the ground level
 A funnel with a wire mesh should be provided to pour water into the sump
during summer season to keep the surrounding of the electrode permanently
moist
 Used in residential area, (domestic installation)
2. Plate Earthing:
 In plate earthing either copper or galvanized iron plate is buried in the ground
with its face vertical at the depth of not less than 3 m from the ground level.
 The minimum dimension of the plate electrode should be
600*600*3.15mm(copper), 600*600*6.3mm (GI plates)
 The earth conductors connected using bolt and nuts should be of the same
material of that plate.
 Used in HT installation and high resistance dry soil area
3. Strip Earthing:
 This type of earthing is used where all places having a rocky soil bed
(excavation impossible)
 On this system wire or strips made of GI of size 25mm*4mm or made of
copper of size 25mm*1.6mm are embedded 0.5m, below the soil in the form
of network
4. Rod Earthing:
 Solid rod of 12mm of copper or galvanized iron of suitable length are buried
in the ground.
 It is suitable for sandy area.
(b)STUDY ON TOOLS AND ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES

Aim:
To study the tools and accessories used in electrical workshop
Sl. Tool Size Uses Precautions
No.
1 Screw drivers(Smaller 10, 15, 20& Used for loosening or Avoid greasy or oil
size screw driver is tightening or to keep handle. Use proper
30cm
called connecter. screws in position. size for particular
screws.
2 Combination pliers 15 & 20cm For holding, twisting Do not cut steel wires.
or cutting wires.
3 Round nose pliers or 10,15, 20 For holding, twisting Do not hold any hot
&25cm or joining wires at substance.
flat nose pliers
narrow places.
4 Side cutting pliers 15 &20cm Narrow places or Do not cut steel

ordinary places. For substance. Do not cut
(Side cutter)
removing insulation steel wires. Do not cut
hot substance
5 Electrician knife 10cm It has two blades, one Do not use it for
for removing cutting wires. While
insulation of wires using insulate
and other for cleaning yourself.
the wires.
6 Electric soldering iron. 25w, 40w, To solder the joints of Do not put hot iron on
wires and winding the wires
65w, 125w.
wires
7 Cross peen hammer 1/4kg to Used for fixing clip Never use loose
and making gitties handled harmer
2kg
hole in wall
8 Ball peen hammer 1/4kg to Best suited for Never use loose
chipping on teak handled harmer
2kg
wood batten, and
riveting purpose in
sheet metal works
9 Poker 10,16,20 & Used for making pilot Do not use it on the
25cm holes for fixing wood metals.
screw.
10 Hack saw 10 , 20 & Used for cutting PVC Keep straight while
30cm conduit G.I. pipes and cutting.
mild steel.
11 Hand saw 30 & 45 cm Used for cutting Keep straight while

wooden boards, cutting
blocks and casing etc.
12 Measuring Tape 3,5,25,50 & Used for measuring Do not twist the open
100 m the length of the wires tape
and cables. It is made
of steel or cotton
cloth.
13 Wire gauge 0-35 gauge Used to measure the

size of a wire that is,
either in diameter or
cross sectional area.
14 Neon tester/ line tester 15cm Used to identify the Ensure it is working
phase or live wire properly and not
broken
Not use as screw

driver
15 Wire stripper and cutter This is used for Use proper cutter or
removing insulation stripper for particular
of wires. This is wire
available with
adjustable 22 SWG
and onwards. This is
used for cutting wires
also
TOOLS USED IN THE ELECTRICAL WORK SHOP

ACCESSORIES
Types of switches are:
A switch is a device to connect and disconnect the supply of electricity to a circuit. Main switch
is used to control power supply in an installation.
The following switches are used in the house wiring are available in 6A/250V:
1. Flush switch
2. Two way switches
3. Two-way center off switches
4. Double pole switch
5. Push button switch
6. Table lamp switch
7. Bed switches
Sl.no Types of switch Rating Usage of area
1 SPST 6A,10A,16A, 250V Residential and commercial

switch(single pole use
single throw
switch)
2 SPDT 6A,10A,16A, 250V Residential and commercial
switch(Single pole use
double throw
switch)
3 DPST 16A,25A,32A,63A, Commercial and industrial
switch(Double 250V/415V use
pole single throw
switch)
4 TPST switch(triple 16A, 25A, 32A, 63A, Commercial and industrial
pole single throw 100A, 250V/415V use
switch)
Sl.no Name Figure and Symbol Description
1 SPST switch A simple on-off switch. This

type can be used to switch the
power supply to a circuit.
2 SPDT switch This switch can be on in both

position, switching on a separate
device in each case. It can be
used to switch on red lamp in
one position and green lamp in
another position.
3 Socket a) Two pin socket (connected

with phase and neutral)
b) Three pin socket(connected
with phase, neutral and earth).In
three pin socket the bigger hole
is earth connection
4 Plug Supply from socket outlet is fed

to portable appliances like TV,
computer, Radio, table fan, iron
box.
(a)Two pin plug for table lamp,
mobile charger and small
electronic equipment.
(b)Three pin plug : All metal
frame equipment’s should be
connected with earth terminal
5 Lamp holder It is to support the lamp and also
to connect electrically.
batten & angle holder
pendent holder
6 Ceiling rose Ceiling rose consist of two parts

base and cover. It is used for
connecting the pendent lamp,
fan and fluorescent lamp
through flexible wire cords.
7 Fuse A fuse is a safety device, to

prevent excess current in the
electric circuit. It consists of a
thin metal wire of low resistance
and low melting point. When
electrical appliances are faulty,
there will be an excess electric
current through the circuit,
which causes melting of the
fuse.
8 Insulation tape PVC insulation tapes are used in

electrical wiring to insulate
electrical wires and other
material that conduct electricity.
When joining two wires,
insulation tapes are used to have
good insulation and protection
to the user
9 PVC conduit An electrical conduit is an

pipes electrical piping system used for
protection and routing of
electrical wiring. Electrical
conduit may be made of metal,
plastic, fiber, or fires clay. size-
12.7, 16, 19, 25.4, 31.8mm dia
and 2mm thickness
10 IN a wiring system the

PVC Junction connections can be change to
box any desired direction by passing
through the junction boxes.
There are different types like
1way, 2way, 3way and 4 way
junction boxes.
11 Used for changing the direction

Bend, tee, of the circuit through bends and
elbow elbows and tees
12
Metal Clamps are used for fixing the
clamp(saddles) conduit and are available in
and wall plug metal and PVC. It can be
screwed on the wall through

PVC wall plug
13
Wires The cable or wire used in
internal wiring is covered with
insulation to prevent leakage of
current from the conductor and
thus minimize risk of fire and
shock
14
PVC round Round blocks are used for fixing
block the lamp holder. This round
blocks can be fixed on the wall
or board using screws
15
PVC gang box Gang box can be used for fixing
switches such as 1 way, 2way
switches, socket, TV and
telephone outlet
16 Tube light The function of a starter is

starter mainly to provide the high
potential difference required to
start the flow of electron in the
lamp
17 Tube light Starter holder is the base holder

holder of the starter.
18 Tube light side It is used to hold and connect the

holder fluorescent bulb circuit.
19 The 'choke' is an inductor whose

Tube light purpose is to limit the current
Choke/ ballast flowing through. Used to obtain
high voltage at the time of
starting to initiate the electron
movement.
Wires or cable:
 Wire or cable is made of conducting material (copper or Aluminum) surrounded by
insulation.
 In some cable a sheath covering is provided over the insulation cover to give it
mechanical protection.
 The conductors can be a single conductor drawn in the form of circular, rectangular or
square cross section solid or hollow.
 The conductors can also be a number of circular conductors twisted together to form a
multi strand conductors.
Many types of materials are used to provide insulation, some types are,
1. Vulcanized Indian rubber (V.I.R)
2. Poly vinyl chloride (PVC)
3. Impregnated paper
4. Varnished cambric
5. Vulcanized bitumen
Flexible cords:
Flexible cord consists of a large number of fine wires of 0.2mm -0.5mm (depend on the
power of appliances) twisted together to form a conductor and insulated by PVC or VIR
Application: Electronic equipment’s like CRO, DSO, DC Power supply, Radio, Computer,
Soldering iron etc.
Specification of wires and cables are:
1. The type of conductor
2. The type of insulation
3. The size and number of cores
Different types of standards:

1. British standard specification
2. American standard specification
3. Indian standard specification
British standard specification

 Not specified by their sizes, but specific numbers have been assigned to the various
wire sizes.
 Gauge that is used to confirm the specification is the British standard wire gauge
(S.W.G)
 Example- 1/18, 3/22, 7/22 etc. (1/18 means that there is only 1 conductor in the wire
of diameter equivalent to 18 S.G.W)
American standard specification

 The American way of specifying the diameter is not in inches but in miles.
 A mil is one thousand of an inch, and area is specified by circular mils instead of square
inches.
 A circular mil is the area of a circle of diameter of one mil.
 Square mil=0.7854 circular mils
Indian standard specification

 Earlier in India British standard specification is used for specifying wires.
 But after adoption of metric system of measurement, the sizes of wires are denoted by
their cross sectional area in square millimeters, like 1.5squaremm to 600 square mm.
The number of conductors stranded together depends on the current carrying capacity of wires.
Different types of wires/cables
Type Insulation Voltage No of Conductor Conductor Usage of area
grade cores material size
(sq. mm)
V.I.R Vulcanized 250/600V Single/ Cu or Al 6,10,15,20,2 Cleat, wooden
(Vulcanized Indian Twin 5 casing & capping,
Indian Rubber batten wiring
Rubber)
T.R.S(Toug Tough 250/600V Single/ Cu or Al 1.5,2,3,4,6,1 Suitable for places
h Rubber Rubber Twin 0, where acids and
Sheath) Sheath alkalis are likely to
15,20,25
be present
P.V.C Poly Vinyl 250/600V Single/ Al 1.5,2,3,4,6,1 Used in
cables Chloride Twin 0, commercial,
residential and
15,20,25
industrial
Weather Vulcanized 250/600V Single/ Al 1.5,2,4,6,10, For service
Proof Indian Twin 15,20 connections
Rubber
(WP
Cables)
Sheathed Paper or 600/1100 2,3,3.5, Cu or Al 4,16,25,35,5 For service
Cable PVC V and 4 0, connection,
insulated industrial,
(XLP 185,300,600
with lead commercial,
Cables-
alloy sheath residential
cross linked
with or (distribution)
poly
without
ethaline)
armoring
Selection of cable depends on:

1. Permissible insulation and voltage withstanding capacity.
2. Amount of current passing through it (safe current carrying capacity)
3. Temperature of the area
4. Fire hazard (like refineries)
General information regarding domestic wiring

Wiring is done in domestic premises to provide electrical power for lighting fan and domestic
appliances
The primary objective of a wiring system is to distribute electrical energy to various points.
The important factors are:
1. Durability
2. Electrical safety
3. Mechanical immunity
4. Appearance
5. Cost
6. Accessibility
7. Maintenance cost
All domestic electric installation should confirm to Indian Electricity Acts and Rules and IS:
732-1963
The different types of domestic wiring used are:
1. Cleat wiring
2. Wood Casing and Capping wiring
3. TRS and PVC wiring
4. Lead Sheathed wiring
5. Conduit wiring
Types of conduits for internal wiring:

1. PVC Conduit
2. Metallic conduit of mild steel
Advantages of PVC conduits:

1. It is light in weight
2. It is anti-corrosive
3. Easy to install
4. No maintenance is required
5. It can be easily joined using the solvent cement
Distribution or Fuse/MCB/MCCB boards:
 This is used for power supply to a group of branch circuits.
 There is a separate fuse/MCB for each branch or sub circuit.
 The residential lighting sub circuit must not exceed 800W subject to a max of 10 points.
One point means 1 fan/light. One power point means 1 iron box/kettle.
 The fuse or MCB rating not exceed 6/10A (lighting circuit).
 The residential power circuit must not exceed 2000W subject to a max of 2 points.
 The fuse /MCB rating not exceed 16/25A.
Residential distribution board

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (VOLTMETER, AMMETER AND MULTIMETER
Measuring instruments are classified according to both the quantity measured by the instrument
and the principle of operation.
Three general principle s of operation are available:
1. Electromagnetic, which utilizes the magnetic effects of electric currents;
2. Electromagnetic, which utilizes the forces between electrically-charged conductors;
3. Electro-thermic, which utilizes the heating effect
Electric measuring instruments (Analog and Digital instruments)

Analog Instruments
The deflection type instruments with a scale and movable pointer are called analog instruments.
These pointer indicates directly
 current in Amps,
 voltage in Volts,
 power /energy in watts/kwh
Analog meter instruments are two type:

1. Permanent magnet moving coil instruments to measure the DC values
The D'Arsonval galvanometer is a moving coil meter. It is widely used in electronic instrument
2. Moving iron instruments to measure the RMS value of AC circuit
Moving iron meters use a piece of iron which moves when acted upon by the electromagnetic
force of a fixed coil of wire
Digital Instruments
Digital instruments are those which use logic circuits and techniques to obtain a measurement
and then display it in numerical-reading (digital) form either in LED or LCD
Advantages over Analog Instruments
 Easy readability
 Greater accuracy and higher sensitivity
 Faster response and better resolution
 Greater flexibility than analog
 Automatic polarity and zeroing
Ammeter:
 An ammeter measures how much current is passing through a particular path of interest.
 These instrument (Analog/Digital) is always connected in SERIES with circuit and is
measured in AMPS /MILLI AMPS
Voltmeter:
 A voltmeter measures how much voltage is passing between two points in a circuit.
 A voltmeter is usually used to check the power in electrical circuits.
 To measure the voltage in a circuit, this instrument (Analog/Digital) is always
connected across the terminals to measure voltage and is measured in
VOLTS/MILLIVOLTS
NOTE: Before using meters (analog/Digital) you have to determine whether it is
 AC or DC source.
 Measuring voltage/current
 Selection of meters(MI/MC) within range
In DC circuit the polarity should not be changed

1. Red terminal of meter is connected to the positive (+) terminal of the circuit/supply
2. Black terminal of meter is connected to the negative (-) terminal of the circuit/supply
The voltmeter will turn itself on and measure the difference between the voltage at the first
point and the voltage at the second point, telling you how much voltage is traveling between
the two points.
Multimeters (Analog/ Digital)
A multimeter is an electrical instrument capable of measuring more than one parameter. It is

also called Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter(VOM)
Analog multimeter indicates the quantity of voltage, current, resistance etc. by means of a
moving pointer over a printed scale
Digital multimeters are special instruments for laboratories, factories and research institution.
They have numerical displays in LED/LCD. It can measure following values
 AC/DC voltage and current
 Frequency
 Resistance
 Capacitance
 Temperature
 Duty cycle
 Testing of transistor
 Testing of diode
 Continuity tester
Front panel description
 LCD: Display the measuring value and unit
 RST key: When meter is under sleep or lock states, press this key, the meter will be
active
 Hz/DUTY key: When measuring the frequency, press this button and it will shift
between frequency and duty cycle
 REL key: Press it to store the present reading as a reference for subsequent readings
 HOLD key: Press the key, the measuring value will be held on LCD and HOLD symbol
appears
 RANGE key: Press RANGE, then it will enter manual range mode.
 DC/AC key: Select DC/AC mode
 Rotary switch: Used to change the range and choose functions.
 hFE: Transistor
 Input terminal for temperature measurement

HOW TO TEST AND MEASURE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

COMPONENTS AND PARAMETER USING DIGITAL MULTIMETER
Selec Test lead /probe Range of Test Result/Display in LCD and

tion position Parameter remark
key/mode reading
Black Red for test
(Manual)
DC Voltage COM V/Ω/ 400mV,4V LCD will display polarity and voltage.
Hz ,40V,400V
DC range Under manual range, LCD displays OL,
, 1000V
it means Over range, then select the
higher range
Do not put voltage over DC 1000V, it
may cause damage of the meter.
Do not touch the high voltage circuit
while testing.
The buzzer will beep when measuring
voltage over DC 1000V.
AC Voltage COM V/Ω/ 400mV,4V LCD will display voltage of two test
Hz ,40V,400V point
AC range
,750V
Under manual range, LCD displays OL,
it means Over range, then select the
higher range.
Do not put voltage over AC 750V, it may
cause damage of the meter.
while testing.
The buzzer will beep when measuring
voltage over AC 750V.
DC current COM mA/ Max LCD will display polarity and current.
A 400mA
Dc range LCD displays OL, it means Over range,
Max 20A then shift the test lead and select the knob
to higher range.
When tested current >10A at 20A, buzzer
will beep
Do not put current over 400mA or 20A(
subject to where the red test lead insert
into), it may cause damage of the meter
AC current COM mA/ Max LCD will display current value when
A 400mA connected in series to the circuit.
AC range
Max 20A LCD displays OL, it means current is
over range, then shift the test lead and
select the knob to higher range
When tested current >10A at 20A, buzzer
will beep.
Do not put current over 400mA or 20A
(subject to where the red test lead insert
into), it may cause damage of the meter
Resistance COM V/Ω/ Ω, k Ω, LCD display actual value of resistance
Hz
Ω range MΩ LCD displays OL, it means resistance is
over range, then select the higher range
When input terminal is in open circuit,
LCD will display OL
Before measuring in line resistor, make
sure that the power is off and all
capacitors are discharged completely
When there is big error, it may be affected
by other online component or there is
voltage on the resistor
Do not input any voltage at resistance
range
Capacitance COM V/Ω/ AUTO LCD display capacitance value, when red
Hz test lead is for positive (+), black test
range leads for negative (-) terminal of the
capacitor.
If the LCD doesn’t display “0”, press
“REL” to clear the reading
Don’t input voltage or current to the
“VΩHz” terminal when measuring the
capacitance still in the “Cx” terminal.
The reading of 200µF range will take
more than 15 sec to be stable
Frequency/D COM V/Ω/ AUTO LCD display frequency or duty cycle of

uty cycle Hz the signal source
Hz range The meter can still work if the input
current is higher than 10V rms.
while testing
Don’t input voltage higher than 250V DC
or AC peak value, or it may damage the
meter
Transistor Insert in AUTO Define the transistor is NPN or PNP type,
NPN/PNP hole then insert the emitter, base, and collector
hFE range
separately into the relative hole in the
front panel , the value will be displayed
on the LCD
Diode and COM V/Ω/ DC/AC Press DC/AC mode to select diode
continuity Hz measurement mode/continuity
measurement mode
Connect red test lead to anode (+)
polarity and black test lead to cathode (-)
of the diode. Then LCD will display
value.
If it is connected in reverse, LCD will
display “OL”
While checking the CONTINUITY the
buzzer beeps
Make sure the power is off and all
capacitors are discharged. Any AC signal
will make the buzzer sounds
Temperature Insert AUTO LCD displays temperature on the screen
thermocouple in in Centigrade
C range
“TEMP” socket
If insert thermocouple oppositely, it will
display the wrong value. When
temperature is rising, the value will be
down.
When input terminal is open circuit, it
will display the environment temperature
Don’t input voltage at temperature range
a) STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS (PASSIVE AND ACTIVE)
There are various equipment’s; they help us to get faster response that could not be
obtained with ordinary equipment’s. All this equipment’s are made of using electronic
components. Generally electronic components are classified as
 Passive components
 Active components
Passive components:
 Passive components do not increase the power of a signal they cannot generate
energy,
 The passive elements cannot generate energy, they drop energy. Passive
devices merely respond to the external power applied they are incapable of
supplying any energy
 Those devices or components which store or maintain Energy in the form of
Voltage or Current are known as Passive Components.
 Examples: Resistors, capacitors, inductors and transformers are example of

passive components.
Active components:
 Active elements or sources are elements which can source electrical power.
Examples are voltage sources and current sources. Batteries, generators, etc.
examples for active elements.
 Active components can amplify a less powerful signal into a more powerful
signal, or control a larger power with a smaller power. Some vacuum tubes are
built to just oscillate without receiving an external signal, these are still active
devices as they are amplifiers with the feedback path and tuned circuit built in
as part of their construction and are amplifying this feedback.
So transistors, SCRs and TRIACS, vacuum tubes like triodes pentodes,
photocells, and op-amps are also examples for active elements
 One thing keep it mind that sources not only supply power to a circuit,
they can absorb power from a circuit too.
 Examples: Bipolar transistor, field effect transistor, SCR are examples of active
components
SOME VARIETIES OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Item Name symbol Description
Resistor is a component that limits the

current flow or reduces the voltage in an
Resistor electronic circuit/electrical circuit.
Different types of fixed resistors are,
 carbon composition
 carbon film resistor
 Metal film resistor
 Wire wound resistor
Potentiomete Potentiometers /pots are variable
r( variable) resistors, used as voltage or current
regulators in electronic circuits.
Rheostat A resistor for regulating a current by

means of variable resistances
(variable)
Preset Preset is a kind of potentiometer having

potentiomete a metallic wiper that can be moved with
r a screw driver.
Thermistor Thermistor is a two terminal

semiconductor device in which
resistance changes with changes in
temperature.
Capacitor A capacitor can store the energy from

strong rapidly changing signals and can
return that energy to the desired circuit.
Unit of capacitor is Farad (F). Different
types of fixed capacitors are:
 Paper capacitor
 Film capacitor
 Mica capacitor
 Ceramic capacitor
 Polyester capacitor
 Electrolytic capacitor
 Tantalum capacitor
Variable Variable capacitor is one whose
capacitor capacitance can be varied usually by
rotating shaft. It consists of two sets of
metal plates separated from each other
by air. Different types of Variable
capacitors are:
 Gang capacitor
 Trimmer capacitor
Inductor An inductor can increase the strength of
magnetic field created by current.
Different type of Inductors is:
 Air core inductor
 Iron core inductor
 Ferrite core inductor
Transformer Transformer consist of two or more set
of coils used to transfer energy from one
circuit to another at different voltages
and current without changing the power
and frequency. Different types of
transformers are:
 Power transformer
 Auto transformer
 Variable transformer
 Pulse transformer
 High voltage transformer
Diode Diode is also called PN junction diode.

It is fabricated by joining together a P
type and an N type semiconductor. This
conducts current in one direction only.
Anode (+), Cathode(-)
Transistor A transistor is a semiconductor device

used to amplify and switch electronic
signals and power. It is composed of a
semiconductor material with at least
three terminals for connection to an
external circuit.
FET A field-effect transistor (FET) is a type

of transistor commonly used for weak-
signal amplification (for example, for
amplifying wireless signals). The device
can amplify analog or digital signals. It
can also switch DC or function as an
oscillator.
Field-effect transistors exist in two

major classifications. These are known
as the junction FET (JFET) and the
metal-oxide- semiconductor FET
(MOSFET)
SCR SCR is a four-layer semiconductor

device, consisting of alternating P type
and N type materials (PNPN). An SCR
usually has three electrodes: an anode, a
cathode, and a gate (control electrode).
Zener diode Zener diode is like an ordinary diode
except that it is properly doped so as to
have a sharp breakdown voltage. It is
always reverse biased. When forward
biased, it characteristics are just those of
ordinary diode.
LED The light-emitting diode (LED) is a solid

– state light source. Advantages of LEDs
are:
 Low voltage
 Long life
 Fast on-off switching
LDR A photo resistor/light dependent resistor
is a component that is sensitive to light.
When light falls upon it then the
resistance changes. Values of the
resistance of the LDR may change over
many orders of magnitude the value of
the resistance falling as the level of the
light increases
555 IC An integrated circuit (IC) is a small

electronic device made out of a
semiconductor material. An IC(called
chip/microchip) is a semiconductor
wafer on which thousands or millions of
tiny resistors, capacitors and transistors
are fabricated.
Relay A relay is an electrically operated

switch. They are used where it is
necessary to control a circuit by a
separate low-power signal, or controlled
by one signal.
Primary cell An electrochemical cell in which an

irreversible chemical reaction generates
1.5V – 2V electricity; which cannot be recharged.
Battery Battery is an electrochemical cell which

consist of two or more cells connected
12V either in series or in parallel or both
Solar A solar cell/photovoltaic cell

panel/cell (previously termed "solar battery”), is an
electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect, which is a physical
and chemical phenomenon.
Fuse Fuse is a simplest circuit protection
device.
Switch A switch is an electrical component that

can break an electrical circuit,
interrupting/diverting the current from
one conductor to another.
Wire To pass current very easily from one part

of a circuit to another
Wires joined Used in circuit diagrams where wires

cross to show that they are
connected(joined)
Wires not Used in circuit diagrams where it is

joined often necessary to draw wires crossing
even though they are not connected
Resistor color coding
A resistor is a two terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its
terminal that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with
ohms’ law
There are two methods to determine resistor values
 Colour code
 Multimeter
A useful mnemonic for remembering the first ten colour coded matches the first letter of the
colour code, by order of increasing magnitude.
BBROY OF GREAT BRITAN HAS VERY GOOD WIFE
Most resistors have 4 band
 First band gives first digit
 Second band gives the second digit
 Third band indicates multiplier or the number of zeros
 Fourth band is used to shows the tolerance(precision) of the resistor

First find the tolerance band, it will typically be gold and sometimes silver.
 Starting from the other end, identify the first band- write down the number
associated with that colour; in this case RED is 2
 Now the next colour, here it is RED so write down a ‘2’ next to the two i.e. ‘22’
 Now read the third or ‘multiplier’ band and write down the number of zeros.
 In the above example it is yellow, that means add four zeros to it i.e. ‘220000’.
(220k).
 Now the fourth band is gold, so the tolerance is 5% i.e. 220000 ohms or 220
kilo-ohms also known as 220k at 5% tolerance.
 If the multiplier band is black don’t write any zeros down. If it is Gold move
the decimal point one to the left. If it is silver move the decimal point two places
to the left.
Study of CRO and Function Generator

STUDY OF CRO
 An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows us to look at the 'shape' of electrical

signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen.
 It is like a voltmeter with the valuable extra function of showing how the voltage varies
with time. A graticule with a 1cm grid enables us to take measurements of voltage and
time from the screen. The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam of
electrons striking the phosphor coating of the screen making it emit light, usually green
or blue.
 Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one end to
emit electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so they move rapidly
down the tube to the screen.
 This arrangement is called an electron gun. The tube also contains electrodes to deflect
the electron beam up/down and left/right.
 The electrons are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this
gives the oscilloscope its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO.
Front Panel of CRO

Setting up an oscilloscope:
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to
set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are
set wrongly.
The following instructions may be adapted for this instrument.

1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIME BASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the middle of
the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
The following type of trace is observed on CRO after setting up, when there is no input signal
connected.
Absence of input signal

Obtaining a clear and stable trace:
Once if we connect the oscilloscope to the circuit, it is necessary to adjust the controls to
obtain a clear and stable trace on the screen in order to test it.
1. The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control determines the height of the trace.
Choose a setting so the trace occupies at least half the screen height, but does not
disappear off the screen.
2. The TIME BASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at which the dot sweeps
across the screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows at least one cycle of the signal
across the screen. Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal line trace for
which the time base setting is not critical.
3. The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.
The trace of an AC signal with the oscilloscope controls correctly set is as shown in Figure
Stable waveform
Measuring voltage and time period:
The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this
graph is determined by the nature of the input signal. In addition to the properties labelled
on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The diagram
shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape
Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts.

Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope trace
it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.

Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and
microseconds (μs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1μs = 0.000001s.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies
tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used.
A) Voltage: Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the
Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured
because it can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The
amplitude is half the peak-peak voltage.
volts
Voltage  dis tan ce(cm) 
cm
B) Time period: Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by
the TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the
time for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per second,
1 time
Frequency( f )  , Time  dis tan ce(cm) 
TimePeriod(T ) cm
STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR
A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety of
frequencies and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits to common input signals.
The electrical leads from the device are attached to the ground and signal input terminals of the
device under test.
Front Panel of a typical function generator

Features and controls:
Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small number
of options.
Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.
Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.
Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate
The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the high
and low voltage of the output signal.
How to use a function generator?
 After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be configured to
the desired shape.
 Typically, this means connecting the signal and ground leads to an oscilloscope to
check the controls.
 Adjust the function generator until the output signal is correct, then attach the signal
and ground leads from the function generator to the input and ground of the device
under test.
 For some applications, the negative lead of the function generator should attach to a
negative input of the device, but usually attaching to ground is sufficient.
Breadboard Circuit:
 This is a way of making a temporary circuit, for testing purposes or to try out an idea.
 No soldering is required and all the components can be re-used afterwards. It is easy to
change connections and replace components.
 Almost all the Electronics Club projects started life on a breadboard to check that the
circuit worked as intended.
The following figure depicts the appearance of Bread board in which the holes in top and
bottom stripes are connected horizontally that are used for power supply and ground connection
conventionally and holes on middle stripes connected vertically. And that are used for circuit
connections conventionally.
A typical Breadboard and its connection details

 A real breadboard is shown in above and the connection details below it are shown.
 The five holes in each individual column on either side of the central groove are
electrically connected to each other, but remain insulated from all other sets of holes.
 In addition to the main columns of holes, however, you'll note four sets or groups of
holes along the top and bottom. Each of these consists of five separate sets of five holes
each, for a total of 25 holes.
 These groups of 25 holes are all connected together on either side of the dotted line
indicated in the figure and needs an external connection if one wishes the entire row to
be connected.
 This makes them ideal for distributing power to multiple ICs or other circuits.
ACTIVITY:
Identify the values of the following resistors using color codes
Inference and Result:

Experiment No. 1
CONTROL OF LAMP AND SOCKET INDEPENDENTLY

Aim:
To wire up a circuit to control a lamp and socket independently.
Tools:
Sl. No Tools Required Specification Quantity
Accessories:
Sl. No Materials Specification Quantity
1 Wooden practical board 900*600*20mm 1
2 PVC Conduit,150mm length 2mm thickness,19mm dia 5
3 PVC 4 way junction box 2mm thickness,19mm dia 1
4 PVC bend 2mm thickness,19mm dia 1
5 PVC round block 80mm dia,30mm h 1
6 PVC Gang box 80*50*30mm 2
7 PVC gang box 100*80*30mm 1
8 PVC insulated copper wire 1sq.mm*1100V grade As required
9 SPST switch 6A,250V 2
10 3 pin socket 6A,250V 1
11 Rewireable fuse unit 6A,250V 1
12 Straight batten holder 6A,250V 1
13 Incandescent lamp 60W,250V 1
14 Socket testing lamp with 3 pin 60W,250V 1
plug top
15 Metal saddles 19 mm GI 5
15 Screws 32mm 6
25mm 1
19mm 2
12mm 10
Procedure:
1. Make circuit diagram and get it checked by staff in charge.
2. Prepare the list out tools and materials required for the work and collect them.
3. Make a lay out of diagram on the board with chalk as per the given dimension.
4. Fix the conduit, junction box, bends as per layout diagram with required saddles and
screws to the board.
5. Insert the required respective colour wires through the conduit and leave extra allowance
of wires for fixing switches and lamp holders.
6. After connecting the wires to fuse unit, switches through gang box and lamp holder
through PVC round block and fix it on the board with proper screws.
7. Test the circuit.
Series test lamp circuit
The wiring set up must be tested, by using a series test lamp circuit, to check whether there is
a short circuit or open circuit
Procedure for checking Connections/circuit
1. Connect the test board circuit in series with the wiring set up by keeping the test lamp
switch open.
2. The lamp in the test board and in the wiring circuit should have same wattage.
3. If there is an open circuit, then both the lamps will not glow.
4. If there is a short circuit only the test board lamp will glow brighter and the circuit lamp
will not glow.
5. When there is no fault in the circuit then both the lamps will glow with equally dim.
6. After testing the circuit, close the test lamp switch, then operate the wiring circuit.

Circuit Diagram Working Diagram
Layout Diagram:
Tabular Column
Sl. Position of Position of Condition of
No. S1 S2
Lamp 1 Socket 1
Length of wire = No of wires in each conduit*length of conduit+15% of calculated wire

as extra allowance extra allowance
Estimation of Cost:
Sl. No Particular Quantity Rate Amount
Total
Experiment No. 2
VERIFICATION OF KIRCHOFF’S LAWS FOR D.C CIRCUITS

Aim:
To verify Kirchhoff’s laws for D.C circuits
Statement:
a) Kirchoff’s current law (KCL): The sum of currents at any node is zero.
OR
At any node, the sum of the incoming currents is equal to the sum of the outgoing currents
b) Kirchoff’s Voltage law (KVL): The Algebraic sum of applied voltage and the voltage
drops is zero in any closed circuit
OR
In any closed circuit, the sum of the applied voltages is equal to sum of the voltage drops.
Apparatus Required:
Sl. No Name of the Equipment Specification Quantity

1 Dc power supply (0-30)V 1 No
2 Rheostats 21, 2.8A 2 Nos
11, 2.8A 1 No
3 Ammeters 0-2 A, MC 3 Nos

4 Voltmeter 0-30V,MC 3 Nos
Note: Do the theoretical calculation taking input voltage as 10V.
Procedure:
1. Analyse the circuit and choose appropriate (type and rating) ammeter and voltmeter.
2. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
3. Switch on the supply, by keeping the rheostats in cut- in position.
4. Adjust the rheostat to given /designed values of your circuit.
5. Record the current through and voltage across individual rheostats, by using suitable
ammeter and volt meter respectively.
6. Repeat the experiment for different resistance values.

Circuit Diagram:
Tabular Column:
Th – Theoretical Values Calculated

Pr – Practical Values achieved
Sl No Supply I1 I2 I3 I 1 =I2+I3
Voltage (A) (A) (A) (A)
(V)
Th Th Th Th
1 10
Pr Pr Pr Pr
Sl No Supply V1 V2 V3 V=V1+V2 V=V1+V3

Voltage (v) (v) (v) (v) (v)
(V)
Th Th Th Th Th
1 10
Pr Pr Pr Pr Pr
Model Calculations:
Verification of KCL: I1= I2 + I3
Verification of KVL: V = V1 + V3 and V= V1 + V2 & also V3-V2 =0

Experiment No. 3
VI CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

Aim
To study the characteristics of PN Junction Diode under forward and reverse bias
condition and the dynamic resistance.
Theory
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction
and has low resistance in one direction, and high resistance in the other direction. A p–n junction
diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon, but germanium and gallium
arsenide are also used. Impurities are added to it to create a region on one side that contains
negative charge carriers (electrons), called an n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other
side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called a p-type semiconductor. When the n-
type and p-type materials are attached together, a momentary flow of electrons occur from the
n to the p side resulting in a third region between the two where no charge carriers are present.
This region is called the depletion region because there are no charge carriers (neither electrons
nor holes) in it. The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type (Cathode) and p-type (Anode)
regions. The boundary between these two regions, called a p–n junction, is where the action of
the diode takes place.
BIASING OF PN- JUNCTION DIODES

Forward Bias operation
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to P-side (Anode) and –ve terminal is connected the N- side (Cathode), then diode
is said to be forward biased condition. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the
junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the holes from
P-side and electrons from N-side cross the junction simultaneously thereby decreasing the
depleted region. This constitutes a forward current (majority carrier movement – diffusion
current). Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be
approximated as short- circuited switch. Diode offers a very small resistance called forward
resistance (few ohms)
Reverse bias operation

If negative terminal of the input supply is connected to p-side (Anode) and –ve terminal is
connected to n-side (cathode) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this condition an
amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier at the
junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to move away from the junction
there by increasing the depleted region. However, the process cannot continue indefinitely,
thus a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This current
is negligible; the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch it offers a very high
resistance called reverse resistance (few Kilo Ohms).
Static Resistance: The opposition offered by a diode to the direct current flowing forward bias
condition is known as its DC forward resistance or Static Resistance. It is measured by taking
the ratio of DC voltage across the diode to the DC current flowing through it at an operating
point.
Dynamic Resistance: The opposition offered by a diode to the changing current flow I forward
bias condition is known as its AC Forward Resistance. It is measured by a ratio of change in
voltage across the diode to the resulting change in current through it for an operating point P.
Average Resistance: Same as dynamic resistance
Components Required
Sl No Components used Range Quantity

1 Power supply 0-30 V 1
2 Ammeter 0-30 mA, MC 1
0-100 μA,MC 1
3 Voltmeter DMM 1
4 pn junction diode 1N 4007 1
5 Resistors 1kΩ, 10 kΩ 1 Each
6 Bread board 1
7 Connecting wires Single stranded
Procedure
Forward Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the power supply voltage in such a way that the readings are taken in steps of
0.1 V in the voltmeter till the needle of the power supply shows 2V
3. Note down the corresponding milli ammeter and voltmeter readings
4. Plot the graph V against I
5. Find the dynamic resistance
Reverse Bias
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram
2. Vary the power supply voltage in such a way that the readings are taken in steps of 1
V in the voltmeter till the needle of the power supply shows 20V
3. Note down the corresponding micro ammeter readings
4. Plot the graph V against I
5. Find the reverse resistance.
Calculations:
a) From Forward characteristics:
Cut-in Voltage V =
Static forward Resistance: Rdc= Vf / If
Dynamic Forward Resistance: Rac = ΔVf / ΔIf
Average Resistance Ravg = ΔVf / ΔIf
b) From reverse characteristics:
Static reverse Resistance: Rdc = Vr/ Ir
Dynamic Forward Resistance: Rac = ΔVr / ΔIr
Average Resistance Ravg= ΔVr/ ΔIr

Forward Bias Circuit Forward Bias characteristics
Tabular Column
Sl. No Voltage (Vf in volts) Current(If mA)

Forward Bias characteristics: GRAPH
Reverse bias circuit diagram Reverse Bias characteristics of diode
Tabular Column
Sl. No Voltage (Vr in volts) Current( Ir in μA)

Reverse Bias characteristics: GRAPH
Experiment No. 4
ZENER DIODE as a Voltage Regulator

Aim
To study the application of a Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
Components Required
Sl No Components Specifications Quantity
1. Zener Diode 12V,1/2W 1
2. Resistors 1 kΩ 1
10 kΩ 1
3 Voltmeter D.M.M 1
4 Ammeter 0 – 30 mA, MC 1
0 – 100 μA,MC 1
5 Power Supply 0-30 V dc power supply 1
6 Connecting Wires Single stranded
7 Bread Board 1
Theory
Zener diode is a heavily doped PN junction diode. Due to heavily doped, its depletion layer is
very thin and is order of micrometer. The forward bias characteristic of Zener diode is same
as the normal PN junction diode but in reverse bias it has different characteristic. Initially, a
negligible constant current flow through the Zener diode in its reverse bias but at certain
voltage, the current becomes abruptly large. This voltage is called as Zener voltage. This
sudden and sharp increase in Zener current is called as Zener breakdown.
Zener diode is popularly used as a shunt regulator or voltage regulator. The Zener diode will
conduct in the reverse direction for any output voltage (Vo) greater than Zener voltage (Vz),
Vo can never exceed Vz. As the load current changes the Zener diode will conduct sufficient
current to maintain a voltage drop of E – Vo across the series dropping resistor, Rs.
Reverse Biasing and application of Zener for voltage regulation
Fig 4. Reverse biasing and Voltage regulation by Zener circuit diagram

Procedure:
1. Wire up the circuit shown in above figure 3.b_1
2. Record the voltage across the diode (V) and current (I) through it as a function of input
voltage. Find Zener Voltage (Vz) and plot the reverse characteristics. (Make sure that
Zener current is not crossing the maximum Zener current (Izmax) given in the data
sheet.
3. Vary the input voltage above in short steps and record the voltage across the load and
current flowing through the Zener and voltage across the Zener and tabulate the
observation and write down the inference.
Tabular column to analyse voltage regulation across load using Zener diode
Sl. No Input voltage Voltage Voltage

across Zener across load
diode

Experiment No. 5
STUDY OF HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Aim:
To determine the output wave form of
1. Half-wave rectifier without and with filter

2. Full-wave rectifier without and with filter
Components Required:
Sl no Components Range Quantity
1 1
Step-down Transformer 230/ 15 V
2 Diode (1N4001) 2
3 Capacitor 1000F 1
4 Resistor 1k 1
5 CRO 1
6 Patch chords As required
7 Bread board 1
Theory:
The process of converting the AC into DC is called rectification and it is obtained
through rectifier circuits, which use diodes as circuit element. For a half wave rectifier during
the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and it conducts and hence a current flow
through the load resistor. During the negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it is
equivalent to an open circuit. Hence the current through the load resistance is zero. Thus the
diode conducts for one half cycles and results in a half wave rectified output.
A Full wave rectifier is a circuit, which converts an AC voltage into a pulsating dc
voltage using both half cycles of the applied voltage. It uses two diodes of which one conducts
during one half cycle while the other conducts during the other half cycle of the applied ac
voltage. During the positive cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes forward biased and
D2 becomes reverse biased. Hence D1 conducts and D2 remains off. The load current flows
through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. During negative
half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes reverse biased and D2 becomes forward
biased. Hence D1 remains off and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2 and the
voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
To obtain a pure DC voltage at the output, filtering is done where the AC is removed
and the DC is obtained. For that capacitor is used as a filter. We can connect a high value
capacitor in shunt with the load. The capacitor offers a low impedance path to the ac
components of current. Most of the ac current passes through the shunt capacitor. All the dc
current passes through the load resistor. The capacitor tries to maintain the output voltage
constant at Vm.
The practical application of any rectifier (be it half wave or full wave) is to be used as a
component in building DC power supplies. In order to build an efficient & smooth DC power
supply, a full wave rectifier is always preferred. However, for applications in which a constant
DC voltage is not very essential, we can use power supplies with half wave rectifier.
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Determine the output voltage across the load resistance. ( V vs f)
3. Plot the observed characteristics of the rectifier.
4. Calculate Vdc, Vrms and ripple factor of rectifier without filter.
5. Connect the capacitor as shown the figure and note down the corresponding readings.
That will be the rectifier output with filter.

Circuit Diagram
Half wave rectifier Model Graph
Calculation (Without Filter)
Vm V V
Vrms  , Vdc  m , Ripple factor   ac
2  Vdc
For a sine wave which is having ac and dc component,
 Vac  Vdc
2 2 2
Vrms
Therefore Vac  Vrms  Vdc

2 2
2
V 
Therefore Practical value    rms   1
 Vdc 
CALCULATIONS:
Half wave rectifier output (with and without capacitor filter): GRAPH
Full wave rectifier Model Graph
Model graph:
Calculation: Without Filter
V rms= Vm /√ 2, Vdc = 2 Vm /π
Ripple factor γ = V ac / Vdc
2
V 
Practical value    rms   1
 Vdc 
CALCULATIONS:
Full wave (Centre tapped) rectifier output (with and without capacitor filter): GRAPH
Experiment No. 6
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
Aim:
To demonstrate the operation of BJT as a switch.
Components required:
Component name Description Quantity
BJT BC 107 01
Resistors 1kΩ ,10 k Ω 01 each
Variable DC Power supply-Dual (0-30)V 01
Channel
Voltmeter (0-10)V 01
Connecting wires and Bread board
Theory
The Bipolar Junction Transistor or simply BJT is a three layer, three terminals and two junction
semiconductor device. Almost in many of the applications these transistors are used for two
basic functions such as switching and amplification. The name bipolar indicates that two types
of charge carriers are involved in the working of a BJT. These two charge carriers are holes
and electrons where holes are positive charge carriers and electrons are negative charge
carriers.
The transistor has three regions, namely base, emitter and collector. The emitter is a heavily
doped terminal and emits electrons into the base. Base terminal is lightly doped and passes the
emitter-injected electrons on to the collector. The collector terminal is intermediately doped
and collects electrons from base. This collector is large as compared with other two regions so
it dissipates more heat.
BJTs are of two types NPN and PNP, both functioning is same but differ in terms of biasing
and power supply polarity. In PNP transistor, between two P- type materials N- type material
is sandwiched whereas in case of NPN transistor P- type material sandwiched between two N-
type materials. These two transistors can be configured into different types like common
emitter, common collector and common base configurations.
OPERATING MODES OF TRANSISTORS
Depends on the biasing conditions like forward or reverse, transistors have three major modes
of operation namely cut-off, active and saturation regions.
Active Mode
In this mode transistor is generally used as a current amplifier. In active mode, two junctions
are differently biased that means emitter-base junction is forward biased whereas collector-
base junction is reverse biased. In this mode current flows between emitter and collector and
amount of current flow is proportional to the base current.
Cut-off Mode
In this mode, both collector base junction and emitter base junction are reverse biased. This in
turn not allows the current to flow from collector to emitter when the base-emitter voltage is
low. In this mode device is completely switched off as the result the current flowing through
the device is zero.
Saturation Mode
In this mode of operation, both the emitter base and collector base junctions are forward biased.
Current flows freely from collector to emitter when the base-emitter voltage is high. In this
mode device is fully switched ON.
Transistor as a Switch
A transistor is used for switching operation for opening or closing of a circuit. This type solid
state switching offers significant reliability and lower cost as compared with conventional
relays.
Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a transistor switching operation is
performed. When a sufficient voltage (Vin > 0.7 V) is applied between the base and emitter,
collector to emitter voltage is approximately equal to 0. Therefore, the transistor acts as a short
circuit. The collector current Vcc/Rc flows through the transistor.
Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage is applied at the input, transistor operates in cutoff
region and acts as an open circuit. In this type of switching connection, load (here LED lamp)
is connected to the switching output with a reference point. Thus, when the transistor is
switched ON, current will flow from source to ground through the load.
Procedure:
1. Check the components before making connections.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Before switching on the power supply, keep the voltage knobs in minimum position.
4. Now switch on the power supply and keep VCC= 10V DC and increase VIN from 0 to 5V in steps
of 0.1V and note down VO readings using voltmeter and write the LED conditions.
Transistor Terminal Identification

Circuit diagram: Model graph:
Tabular Column:
Vin Vout LED(ON/OFF)

Transfer Characteristics: GRAPH
Experiment No. 7
INPUT OUTPUT CHARCTERSTICS OF BJT – CE MODE

Aim:
To study the input and output characteristics of BJT in common emitter mode.
Apparatus required:
Sl No Name of the Equipment Range Quantity
1 Power Supply 5 V ,10V One Each
2 Ammeter 0-100 mA, 0-500 μA 1Each
3 Voltmeter 0-10 V, 0-30V 1 Each1
4 BJT SL 100 1
5 Rheostat 1240 Ω 1
Theory:
A BJT or a bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal two junction semiconductor
device and the conduction here is due to both the charge carriers. Hence it is a bipolar device
and it amplifies the electrical impulses as they are transferred from the input to the output.
BJT is classified into two types based on the structure (npn &pnp). A npn
transistor consists of two n layers in between which p- layer is sandwiched. pnp transistor
consists of two p layers and one sandwiched n layer.
The transistor consists of three terminals – the Emitter, Base and Collector. The emitter layer
is the source of the charge carriers and it is heavily doped with the moderate cross- sectional
area. The collector collects the charge carriers emitted by the emitter region and hence has a
moderate doping and large cross sectional area. The base region is in between these and it acts
as a path for the movement of charge carriers and is lightly doped.
It is known as; the main application of a transistor is as an amplifier. An amplifier
requires two input terminals and two output terminals. The transistor being a three terminal
device makes it applicable as an amplifier by making one of the terminals common to both the
input and output. Depending on which terminal is made common the transistor is classified into
three configurations –common base, common collector, and common emitter.
In common emitter (CE) the input is given to the base and emitter and output is
observed between the collector and emitter. Here current gain Ai =Ic /Ib. Since Ic >> Ib the
current gain is high. Similarly, voltage gain AV = Vce / Vbe (VE=0). Since Ic >> Ib and Rc >> Re,
Av is also high. With a high current gain and voltage gain, the power gain also high. Due to
this the CE configuration is preferred.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram in common emitter configuration
2. Input characteristics
a. Keep voltage VCE as constant and vary voltage VBE by a rheostat and note the
corresponding base current IB for each value of VBE.
3. Output characteristics
a. Keep current IB as constant and vary voltage VCE by a rheostat and note the corresponding
collector current IC for each value of VCE.
4. Draw the characteristic waveforms.
5. Calculate input resistance R = Δ V/ Δ I from input characteristics and calculate dynamic
resistance R = Δ V/ Δ I from output characteristics
Circuit Diagram
Tabular column
Input Characteristics
Input Characteristics: GRAPH

Output Characteristics: GRAPH

Experiment No. 8
OP-AMP AS INVERTING AND NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Aim:
To design and test op-amp as
1. Inverting amplifier
2. Non – inverting amplifier
Components Required:
Sl no Components Required Specification QUANTITY
1 Op – Amp IC 741 1
2 Dual Power Supply -12V - 0V - +12V 1

3 Resistor 1 kΩ,10kΩ 1
4 Function / signal 1
Generator
5 CRO 1
6 Breadboard 1
7 Probes, single strand wires As required
Theory
The Operational Amplifier, or Op-amp as it is most commonly called, is an ideal amplifier with
infinite Gain and Bandwidth. When used in the Open-loop mode with typical DC gains of 100,000
or 100dB. The basic Op-amp construction is of a 3-terminal device, 2-inputs and 1-output,
(excluding power connections). An Operational Amplifier operates from a dual positive (+V) and a
corresponding negative (-V) DC supply voltage.
The two main laws associated with the operational amplifier are that it has an infinite input
impedance, (Z = ∞) resulting in “No current flowing into either of its two inputs” and zero input
offset voltage “V1 = V2”.
An operational amplifier also has zero output impedance, (Z = 0).
Op-amps sense the difference between the voltage signals applied to their two input terminals
and then multiply it by some pre-determined Gain, (A). This Gain, (A) is often referred to as the
amplifiers “Open-loop Gain”. Closing the open loop by connecting a resistive or reactive
component between the output and one input terminal of the op-amp greatly reduces and controls
this open-loop gain.
Closed – loop voltage gain, ACL
The closed-loop voltage gain is the voltage gain of an op-amp with external feedback. The
closed loop voltage gain is determined by the external component values and can be precisely
controlled by them.
Op-amps can be connected into two basic configurations, Inverting and Non-inverting.
IC 741 Operational Amplifier The IC 741 operational amplifier looks like a small chip. The
representation of 741 IC op-amp is given below that comprises of eight pins. The most significant
pins are 2,3 and 6, where pin2 and 3 denote inverting & non-inverting terminals and pin6 denotes
output voltage. The main function of this IC 741 is to do mathematical operations in various circuits.
IC 741 op amp is made from various stages of transistor which commonly have three stages like
differential i/p, a push-pull o/p and an intermediate gain stage. The differential op-amps comprises
of a set of FETs or BJTs.
Equivalent circuit of OPAMP
PIN Diagram IC 741
Inverting Amplifier
This is the most widely used Op-amp circuit. The output V0 is fed back to the inverting input
through the R2 – R1 network as shown in figure 1 where R2 is the feedback resistor. The input
signal Vin is applied to the inverting input terminal through R1 and non-inverting input terminal
of Op-amp is grounded.
To find the gain of the amplifier the following equation is used,
Vin  i1 R1  i f R2  V0  0
Applying KCL at the inverting input to the amplifier yields a relationship between i1and i f ,
i1 = i- + if where ‘i’ i.e. the current at the inverting input must be zero thus, i 1 = if. Hence the
above equation becomes,
Vin
Vin  i1 R1  i1 R2  V0  0 where i1 
R1
V0 R
AV   2
Vin R1
R  R2
The output is given by Vout  Vin ( 2 ) , where the gain of amplifier is . The negative
R1 R1
sign indicates a phase-shift of 180° between Vin and Vout.
Non Inverting Amplifier
The circuit diagram of non – inverting amplifier is shown in figure 2. Here, the signal is
applied to the non – inverting input terminal and feedback is given to inverting terminal. The
circuit amplifies the input signal without inverting it.
To find the gain of the Non-Inverting Amplifier the following equations are used.
The output is applied back to the inverting (-) input through the feedback circuit (closed loop)
formed by the input resistor R1 and the feedback resistor R2 . This creates + ve feedback as
follows. Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage-divider circuit, which reduces Vo and connects the
reduced voltage V2 to the inverting input. The feedback is expressed as
R1
V2  ( )V0
R1  R2
The difference of the input voltage, Vin and the feedback voltage, V2 is the differential input of
the op-amp. This differential voltage is amplified by the gain of the op-amp and produces an
output voltage expressed as
R
V0  (1  2 )Vin
R1
Procedure
1. Switch on the CRO and function generator. Display the signal on both the channels.
2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. Connect the input terminal of the op-amp to function generator and output terminal to
CRO.
4. Feed input from function generator and observe the output on CRO.
5. Draw the input and output waveforms.

R2
Inverting Amplifier: Av (voltagegain)   Input Waveform Output Waveform
R1
Figure. 1
Design
Assume the Gain to be 10, Consider Rin= 1 kΩ
R f  A * Rin  10 k
V0   A * Vin
If Vin is 0. 5 Vpp Vout = -5Vpp
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl. No Vin V0(Theoretical) V0(Practical) Frequency
Calculations:
GRAPH
R2
Inverting Amplifier: Av (voltagegain)   Input Waveform and Output Waveform
R1
R2
Non Inverting Amplifier: Av (voltageGain)  1 
R1
Input Waveform and Output Waveform
Figure 2
Design
Assume the gain to be 11, considering R1= 1kΩ then the value of R2=10kΩ
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl. Vin V0(Theoreti V0(Practic Frequency

No cal) al)
Calculations:
GRAPH
R2
Non Inverting Amplifier: Av (voltageGain)  1 
R1
Input Waveform and Output Waveform

Experiment No. 9
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

Aim
To design, construct and test the RC Phase Shift Oscillator
Apparatus Required:
Sl. Components Required Specification Quantity
No
1 Op-Amp IC 741 1
2 Resistors As per design
3 Capacitors As per design
4 Dual Power Supply -12V-0V-+12 V 1
5 Bread board
6 Function Generator
6 CRO
Theory
An oscillator is a circuit, which generates ac output signal without giving any input ac
signal. This circuit is usually applied for audio frequencies only. The basic requirement for an
oscillator is positive feedback. To start the oscillation with the constant amplitude, positive
feedback is not the only sufficient condition. Oscillator circuit must satisfy the following two
conditions known as Barkhausen conditions:
1. The first condition is that the magnitude of the loop gain (Aβ) = 1
A = Amplifier gain and β = Feedback gain.
2. The phase shift around the loop is zero or an integer multiple of 2π.
An oscillator consists of an amplifier and a feedback network.
1. 'Active device' i.e. Op Amp is used as an amplifier.
2. Passive components such as R-C or L-C combinations are used as feedback
network.
RC Phase Shift Oscillator
A Phase Shift Oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit which produces sine wave output.
It can either be designed by using transistor or by using an Op-amp as inverting amplifier.
Generally, these phase shift oscillators are used as audio oscillators. In RC phase shift
oscillator, 180-degree phase shift is generated by the RC network and another 180 degrees is
generated by the Op-amp, so the resulting wave is inverted by 360 degrees.
Other usages of phase shift oscillators are:
1. In audio oscillators
2. Sine Wave Inverter
3. Voice Synthesis
4. GPS units
5. Musical Instruments
A simple RC phase shift oscillator provides a minimum phase shift of 60°. Ideally, the phase
shift of the output wave of an RC circuit should be 90°, but in practical it is approx. 60 °, as
the capacitor is not ideal. The formula for calculating the phase angle of the RC network is
given below,
Xc
  tan 1 ( ) , if we cascade three RC networks, the phase shift will get 180° phase shift.
R
When op-amp is used as RC phase shift oscillator, it functions as an inverting amplifier.

Initially, the input wave has been into the RC network, due to which 180° of phase shift will
get. And, this output of RC is fed into the inverting terminal of the op-amp.
The op-amp will produce a 180° of phase shift when it functions as an inverting amplifier. So,
we get a 360° of phase shift in the output sine wave. This RC phase shift oscillator using op-
amp provides a constant frequency even under the varying load conditions. Here, the feedback
network is offering a phase shift of 180°. We are getting 60° degrees from each of the RC
network. And, the remaining 180° phase shift is generated by the op-amp in the inverting
configuration.
For calculating the frequency of oscillation use the below formula:
The disadvantage of RC phase shift oscillator using op-amp is that it can’t be used for high
frequency applications. Because whenever the frequency is too high the capacitor’s reactance
is very low and it act as a short circuit.
Design:
1 1
F if N is the number of RC stages. (here N = 3) F
2RC 2 N 2RC 6
Considering F = 1000Hz, Choosing C as 0.01 μF,
R value can be calculated as 6.9 kΩ
R1= 2.2 kΩ and Rf = 220kΩ
Procedure
1. Design the circuit for F= 1000Hz, calculate R, R1, and Rf
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure with the designed values.
3. Switch on the power supply and observe the waveform.
4. Note down the amplitude and time period.
5. Plot the waveforms on a graph sheet.
Tabular Column
Output
Amplitude Time Period Frequency
Output Waveform: GRAPH
Experiment No. 10
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR USING IC 555 TIMER

Aim
To design and test Astable Multivibrator using 555 Timer IC.
Apparatus Required
Sl. Components Required Specification Quantity
No
1 555 Timer IC 1
2 Resistors As per design
3 Capacitors As per design
4 Regulated Power Supply 0-15V 1
5 Bread board
6 CRO
Theory
555 is a very commonly used IC for generating accurate timing pulses. It is an 8pin timer
IC. The 555 has three operating modes:
• Monostable mode
• Astable – free running mode
• Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger
The input/output relationships for the various multivibrators are shown in Figure
Astable Multivibrator
The 555 oscillator is another type of relaxation oscillator for generating stabilized
square wave output waveforms of either a fixed frequency of up to 500 kHz or varying duty
cycles from 50 to 100%. It has no stable states and continuously switches between the two
states without application of any external trigger. The IC 555 can be made to work as an
astable multivibrator with the addition of three external components: two resistors (R1 and
R2) and a capacitor (C). The schematic of the IC 555 as an astable multivibrator along with
the three external components is shown below.
Pin diagram
 When the circuit is switched ON, the capacitor (C) voltage will be less than 1/3 Vcc.
So the output of the lower comparator will be HIGH and of the higher comparator
will be LOW. This SETs the output of the SR Flip-flop.
 Thus the discharging transistor will be OFF and the capacitor C starts charging from
Vcc through resistor Ra & Rb.
 When the capacitor voltage will become greater than 1/3 Vcc (less than 2/3 Vcc ),
the output of both comparators will be LOW and the output of SR Flip-flop will be
same as the previous condition. Thus the capacitor continuous to charge.
 When the capacitor voltage will become slightly greater than 2/3 Vcc the output of
the higher comparator will be HIGH and of lower comparator will be LOW. This
resets the SR Flip-flop.
 Thus the discharging transistor turns ON and the capacitor starts discharging through
resistor Rb.
 Soon the capacitor voltage will be less than 2/3 Vcc and output of both comparators
will be LOW. So the output of the SR Flip-flop will be the previous state.
 So the discharging of capacitor continuous.
 When the capacitor voltage will become less than 1/3 Vcc, the output SETs since the
output of lower comparator is HIGH and of higher comparator is LOW and the
capacitor starts charging again.
 This process continuous and a rectangular wave will be obtained at the output.
Procedure
1. Do the connections as per the circuit diagram

2. Switch on the power supply and observe the waveforms of voltage
across capacitor and output on the CRO
3. Measure Ton and Toff of the waveform

Circuit Diagram
Model Waveform:
Capacitor Charges
through Ra and Rb
 Ton = 0.693(Ra + Rb) C
Capacitor Discharges through Rb
 Toff = 0.693RbC
 Output Frequency = 1/(Toff + Ton) = 1.44/((Ra + 2Rb) * C)
 Duty Cycle = Ton/(Ton + Toff)
Where Ton and Toff are the time period of HIGH and LOW of the output of 555.
Ra and Rb should be in the range 1kΩ to 1MΩ. It is best to Choose C first (because
capacitors are available in just a few values) as per the frequency range.
Choose Rb to give the frequency (f) you require.
Rb = 0.7 / (f × C)
Choose Ra to be about a tenth of Rb (1k min.)
Selected Values Ra = 10 k Ω, Rb = 100 kΩ, C = 0.1µF, C1=0.01µF
Tabular Column
Input Output
Amplitude Time Period Amplitude Time Period
ON OFF Charging Discharging

Time Time Time Time
Calculations:
Output and Capacitor Voltage Waveform: GRAPH

VI CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR
Aim:
1. To determine the forward and reverse characteristic of thyristor
2. To determine the minimum gate current to trigger the thyristor and corresponding
gate cathode voltage
3. Measure the latching and holding current
Apparatus:
Component name Description Quantity
SCR BT 151 01
Resistor 470 Ω, 1kΩ 1 each
Power supply (0-300V, 2A) 1each
(0-30V, 0.5A)
Ammeter (0-2A, MC) 1each
(0-100mA, MC)
Voltmeter (0-300V)
Rheostat (250 Ω , 2A)
Theory:
Thyristor is a four-layer device with three terminals namely anode, cathode, and gate. When
the anode is made positive with respect to cathode the middle junction is reverse biased. The
thyristor is then in the forward blocking or OFF state and only the leakage current flow
through the device. When the anode made negative with respect to the cathode, the outer
junction is being reverse biased and thyristor is in the reverse blocking or OFF State and
small reverse leakage current flows through the device.
When the anode to cathode voltage is increase to a voltage VBF the thyristor switches
into conducting state. The voltage across it drops to a value of about 1V. The current through
it rises to a value determined by supply voltage and load impedance.
When the reverse voltage is gradually increased across the thyrister, a small reverse
current flows. When the reverse voltage is increased to VBR The device break down due to
avalanche action. The resulting power dissipation may damage the device.
The thyristor are triggered to ON state by applying the gate current. With the gate
current Ig >0, the device will switch in to conducting state at the voltage less than VBF. With
higher gate current, the device will switch into ON state at lower anode cathode voltages.
When the thyristor is forward biased, if sufficient gate current is supplied to it, the
device turns on. However, if triggering signal is removed before the anode current rises to a
value called the latching current the device will revert back to the forward blocking state.
When Anode current is greater than the latching current, if the drive is removed, the device
remains in the ON state. Once the device is latched in to the ON state, it will remain on even
if the anode current is reduced down to a value called holding current. If the current falls to
a value less than holding current with gate supply removed, the device will turn OFF.
Thyristor Terminal Identification
Procedure:
A: To plot the forward characteristics of SCR.
1. Connections are made as shown in figure.
2. Switch on the power supplies to the circuit keeping both dc power supplies
in minimum position.
3. Set the gate current to some value by adjusting V2.
4. Vary V1 slowly in steps at some value VAK decreased to 0.7V and IA
increased, ie SCR is turned ON.
5. Now increase V1 in steps. Note down the readings of VAK and IA.
6. Repeat the above steps for different values of IG.
7. Plot a graph of VAK vs IA.
B: To finding latching and holding current:
1. Set the gate current to some value and apply voltage across anode and
cathode so that the SCR turns ON.
2. Then reduce V1 so that anode current starts decreasing.
3. Remove gate pulse and observe whether anode current goes to zero.
4. If anode current is greater than the latching current of the device, the device stays
ON even after gate switch is opened.
5. Note the value of minimum anode current with which the thyristor latches to ON
state. That is the latching current.
6. Obtain more accurate value of the latching current by taking smaller steps of anode
current near the latching current value already obtained to get the exact value of
latching current.
7. After finding the latching current, set the anode current greater than latching current.
Open the gate switch. The thyristor must be ON.
8. Start reducing the anode current gradually by reducing voltage V1.
9. Observe when the device goes into blocking mode.
10. The anode current below which the device goes to the blocking mode is the holding
current.
11. Note down the latching current and holding current values in your observation book.

Circuit Diagram:
VI Characteristics of SCR
V2  V AK
RG 
I G (max)
V1  V AK
RL 
I RMS ( SCR)
IG1 = ------mA
Sl No V AK IA

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AMRITA VISHWA VIDYAPEETHAM

Amrita School of Engineering

23CSE083 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Amrita School of Engineering, Bengaluru – 560035

Certified that this is the bonafide record of practical work done by

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Practice laboratory, of this

institution, as prescribed by the Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham for the

FIRST Semester B. Tech during the year 2023-2024(odd Semester).

Staff In-Charge Chairperson

Registration Number: ……….…………………………

Submitted for the First Semester B. Tech Examination of the Amrita

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS (23CSE083)

Introduction and Study of Electrical protection systems

 To impart basic knowledge of electrical quantities and provide working

CO1: Create basic electrical connections for domestic applications.

Assessment and Evaluation:

Sl. No Evaluation Component Maximum Marks

6 weeks Task or Experiment 20

2 Periodical Lab Exam II Midterm lab Exam 20

3 End Semester Exam Final Lab Exam 40

Total Marks 100

Sl. Date TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT Marks Faculty

STUDY ON POWER SUPPLY AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES

Aim: To study the power supply and protective devices

Importance of protective devices

Selection of fuses/MCB in house hold appliances:

Sl.no Rating of appliances Rating of fuse MCB

Protection against electrocution

Electrocution is a passage of current through human body, which is dangerous.

Human sensitivity to electricity

500mA Immediate cardiac arrest resulting in death

The human body has known limits:

The HRC fuse has the following advantages:

1. It is very reliable and low temperature rise at rated load.

The drawbacks are:

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):

The major advantages of MCB’s are

 Instantaneous opening of the contact on short circuit faults

MCBs Current Voltage Short circuit Usage area

MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker):

Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)

Earthing is classified as:

System Earthing: It is the earthing of neutrals of generating stations and substations. It is

(b)STUDY ON TOOLS AND ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES

4 Side cutting pliers 15 &20cm Narrow places or Do not cut steel

11 Hand saw 30 & 45 cm Used for cutting Keep straight while

13 Wire gauge 0-35 gauge Used to measure the

Not use as screw

TOOLS USED IN THE ELECTRICAL WORK SHOP

Sl.no Types of switch Rating Usage of area

1 SPST 6A,10A,16A, 250V Residential and commercial

Sl.no Name Figure and Symbol Description

1 SPST switch A simple on-off switch. This

2 SPDT switch This switch can be on in both

3 Socket a) Two pin socket (connected

4 Plug Supply from socket outlet is fed

batten & angle holder

6 Ceiling rose Ceiling rose consist of two parts

7 Fuse A fuse is a safety device, to