Geology and Ground Water Conditions in The Nakuru Area
Geology and Ground Water Conditions in The Nakuru Area
Geology and Ground Water Conditions in The Nakuru Area
No. 33
GEOLOGY AND
GROUND WATER CONDITIONS
IN THE
NAKURU AREA
by
by
NAKURU AREA
By
Nairobi, H. J. SQUIRES,
2nd May, 1957. Chief Hydraulic Engineer.
' CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
II
HUMAN SETTLEMENT AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
III
GENERAL SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE RIFT VALLEY IN
THENAKURUAREA .. .. .. .. .. 3
IV GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS—VOLCANIC ROCKS .. 5
THE MENENGAI VOLCANO 12
VI THE EEURRU AND ELMENTEITA VOLCANIC SERIES 21
VII ' THE SEDIMENTS 24
VIII TECTONICS 28
IX HYDROLOGY 30
HISTORY AND RESULTS OF GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT 34
XI DESCRIPTION OF AQUIFERS . .. .. 35
XII GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS. . 37
XIII GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF PROSPECIING FOR WATER 40
XIV SODA DUST FROM LAKE NAKURU .. ‘ 41
XV THE NJORO RIVER 42
XVI THE POSSIBILITY OF UTILIZING STEAM AS A SOURCE OF POWER IN THE RIFT
VALLEY. . . . 43
APPENDIX—~ANALYSIS OF DRILLING RESULTS 45
NOTE.—Full details of all boreholes drilled In the area covered by this report appear at the
end of the Appendix.
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Fig. 1 .—Map and Serial Sections of a small fault block, 1% miles west of Kariandusi.
(After B. N. Temperley) 11
Fig. 2 .—Subsidence Calderas. The Mechanism of Formation. (After A. Holmes,
van Bemmelen and H. Williams.) . . .. .. . . 15
Fig. 3.—Menengai Crater View from the western rIm . . 17
Fig. 4.-——(a) Sketch Of Subsidence Structure on western side Of Caldera. 18
(b) Sketch showing the reversal of the normal outward slope of lava floWs
in a promontory projecting from the western wall of Menengai Caldera,
consequent on the foundering of the central part of the volcano 18
Fig. 5.——Sketch showing the renewed faulting Of basaltic tuffs Of “High” volcano. . 25
Fig. 6.—Sequence Of changes of the Rift Valley lakes. (After E Nilsson) . . . 26
Fig. 7.——AS above . . 27
Fig. 8.—ISOhyets Of average rainfall for the 10 year period 1943—1952 . . 31
Fig. 9.—Diagrammatic representation Of the hydrological cycle In the Rift Valley 33
Fig. 10.——Comparison of a confined aquifer producing artesian conditions and the
open system of aquifers typical of the floor Of the Rift Valley 38
Fig. 11 —Comparison of resistivity curves in boreholes drilled In the Nakuru Area 41
Plate l.—Mould of tree (completely vaporised) preserved In welded tufl‘ flow, Nakuru
Municipality Quarry, Ravine Road 12
MAPS
1. Geological map of Nakuru Area.
2. Map showing groundwater conditions in the Nakuru Area.
3. Geological Sketch Map of the Menengai Caldera.
4. Geological Sketch Map of the basaltic cones of Elmenteita.
SECTIONS
Geological Sections illustrating groundwater conditions in the Nakuru Area.
ABSTRACT
An area of approximately 1,200 square miles in the Rift Valley near Nakuru has
been studied in detail in order to gain more information aboutgroundwater conditions.
The geology of the area, so far but briefly referred to by J. W. Gregory, has been
described in some detail. The nature of the aquifers and the hydrostatic conditions
have been described, and the effect on groundwater conditions of the Menengai and
Elmenteita volcanoes, still active to a very minor degree, has been assessed. The failure
of boreholes in the Kampi-ya-Moto area is explained, and the presence of ground-
water ridges and perched water-tables under influent steams has been described.
The geology and groundwater conditions have been illustrated by maps and
sections. A hydrological cycle in the internal drainage system of the Rift Valley has
been suggested.
Detailed geological maps have been drawn of the Menengai and Elmenteita volcanic
centres, both the source of lava eruptions within the last few hundred years.
Geophysical methods of prediction have been discussed, and are considered to be
of little value in the prevailing geological conditions. Brief notes on the ground-
water conditions in the Lake Nakuru basin and their hearing on the soda dust problem,
and the possibilities of natural steam as a source of power in the Rift Valley are
included.
GEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS IN THE
NAKURU AREA
By G. J. H. McCall, PILD.
CHAPTER I—INTRODUCTION
This report covers the geology and the groundwater
conditions in an area of the
Rift Valley near Nakuru lying just south of the Equato
r and intersected by the
36° E. meridian.
The limits of the area are: the Man Escarpment to the west; the Eburru
Volcano
to the south; and the Kamasia Reserve to the north. The
eastern limit was taken
along the line of the Subukia—Bahati Forest Escarpment and
its southerly extension
in the Gilgil Escarpment. A part of the Njoro area has also
been included. For
convenience the area has been divided into six sub-sections:—
(1) Nakuru.
(2) Rongai.
(4) Kampi-ya-Moto—Lomolo.
(5) Elmenteita.
industries
Nakuru is the centre of this large farming area, having as yet few
tanning, wool
other than those related to the farming operations in the district (e.g.
centre, and the
treating, etc.). It is a flourishing and rapidly expanding commercial
administrative centre of the Rift Valley Province.
The main demand for water comes from the farming community. The rainfall
soil over
over the area is not heavy and is liable to fail over successive years. The
of the area is too porous to allow the storing of water in small surface
much
and in these
reservoirs. Certain parts of the area are well watered by surface streams,
such areas
localities there has been little recourse to groundwater resources. Amongst
and Rongai Rivers and the Bahati Plain. However, small
are the valleys of the M010
stream flows combined with stream losses have brought forward proposals for the
piping of water from these streams to the farms in order to increase the amount of
Stream and
water available for development. Schemes are in being from the Crater
A large scheme has recently been completed from the Rongai River,
the Njoro River.
above
the flow of which has been augmented by a tunnel driven a mile into the hills
pipe—line schemes are being constructe d on the Westacre, Vissoi
Elburgon. Further
and Olobanaita Rivers.
3
Unfortunately these schemes, although important, cannot relieve the water shortage
in such areas where deep boring has so far been a complete failure. One of the
objects of this report is to explore the possibility of extending the areas which can
be supplied from groundwater reserves; Of the 146 boreholes completed in this
area at the time the field work for this report was carried out, 118 were for the purpose
of farm development. Although the first rush of post-war development has passed, the
demand for the further development of groundwater resources will continue for many
years to come, especially in those areas where groundwater is the only practical source
of increased water supplies.
Twenty-eight boreholes have been drilled for purposes other than the development
of the farming industry. These include such purposes as municipal supply, Nakuru
industries (wool treatment, tanning, etc.), cooling water for electricity power supply,
saw-mills, residential plots and road constructions. The Nakuru municipal water
supply uses both river and borehole waters. The fluorine content of the ground-
water alone is considered to be too high for a public water supply. Very little close
drilling has been carried out except in the Mereroni area near the municipal boundary
of Nakuru. The boreholes in this locality have high yields and are used by the
Municipality of Nakuru. Although there is a danger of overpumping in this locality
it has not yet taken place.
Nakuru is situated at the intersection of the Kavirondo Rift Valley, a fault trough
extending westwards to the shores of Lake Victoria, with the Gregory Rift Valley. '
At this junction the Rift Valley is complicated by two factors. Firstly, a definite deflec-
tion in its course can be observed resulting in'more complex fault structures than are
normally seen in the straighter sections of its course. Secondly, as in the case of
the “Mbeya Angle” in Tanganyika and other intersections, the junction has been
the focus of intense vulcanism, evidenced by four major volcanoes—Loldiani, Kilombe,
Menengai and Eburru. Loldiani stands astride the junction of the two Rift Valleys,
while Menengai and Kilombe lie to the east,- rising from the floor of the main Rift
Valley. Eburru, a twin-peaked massif, is situated slightly to the south, forming a
barrier across the Rift Valley floor. Later eruptions have been on a smaller scale
and mainly confined to renewed activity in the earlier centres. However, a later group
of volcanoes developed along a zone of intense north—south faulting extending from
Lake Elmenteita over the eastern shoulder of Eburru to the west shore of Lake
Naivasha. Basaltic tutf and cinder cones have arisen, and basalt lava flows have been
poured out in successive eruptions extending to comparatively recent times.
The Tertiary history of the Rift Valley commenced with downwarping of narrow
troughs on the site of the present-day rift valleys. This downwarping interrupted the
drainage of that part of the African Shield, and a series of shallow lakes were formed;
4
the deposits formed in these lakes are the Miocene Lake Beds of Rusinga Island,
Tambach and Turkana, which rest upon a peneplained surface of ancient metamorphic
rocks. Among the earliest lavas to be poured out were the plateau lavas, phonolite
flows extending over vast areas of peneplained Basement Complex, and the first Tertiary
nephelinite volcanoes. These are the Laikipia and Uasin Gishu phonolites which directly
overlie the Basement Complex and Miocene Lake Beds, on the eastern (Elgeyo) escarp-
ment of the Rift Valley to the north of Nakuru.
The plateau phonolites have no visible source of origin, but their extent and
uniformity of composition leads to the conclusion that they were erupted from fissures
which opened during the earliest tensional phase of the rifting. Plateau phonolites
must cover great areas of the down-faulted peneplained surface of the ancient Basement
rocks in the Rift Valley, but in the Nakuru area no comparable types are seen and
it is presumed that they have been completely obscured by later effusions of lava
and pyroclastic deposits. Near Lake Hannington, however (to the north of Solai), the
Losuguta phonolites, which closely resemble the plateau phonolites, emerge in a great
north—west—facing scarp, a feature supporting this assumption.
,The eruptions from fissure sources appear to have continued for a considerable
geological period on the Rift floor after the first great fault displacements occurred.
The oldest volcanic rocks exposed on the valley floor in the Nakuru area are phono-
lites, basalts and phonolitic trachytes, extensive in outcrop and uniform in composition,
having no central sources visible at the present day. It is thought that movements,
along faults were closely associated with a welling out of lava from fissures along the
margins and across the floor of the Rift. These flows are strongly faulted and form
the clear-cut scarps and grid structures. It is, however, the opinion of the writer that
these are not among the earliest fault structures; a view that is borne out by the fact
that these faults do not exactly coincide in direction with the main marginal scarps
of the Mau, and the Bahati—Subukia Horst, an outlying spur of the eastern wall which
both from the tectonic viewpoint and from the nature of its component rocks is con-
sidered to be part of the eastern wall of the Rift Valley.
After the faulting had diminished in magnitude the great trachyte volcanoes arose.
These are not affected by major faults though slight subsidences along earlier lines of
weakness have occurred. Loldiani and Eburru have no well-preserved craters, and
their slopes are appreciably dissected by erosion. Kilombe is equally dissected, but
appears to possess a comparatively well-marked, though eroded, crater. Menengai
has dissected slopes, deep gullies cutting into the loose pyroclastic mantle. The present-
day appearance of Menengai difiers from the other three in that it is the only one of
the volcanoes that has been affected by cauldron subsidence. No detailed description
of these volcanoes (other than Menengai) is given in this report, being beyond the
scope of this survey.
The later central eruptions are characterized by tongue-like lava flows of restricted
extent, the source and the termination of these flows being easily determined when
mapping in the field. Renewed vulcanism has occurred in Menengai, extending up
to the last few hundred years, and this may also be true Of some of the other
volcanoes. Subsequent to the great volcanoes being built up eruptions were much
more limited in extent—and only the small volcanic cones of Elmenteita and Honey-
moon Hill arose. These do not exceed a mile in diameter, and many a smaller. The
largest, named High, stands about 500 feet above the surrounding country, but the
majority do not stand up more than two to three hundred feet. The outer slopes,
composed of compacted tufl‘, are not appreciably gullied, but the cones have been
affected by minor faulting. Present—day volcanic activity is limited to minor steam vents
in the volcanic zones of Menengai and Elmenteita.
5
I
The tectonic history and allied vulcanism comprises only part of the picture,
for, concurrently sedimentation took place. Since the time when the first Miocene
warp movements interrupted the drainage pattern of the African shield, the Rift
Valley has been an area of internal drainage. Successions of shallow lakes formed
only to be deformed by earth movements, broken up by faulting and dammed up by
lava flows. Into these ephemeral lakes volcanic detritus was carried by short and
intermittent streams flowing off the higher ground. Thus the volcanic rocks of the
Rift Valley are intercalated with sediments—volcanic grits, clays and reworked tuffs.
In the Pleistocene era a great lake extended over the Gilgil Escarpment from Menengai
to Lake Naivasha and since that time a series of separate lakes have occupied its
site, diminishing gradually to the present shallow lakes of Naivasha, Nakuru and
Elmenteita.
The continuation of earth movement in the Rift Valley up to the present day
is well demonstrated in Nilsson’s [5] work on the Pleistocene glaciations of East Africa.
Earthquakes and fissuring of the land surface have occurred during the last 30 years
and the Nakuru area must still be considered as a zone of crustal instability, though
of minor order compared with the world‘s great earthquake zones.
Reconnaissance of the Mau has revealed that the bulk, if not all, of the volcanic
rocks near the surface consist of a series of greenish-grey welded trachytic tufis,
together with yellow pumic tulfs, and sedimentary intercalations, reworked tuffs and
clay. On the Bahati Escarpment between Mbaruk and Gilgil similar welded trachytic
tulfs and yellow pumice tulf intercalations are the only formations exposed; while to
the north onbaruk and at Solai they overlie black porphyritic phonolites. To
the north of Milton’s Siding the welded tufis disappear altogther and extensive flows
of the porphyritic phonolites form the surfaCe of the fault blocks.
The phonolites underlying the Man and Bahati luff formation have been named
“Solai Phonolite”. They consist of a series of flows characterized by abundant ideo-
morphic nepheline phenocrysts easily identifiable in thin section, and often to the
naked eye. The phonolite exposed on the Subukia escarpment is black, massive and
characterized by prominent tabular felspar phenocrysts. Numerous major faults are
exposed along the escarpment and in the vicinity of these dislocations the phonolite
is either smashed or altered to a dove-grey to white closely jointed alteration product,
with the tabular felspar phenocrysts still preserved. .
The Solai succession has been barely outlined, and a fuller understanding will
only be obtained when the area between Subukia and the Sattima (Aberdare) massif
has been surveyed.
On the west side of Lake Nakuru and at Soysambu an old land surface separates
the basalt from the overlying phonolitic trachyte. In the first locality, a few feet of
brick-red material and a thin layer of buff-stratified volcanic sediments separates the
two lavas; at Soysambu the old land surface is less well marked. The two lava
formations appear to be almost entirely concordant, little erosion and no tectonic
disturbance having taken place between the extrusion of the basalt and the phonolitic
trachyte.
Evidence from borehole samples (C869) suggests that the Mbaruk Basalt is under-
lain by a porphyritic phonolite. A dark lava of such composition appears to underlie
the basalt about tWo miles north of Mbaruk. Exposures are, however, poor in this
locality, and owing to the situation of the outcrop on a major fault zone, it is not
possible to say definitely whether the relationships are normal. At the Nakuru Lake
Syndicate quarry a cliff of massive black lava is being worked for road storre; this
lava apparently underlies the Mbaruk Basalt. It has the appearance of a phonolite,
but the texture is too fine for its composition to be determined without analysis.
The phonolitic trachytes are extensively developed on the west side of Lake
Nakuru and on the east side (Sirkon). In both localities there appear to be several
flows piled on top of one another. At Soysambu and to the north of Mbaruk there
is only one flow of trachytic lava overlying the Mbaruk Basalt; in many localities
its thickness does not exceed to 30 feet. Near Mbaruk Station the phonolitic trachyte
is absent altogether.
To the east of Lake Elmenteita the phonolitic trachyte has a much greater
development, and the fault scarps of the Gilgil series are composed of a single flow
locally more than 200 feet thick. The origin of these flows is not known. They do
not appear to emanate from any central volcano that can be recognized at the present
day. Their extent and uniformity over a wide area, particularly striking in the case
of the Mbaruk Basalt which has been identified over an area of about 130 square
miles suggests that eruption from fissures by a process of quiet welling out during
‘The Nakuru Phonolitic Trachyte was given this name on account of the frequent discovery
of nepheline in sections from the western half of the area. At the time of revision (March, 1957)
examination of the lavas of this group from near Gilgil showed them to be mainly quartz trachyte
(verbal communication, B. N. Temperley). Comendites have also been collected from the fault
blocks near Elmenteita. The conclusion is inescapable that there is a wide composition range,
possibly even within single flows and the name Nakuru Trachyte Group is suggested as a preferable
alternative.
10
a period of tension is the most likely mode of origin. This is supported by the fact
that there are no pyroclastics other than insignificant wisps of welded tutf associated
with these lavas.
The relationship of these lavas to the tufls which are exposed on the Mau and
Bahati Escarpments was not easily determined. From a careful examination of the
.Bahati Escarpment between the Nakuru to Thomson’s Falls road—Mbaruk—Kariandusi
and Gilgil the following facts were discovered during the original geological survey
in 1952—53 :—
(i) On the escarpment north of Mbaruk there is a marked structural discordance
between the tutfs forming the upper part of the escarpment and the Mbaruk
Basalt which outcrops in a steep fault scarp along the foot. The tufls form
a comparatively gentle, strongly dissected slope, and outcrop in a series of
fault blocks tilted strongly towards the south. The Mbaruk Basalt forms a
continuous scarp between Mbaruk and the Nakuru—Thomson’s Falls road,
apparently unafiected by the tilting seen in the tuif above it and to the
east.
(ii) No exposures of Mbaruk Basalt or Nakuru Phonolitic Trachyte are seen
to the east on the high ground of Bahati; nor are they seen in the high
ground of the Mau. '
(iii) The Bahati Tutf and the Nakuru Phonolitic Trachyte are seen in contact a mile
west of Kariandusi diatomite quarry. They are separated by an unconformity.
The margin of the tuffs of the Bahati Escarpment makes a continuous line
running south from 'the Nakuru—Thomson’s rFalls road to Gilgil. It 'is
repeatedly offset by north—south fault dislocations.
(iv) An outcrop of phonolite, similar in appearance and texture to the Solai Phone:
lite, emerges from beneath the yellow pumice tufis and welded tuffs that
form the hill called Ngorika, three miles north of Mbaruk. This phonolite
separates the yellow pumice tuif from the Mbaruk Basalt. Further south the
two formations are in contact, and to the north phonolitic trachyte is inter-
posed between the tufis forming the upper part of the escarpment and the
Mbaruk Basalt.
The only satisfactory explanation for these very confused relationships is that
the Bahati scarp of the Rift Valley was already formed when the Mbaruk Basalt
was extruded. The tuff formations and Solai Phonolite exposed in the fault scarps were
derived from much earlier eruptions. These fault scarps were strongly eroded, and
all trace of the original boundary faults of the Rift Valley has been obscured, but
the rounded escarpments of the Man and Bahati remain, representing the original
marginal scarps of the Rift Valley.
The Mbaruk Basalt and the Nakuru Phonolitic Trachyte are envisaged as having
been erupted from fissures during a subsequent renewal of tension. They were
restricted in extent to the floor of the earlier valley which they covered in flat sheets
of lava. Subsequently large-scale faulting disrupted these flat sheets into fault blocks,
at the same time forming the secondary steep set of fault scarps at the foot of
the Bahati Escarpment, north of Mbaruk and at the foot of the Mau on the west side
of Lake Nakuru.
fault scarp some hundred ur so yards from the line of the fault and later trachyte
had flowed over it and up against the eroded scarp. The actual unconformable contact
can be seen in the fault block one and a half miles west of Kariandusi diatomite quarry
(see Fig. 1 drawn by Dr. Temperley) and possible on the Gilgil Escarpment, where
it is nearly vertical and might be a fault contact, though there is no evidence in the
topography of any displacement.
ELMENTEITA
0 Va
Mile a“— '4 ‘X l Hill
Szallx— I:50000 (Approx)
se'cnou o- D'
LEGEND
F
SI3 Talus mm "can! sure / Foam «finite
F/
m Gelatin Lit! Mde ’4 I Falls lulu"!
A . , . .
Kantian Lake id! A/ A-A 9-3 C-C I 0-!) sullen lines
Fig. 1.—Map and serial sections of a small fault block 1} miles west of Kariandusi.
(After B. N. Temperley.)
13
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Bus-11h at the foot of the 81111311 itarp 111111 the 1:123:19 .iopc 01 1116 m1 cc of 1116 01d:
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01dc't‘ 011111n 141.111 line stump. There is no 1101111 1 that 11111111: to recognize 2171.
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111 the 171151 :0 considcmble (301111131011 1n cor: 1.11103 of the volcanic rocks.
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To [111: $11111: 1011711111 111.1 81.115111: .11‘8 cxpt‘xct‘l mo" 11 “ids .xi'C‘LL.
puxxint UNUCF me 11' ‘1c recent \0'1.‘.1111.\ 01 .1 ‘ 1~ 1111 Added {ruchytic {.111
merlying mew 1.1\':1< md 11 >cc111~ .1NQ1_\ 111111 11:11 - ' ‘ .1..1 «11111511411 the amic
l9
flows are glassy in part, composed of obsidian, and show a crude, ropy texture.
BOuldery flows with cliff—like, block-strewn edges rising 100 feet above the surface
over which they have moved, are widespread. The eruption of lava in a partially
solidified state with a very high gaseous content is the accepted mode of origin of
such lava flows.
The relative age of the flows within the caldera can be judged from the degree
of vegetation cover. The earlier flows are covered by a wellLestablished grass and bush
vegetation, from which the pressure ridges stand out as bare crests. The more recent
flows have little or no grass cover, the vegetation being restricted to small bushes
established in crevices. One flow is completely devoid of cover by vegetation and,
from the fresh state of‘ the surface, it seems that the last eruptions of. lava took
place within the last century. The fissuring of the lava surfaces is so pronounced
that walking across them is laborious in the extreme. The writer has taken an hour
to traverse a quarter of a mile. The whole surface is thrown up into a remarkable
pattern of pressure ridges similar to those found on glaciers. Seen in air photographs
these clearly reveal the direction of flow. Near the eruptive centres from which the '
flows qioriginated this flow orientation is often lost. One such centre consists of a
broken field of lava, transected by open fissures more than 100 feet deep. These
fissures are mostly oriented north—south which may indicate a relation between the
Menengai eruption and the older dislocations of the Rift Valley. Some of the last
flows to be erupted emanate in or near definite small cinder cones within the caldera,
but eruption appears mainly to have taken place from fissures and small sinks in
the surface of the flows rather than from distinct craters.
Lavas of the secondary eruptions are not entirely restricted to the caldera. In two
localities eruptions from fissure zones have spilled out trachyte flows on to the outer
slopes. A flow on the southern slope, north-west of Nakuru is spectacular, a tongue
of ropy lava with a block-strewn surface having spilled down the steep slope, terminat-
ing in a. low boulder clifi. This clitf, situated on the north side of the Nakuru-Eldama
Ravine road, has been extensively quarried, and the nature of the flow is seen in
section. The main body of the flow consists of massive black trachyte lava, traversed
by numerous shrinkage cracks. The upper surface is ropy and scoriacious, having
a glassy texture, and on this surface a jumble of loose blocks has been carried along
with the flow and spilled down the lateral and terminal cliffs. From the nature of
the vegetation cover it is deduced that this flow, and a similar flow that has escaped
on to the north slope, of equivalent age to the earlier caldera flows. This flow has
originated in a north-south zone of instability. At the crater rim the older lavas form-
ing the wall Can be seen to have subsided in a narrow zone; the subsidence has pro-
duced extensive north-trending fissures, and close inspection of the wall reveals small
feeders of recent trachyte penetrating the older lava of the wall. On the surface of
the flow there is a line of small, perfectly formed craters, oriented on a north—south
line of weakness. In one of these, a cone-like body of recent lava can be seen, penetrat-
ing the older streaky trachyte exposed in the wall. The walls of these craters are
vertical and they are attributed to abrupt subsidences, forming orifices through
which lava has risen to feed the overlying flow.
Some cinder conelets occur within the caldera surrounded by the recent flows of
lavas. They‘ are in the form of conical heaps of scoriae, up to a few hundred yards in
diameter. The grass-covered mound that forms the secondary summit (6,858 feet)
has no central depression but the crude cone to the east, from which a large lava
flow emanates, has a well-marked central hollow
30 years, has observed a definite variation in activity according to the hour of the
day. A similar hourly variation is seen in the activity of numerous fissures blowing
cold air in the neighbourhood. It seems probable that changes in atmospheric pressure
are responsible for this regularity of behaviour. '
These steam vents have built up mounds of a light-red siliceous tufa. In one
case the tufa mound has the form of a conelet. The largest of these tufa mounds
forms an elongated ridge several hundred yards long, with numerous fumaroles situated
in the tufa along the crest of the ridge, but there is no central depression. The
actual vents are often encrusted with a yellow deposit, probably sulphur, but there
is no evidence of sulphur deposits of any magnitude. Boreholes two miles north of
the caldera have encountered steam under low pressure at 200 feet.
The Eburru volcano is later than the grid faulting, but the first group is affected
by substantial posthumous fault dislocatiOns, whilst the second group is only afiected.
by minor fissuring. The first group of lavas show a striking similarity to the earliest
porphyritic trachyte lavas of Menengai. ‘
(iii)A recent-basalt cone, a mile north of Eburru Station, similar to the other
cinder cones but the almost perfectly preserved form suggests that it is the
-most recent volcano of any size in the vicinity. This is borne out by the
fact that it is situated on the edge of a zone of thermal activity.
Very recent flows of grey or black basalt with poorly established vegeta-
tion eover'; glassy in texture and characterized by elongated vesicles,
porphyritic in part. '
Flows of glassy black basalt with prominent ideomorphic felspar pheno-
Icrysts, in dike-like bodies, filling irregularly orientated fissures in the crater
of the volcano named “High”.
The problem of the time relation between these cones and Menengai is not
easily solved. However, the Eburru volcano is definitely older than the Elmenteita
craters, and since porphyritic trachytes, identical with those of the first Menengai
eruption, outcrop on the slopes ‘bf Eburru. it is concluded that the first Menengai
eruptions may poss1bly have preceded the first Elmenteita basalt eruptions. '
The connexion between the unfaulted vesicular basalt flows. and individual
volcanoes is obscure, but it is clear from the map that there is an areal relation-
ship. Thus it seems likely that the earliest group of unfaulted flows emanated from
these craters A vast tract on the south and west sides of Lake Elmenteita has been
overridden by these flows. They cover the earlier deposits of the Nakuru—Elmenteita
basin but have to some extent been subsequently covered by a thin and discontinuous
mantle of lake deposits at a recent date when the lake waters covered a larger, area.
The Basalt Scoria Volcano near Eburru Station and A tsociated Vesicular Flaws
This 15 a perfect cone, undisturbed by faulting, having cinder-covered slopes much
steeper and more regular than any of the other basalt cinder cones. It has a deep
crater some 200 yards in diameter. Red cindery basalt is exposed on the crater wall.
There is a smaller parasitic vent immediately to the north of the volcano suggesting
an even more recent eruption on the fissure line after the main vent had been plugged.
The most recently erupted basalt lavas differ from the earlier flows in the
presence of very characteristic elongated vesicles and a glassy texture. In colour they
are generally lighter than the earlier erupted vesicular baSalt of recent age. From the.
slope of the surface of this latest flow, the source would appear to be the Eburru
Station Volcano. Another separate flow of this lava flows down to the south from a
small cone of red cindery basalt. These flows are covered only by a coarse Euphorbia
scrub and, from the degree to which vegetation hasestablished itself, would appear
to be of similar age to the earlier secondary eruptions of the'Menengai centre.
Kanjeran Sediments ,
The conclusion has been reached that there were two major faulting episodes
in the Rift Valley. The second of these disrupted the extensive basalt and phonolitic
trachyte lava flows covering the Valley floor, forming a series of horst and graben
structures. It is upon this serried surface that the earliest Pleistocene lake sediments
were deposited. These sediments, the Kanjeran Lake Beds, are exposed at Kariandusi,
on ”Cole’s Farm further north, and at Soysambu (according to Solomon, Leakey and
Nilsson). Solomon identified tufis on Cole’s Farm as Lower Kamasian;* a point of
great significance, since these reworked tuffs appear to be continuous with the coarse,
crudely stratified basaltic tufts that built High volcano and the other yellow tul’f
cones of Elmenteita. (The distinction .between tuffs and lake beds in this locality is quite
arbitrary.) The tuff‘cones of Elmenteita are thus thought to be of Kanjeran age.
The Kanjeran Sediments of Kariandusi, and the tutfs of these cones are affected
by minor faults; posthumous dislocations on the earlier lines of weakness. The fact
that Kanjerandiatomitic lake beds are displaced by a fault of more than 100 feet
throw at Kariandusi has been taken by Solomon and Leakey to indicate that the
Gilgil fault scarps are among the latest in the Rift Valley. However, a study of High
volcano on Cole’s Farm south of Kariandusi reveals a major fault’scarp of trachytic
*At the time of the revision of this report in 1957, before publication, the sediments here
referred‘to as Kamasian had been ascribed to the Kanjeran stage by Leakey . . ., i.e. Upper Middle
Pleistocene, slightly later than the Kamasian. They are referred to as Kanjeran in‘the subsequent
text.
25
lava over 200 feet high, obscured by the tufts of this volcano whichhaVe banked
up over the fault scarp. These tufis have been faulted, owing to a major posthumous
movement along the same lines, but they are not displaced more than 30 feet. The
downthrow of 100 feet at Kariandusi is extreme for one of these minor posthumous
faults, but it must be noted that the Elmenteita Zone has been the site of repeated
vulcanism over a considerable period during the Pleistocene and it is logical to
expect late subsidence movements to be at their greatest development in this zone.
Shackleton (1955) in a paper published after the production of the original limited
edition of this report states that the throw of “fifty metres” on the fault displacing
the diatomitic sediments at Kariandusi is much less than the displacements atfecting
the trachyte flows which form the lines of lava ridges, and he concludes (like the
writer) that the diatomite was deposited on a surface of faulted lava, and was later
subjected to minor faulting.
FAULT soup ABOUT 30 F7? may
AFcr/NG rurrs or 'man’
VOLCANO (emu/u or mun/m;
0N rm: EARL/£2 LINE OF WEAKNESS)
/ — may]: LAVA:
~;:~Ti-
ozmz FAULT SCARP zooiaoo' may 39 V
AFFECTING TRACIIYTE LAVA.
Fig. 5.—Sketch showing the renewed faulting of basaltic tufi's of “High” volcano—a
posthumous adjustment on an older major fault zone.
The Gamblian and Makalian lake beds have been differentiated by Nilsson into
seven distinct‘lakes,-from correlation of shoreline terraces. The first Gamblian lake
extended over the shoulder of the Gilgil Escarpment, the Naivasha and Nak‘uru basins
being joined in one great‘lake. *’ a ' '
This ‘Gamblian lake left a shoreline terrace on the Elmenteita tutf cones and on
the slopes ,of Menengai. The early phase of eruptionfrom Menengai must certainly
be pre-Gamblian and possibly pre-Kamasian. Mr. Lepersonne of the Belgian Congo
recently‘visited Menengai and considered that the state of erosion of the ‘inner cliffs
indicated an alihost historic age. Such a dating is, hOWever, in conflict with all the
other available evidence. ‘ '
26
Subsequently a succession of lakes were formed in the wetter periods, the trend
‘
being towards less and less extensive lakes until the very restricted lakes of the-present
dayzwere left. (See Figs. 6 and'7.) ' ‘ ‘
36f: ‘ ' ' to” \ ~20‘~
5nAKunu
, me
so’
d u.)-
. (mm
40 LMEuTUTA
MIX. DEVELOPMENT
U? LIKE e. 75,000 LC.
sol . 1“/,
‘9
[if c
4?
IO
tan;
VNAIVASH
Hull 0 l ‘2 5 A 5 I0 ljllis
Fig. 6.—Sequence of changes of the Rift Valley lakes. (After E. Nilsson.)' '
27
4 m, 000 5. C
6 Heist/W DA Y
The Makalian lake beds are overlain by a deposit of consolidated grey tut’f known
locally as building stone. This tuft extends as far as Njoro, Elburgon and Rongai,
and is concentrated in the present—day valleys having apparently been washed in by
rain after the existing drainage pattern has been initiated. This tut’t closely resembles
the glassy tut‘fs that form scattered outcrops on the east side of Menengai. They are
the uppermost consolidated volcanic rocks, on the slopes of Menengai, and have
been taken to represent the products of the explosive eruptions "coincident with the
first stages in the formation of the caldera. They are never seen within the caldera.
lf this assumption is correct the formation of the caldera occurred after the Makalian
subdivision of the Pleistocene not more than l0,000 years ago, and the process
was completed considerably later, though how much later cannot be estimated.
The Makalian ash deposits are affected by minor faults posthumous on the earlier
lines of weakness. These may well be part of the same system of subsidences which
formed the caldera.
The glassy tufts east of Menengai (correlated with the Makalian ash) are overlain
by the extensive unconsolidated pumice deposits. These form a mantle over the
western slopes of Menengai, and are banked up against the Mau, Kilombe Hill and
Eburru. The recent shoreline terrace 145 feet above Lake Nakuru dated as Nakuran
is composed of coarse pumice clearly derived from these pyroclastic deposits.
The deposits of the present-day lakes are mainly composed of fine clay, silt
and volcanic sand.
28 __‘ ‘
CHAPTER VIII—TECTONICS
It must be accepted that the Rift Valley is essentially a tectonic structure. The
imprint of such a regular pattern of linear troughs by erosional processes on the
centre of theAfrican continent is inconceivable. In the Nakuru area the following
tectonic episodes can be recognized:—
(i) Major faulting, originating the Rift Valley. Fault zones of enormous dis-
placement along the line of the Man Escarpment and the Bahati—Subukia
Escarpment. The actual faults are mostly obscured by later eruptives and
the faults are now represented by fault line scarps. (Miocene?)
(ii) Major faulting further breaking up the scarps formed during the original
faulting episode; disrupting the lavas covering the valley floor into a compli-
cated series of horsts and grabens. Renewed movement on older bounding
faults. (Pliocene or earliest Pleistocene?)
(iii) Minor renewals of faulting along the earlier lines of weakness. (Pleistocene?)
(iv) Fissuring and very minor adjustments accompanied by earth tremors continuing
at the present day. (Recent)
The evidence for the two major faulting episodes has largely been dealt with in
the discussion of the relationships of the various volcanic formations. The earlier
faults are not exposed, and the majority of the major faults seen in the area are
attributed to the second episode of faulting. There is a slight variation in trend of the
faults of the second series. The Mau Escarpment shows a west-north-west—east-south—
east deviation between M010 and Njoro—while the Bahati-Subukia Escarpment trends
north-west to south-east. This latter escarpment is cut up into a series ’of north—south
troughs by later faulting. This is particularly well seen between Mbaruk, Kariandusi
and Gilgil where the older fault scarp is repeatedly offset by north—south faults, bring-
ingrthe lavas of the Rift Valley floor into contact with the older tuffs of the escarpment.
Posthumous faults affect the glassy tuffs of Menengai near the Crater Stream and
west of Mbaruk. The Makalian ash east of Njoro is also similarly disturbed. The
Kanjeran lake beds and the tulf cones of Elmenteita are displaced by faults of similar
magnitude. Some of these later fault movements apparently coincided with the large-
scale subsidence of Menengai within the last 10,000 years.
' ‘The concentric pattern of faults and monoclines to the north of Menengai is
believed to have been imprinted on the older north—south fault pattern concurrently
with the caldera formation. The trough faults that cut across the median line of
the Elmenteita tuff cones (Kanjeran?) are thought to be earlier structures due to
subsidence immediately after the explosive eruptions ceased in these volcanoes.
Flssures and very minor faults cut recent pyroclastics exposed in a railway cutting
at Mereroni (Lanet). Further evidence of recent movement is seen in the form of
surface fissures most. frequently found in the centre of - fault. troughs. 0n Milton’s
’farm at Solai these are most strongly developed. On this farm there are some small
vertical fault planes exposed, the soft SOlai tuff showing no degradation by erosion.
A zone of recent fissuring croSses the Njoro River east of Glanjoro Farm. Earth-
quakes are not unknown in the Naku’ru area and tremors are frequent in the Solai
Valley. Though earth movements are' at present of a very small order, it is evident
that Nakuru is situated in a zone of crustal'instability and there‘is a possibility of
the recurrence of catastrophic earthquakes.
mux< :mzvzz an... E
440.0040uw Lo 2.0.2.54. m}... Ouknmwwan, .
0:5?“
.okruinuaau s.
(qua: o: u a)
Lilli
BNIL'InVi
1006”?
The apparent relation of the Rift Valley system to previous tectonic structures.
has been discussed by Shackleton [3] and McConnell, [4]. Considering the Tertiary
structures, for which many theories have been advanced, the only type of dislocation
s
exposed on the surface in the Rift Valley are steep normal faults. The actual
fault
planes are not very frequently exposed, but where théy are there can be no doubt
as
to their nature. The fractures are open and usually filled with rubble. The
whole
pattern of the'faulting suggests simple gravity collapse. It is suggested
that the
most recent minor faults may be caused by subsidence of the crust
subsequent to
extrusion of great volumes of lava and tuff.
Conclusion ~ -
It is the conclusion of the writer that the whole complex structure
of horst and
graben, grids, etc., is superimposed upon an older fault trough.
The cause of the
formation of the original fault trough and the nature of the faults
is obscure, but
there is no evidence of compressional structures and the probabil
ity is that they are
normal tension faults. The second (grid faulting) episode was apparentl
y caused by a
renewal ‘of tension: the several minor recurrences in more recent time are attributed
to gravity adjustments, consequent on volcanic eruption.
CHAPTER IX—HYDROLOGY
Rainfall
Typical annual rainfall figures for the Nakuru area are given below.
It is seen
that the rainfall on the forested high ground of the Man and Bahati
rises to 50
inches and more, while on the floor of the Rift Valley average readings vary
between
25 and 35 inches per annum. -
y The rainfall is mainly inkthe form of heavy thunderstorms in the wet months,
March [April and ”July/August. ‘
Fig. 8 shows the Isohyetsfor the Nakuru drainage basin.
/
,
/
oo-ss/z; / ‘
35' — ’ ’
-
sass/Io: ‘ /
o , ,
’ 1
/
3%.“; \
“\J o.
/ . / N/ \y
{fig-337531;
/\
‘ 5
/" s/ue S
\ \\.
ease/as
seas/297
\d/
\
SO'SCé 25
>/
\
’0'35 92
3055/": 0-.35/41
, A
33
. fi
\ \. w
'O~56/l47
\o
E HA l "1' mu
\45 6165 \
09E
I 59 as~ as
3‘
mu: 4 5 v 0 5 IO mus
I
‘
9.-
\ ° kg. 9' sows/72
\ J
x
» 7 7
’J
I
/ \ so-ae/Izo
/“‘\/ \ 0!
//\/ \3
:0»: 20’35'
{59532.1 53' /s‘u I:
// r"\
\
\
x
\ sou/:07
o.\ ‘ ‘
/ 90.16/50 \\ V
‘ V
/ h\W ‘
.
W ‘
3:
“
.
O~5‘/l47 <
\o
£LM£u1n\u
\43 92345 \
903m.
\ . \ \/
31 33 3' 29 17 n 15
Mill! 4 3 l O 5 IO Mlllfi
TABLE [V
A.-—MAU—-
Molo (Railway Station) . . . . . . . . 46 years 50-43
Elburgon (Mariashoni) . . . . . . . . 2 ,, 48-63
Elmenteita (Mau Narok) . . . . . . . . 27 ,, 41 ~51
Njoro (Plant Breeding Station) . . . . . . 23 ,, 36-24
B.—BAHATI—
Nakuru (Bahati Forest) .. .. .. .. 20 ,, 48-11
CZ—RIFT VALLEY FLOOR—
Rongai (Gogar). . ' . , . . . . 21 ,, 34-38
Kampi-ya-Moto (Rongai Bdg') . . . . . . 38 ,, 34-95
Solai (Rhodora) . . . . . . . l4 ,, 1 37-09
Solai (01 Punyata) .. .. . . . . . . 34 ,, 40-45
Nakuru (Met. Station) .. . . . . . . 34 ,, 34-59
Elmenteita (Soysambu) .. . . . . . . 15 ,, 26-37
_ Owing to the extremely variable nature of the geological formations, and the
lack of data, no more detailed account of the hydrological conditions can be attempted
at the time of writing.
Drilling in the Kampi-ya—Moto area has always been attended by total failure,
and
though success has been achieved further north in the Kamasia Reserve (C711)
at Lomolo. The reasons for this failure are considered in another section of 'this report
that
No great hope of success in this area can be entertained. It is just possible
water might be obtained in some parts by drilling to nearly 1,000 feet, but the hydro-
static level is so deep that pumping would be both difficult and expensive.
In Elmenteita drilling has been virtually 100 per cent successful. The thick series
of Pleistocene lake beds provide excellent aquifers. As would be expected, however,
many of the boreholes near the lake yield water of a highly mineralized character.
from the surface is manifest. In this case the fault planes and fissures immediately
adjacent to the fault zone are infilled with clay and yield no water at all. This condi-
tion may account for a few surprising failures of boreholes immediately on fault
planes, of which C.1001 on Ronda Sisal Estate is an example.
Lacustrine Sediments of More Recent Age than the Main Faulting
There are many boreholes in the Elmenteita and Nakuru areas obtaining very
abundant supplies from these recent lake beds, which‘ have been the subject of exten-
sive investigations beeakey and Nilsson. The conditions of occurrence are exactly
similar to the earlier sedimentary formations. The thick sedimentary formations
of the Rongai area are apparently lake beds of comparatively recent age, since they
contain intercalations of diatomite. The Rongai plain was probably a lake basin;
the lake beds are now completely obscured by a mantle of pyroclastics, black ash
and pumice from Menengai.
_fl0fl’-EEEA‘&'4_
ill...“
ABT£5IAN
l coma/710”: LIA
/D!I IVfl/C/I
[Effildfl SUPPLY
F 51/61/755
(FAULT WIT/I [1555750 ””05” 14"! NAM/Ia.
lMPfl wot/5
cur H: l)
MY 14x5
SMALL ARTESIAN R/JE
DUE TO IM‘EMEAME Cl
CQVER. -
. w..-
conditions are confined to these localities and are unknown elsewhere in the area.
It is clear that such conditions are confined to the vicinity of very recent volcanoes
and not widespread throughout the Rift Valley as suggested by Sikes. The Menengai
caldera, being a relatively early structure, does not define the limits of present-day
steam conditions, and steam conditions are only to be expected near to the recent
secondary centres of eruption of this volcano.
The present study has revealed that the water bodies are of very limited thick-
ness, conditions of general staturation over considerable thicknesses of rock being
unknown in the area. Such water bodies are likely to give a negligible direct reflection
on a resistivity curve, and might very easily give no reflection at all. A relationship
between yields and the average resistivity values is clearly not to be expected under
such conditions, or, in fact, under any conditions. The presence of a series of aquifers
in hydrostatic connexion throughout the greater part of the area has now been
revealed. Failures of boreholes are almost entirely due to a great disparity between
the ground level and the piezometric surface.
It has never been claimed by geophysicists that resistivity methods are applicable
to such complex structures and discontinuous formations as are seen in the Rift Valley.
It must be concluded that the use of resistivity methods in this area will never yield
information of any value.
4]
V 9":
,
’6' A“
ENr/IELYLAKE JED/Miflri‘im; . ' . ’ .' .
,4
‘/
man [out ‘
5;
Nagy—t-..“
3—2
200;! 2w}!
:3 xi?
\g/M’o‘
rt \ i __ _. 3001'! : l 3001'!
tum fr.- If
2365‘1 / _ a a 4mm . man i
E . :‘
”WY
a” l
| _-_._.
\ '7
IOOFZDIK
\ ll
gen-i / : mm
K -0I/M‘C
canny, . 19.1: ”2? :5 ””535 4a a 57
1‘5 W.
5. It
{’3 y "/
z: /. Q \l"
é“ '1'! Ri
U
A
.
//
l ‘Ufirl.
El NIH/Cf. m CAN/C one/7115.
LP.- 1y.
( fl BLACK TIIFF~
-:“J335
?
é/MY 120m 5/; more macwr: "rum
E] EEO/MEWS. ’bwufla sueczsf'
I Pnouaz/r/c mam/m. ire.
/
72.000 Y J 300”
I
/ 400::
Fig. ll.—Comparison of resistivity curves in boreholes drilled in the Nalmru area showing
lack of correlation between depth probes of similar type and results obtained by
drilling.
The hydrological aspect of this problem has been under investigation and a report
issued (F. Grundy [13]). A brief description of the groundwater aspects is given here.
42
Lake Nakuru is a shallow pan in the centre of a drainage basin of some 450 square
miles. The recharge of the lake and underlying aquifers is partly from intermittent
surface streams—the Njoro, Lamudiac, Makalia and Nderit rivers—together with
directly absorbed rainfall; and partly by subterranean recharge from the water—table.
The hydrostatic con-tours fall towards the lake, indicating a steady flow of groundwater
into the centre of the basin, and the absence of any subterranean outlet north or south
of the lake.
The lake is at present in the ultimate stage of its existence. In the present climatic
cycle the lakes of East Africa are gradually receding and drying up. Lake Rudolf is
regressing to a marked degree, and Lake Solai has completely dried up. Lake Nakuru
itself has reached a state of frequent alternation between complete dryness and a shallow
expanse of water.
The most recent sediments deposited in the lake consist of a fine compact, silty
clay which is comparatively impervious allowing water to pass through but slowly. The
recharge from the surrounding country reaches the lake area and passes under this
clay layer through earlier deposited and more pervious sediments. It rises slowly through
the clay by capillarity and is evaporated from the surface, leaving behind an encrusta-
tion of soda crystals derived from the saline constituents of the groundwater. It is this
crust of soda which is caught up by the wind and blown up into dust clouds. The
artesian pressure under the lake is small. Not more than 4 ft. of artesian head has
been recorded, It is attributed to the relatively impervious clay layer which confines
the water under the lake in an extensive enclosed aquifer. Owing to the flat nature
of the terrain and the absence of any enclosing acquiclude beyond the limits of the lake,
the artesian head is negligible. .
The periodical filling of the lake after rain seldom extends to more than a few
inches above the clay surface and probably depends entirely upon increments of surface
water. In very wet years, however, the lake fills up to a depth of 5 ft. In 1951—1952
it remained full for a period of 18 months. The water cannot sink through the saturated
clay, consequently, it remains until evaporated, leaving once again a dry, dusty surface.
Local opinion favours the idea of keeping part of the lake full by artificial means. In
this choice it relies on the local belief that “great quantities of artesian water must
exist beneath the lake”. This is a fallacy based on an inability to distinguish between
confined aquifers and open systems. ‘
The conditions whereby such an artesian supply could be found are illustrated in
a
Fig. 10. The first drawing shows a continuous confined aquifer inclined in such
way as to produce an artesian head. The second drawing shows the condition of open
aquifers and confined aquifers of limited extent broken up by open fault fractures—
the condition typical of the Nakuru area. Schemes to concrete the faults in river beds,
and other undertakings might produce a little increase in the water supply to the lake,
but the chance of obtaining the estimated requirements of about 30 cusecs from
artesian supply is infinitesimal. The writer is of the opinion that the ultimate solution
to the problem will be found in speeding-up the natural process of reclamation by
vegetation rather than by artificial rejuvenation of the lake.
CHAPTER XV—THE NJORO RIVER
Geological Note
The Njoro River follows a zig-zag course from the Egerton School to Glanjoro
Farm, alternately following the line of north-south fault zones and cutting eatswards
across the area between the fault zones. In the Njoro area the older faulted lavas and
tuffs are covered by compact black ash from Menengai, usually about 30 to 50 ft. thick.
This black ash, known as building stone, is usually concentrated in the river valleys,
and the Njoro River is no exception. The river is cut down through overlying uncon-
solidated pumice and ash and runs over the hard upper surface of the black ash. This
ash has been disrupted by minor faults on the older north—south lines and probably
about 8,000 to 10,000 years old.
43
Steam under pressure possibly does exist at depth in the Rift Valley, though the
broken and faulted nature of the overlying rock would tend to allow a continuous
release, and prevent any great pressure being built up. The idea of a fold of Kamasian
sediments acting as a cap retaining the steam is not accepted by the writer. These sedi-
ments are faulted and broken to a considerable extent, and it is extremely doubtful if
such a perfect, continuous structure as visualized by Mr. Scott exists anywhere in the
Kenya Rift Valley.
That steam under some pressure may be found by deep drilling is not completely
impossible, but three questions should be borne in mind:—
(i) Whether there is any likelihood of steam being encountered in sufficient volume
and under sufficient pressure.‘
(ii) Whether there is a demand for electricity in the vicinity to warrant such an
expensive scheme.
(iii) Whether the engineering problems are surmountable. In the Lardarello Valley
(Italy) where a similar scheme has been put into operation, many problems
due mainly to corrosion of pipes have been encountered, and considerable
funds have to be spent yearly on replacement.
Such problems would be more critical in Kenya, a country in which engineering
equipment has to be transported thousands of miles at prohibitive cost.
Three localities in the Nakuru area are pOSsible sources of steam for pOWer
projectsz— .
(i) Eburru—Elmenteita. (ii) Menengai.‘(iii) Kamasia.
* A paper by the writer dealing with this problem was read at the XXth International Geological
Congress, in 1956, before revision of this report. The writer concludes that the discovery of
steam in any quantity and under sufficient pressure is extremely improbable.
44
REFERENCES
[1] J. W. Gregory, The Rift Valleys and Geology of East A frica, 1921.
[2] H. L. Sikes, The Underground Water Resources of Kenya Colony, 1934.
[3] R. M. Shackleton, The Kavirondo Rift Valley, 1951. ‘
[4] R. B. McConnell, Rift and Shield Structure in East Africa,'1948.
[5] E. Nilsson, Quarternary Glaciations and Pluvial Lakes in East Africa, 1932.
[6] L. S. B. Leakey and J. D. Solomon, The Stone Age Cultures of Kenya, 1931.
[7] L. s. B. Leakey, East African Lakes, 1932. ’
[8] J. Scott, The Great Rift Valley and its Economic Possibilities, 1953.
[9] S. M. Cole, An Outline of the Geology of East Africa, 1950. (Contains a useful list
of references relating to the geology of East Africa.)
[10] J. 1e Conte, 0n the Origin of Normal li‘aults and the Structure of the Basin Range
-
Region, 1889.
[11] S. J. Shand, Rift Valley Impressions, 1936.
[12] S. J. Shand, The Rocks of the Kedong Scarp, Kenya Rift Valley, 1937.
[13] F. Grundy, Lake Nakuru, 1953.
[14] R. M. Shackleton, Geology of the Nyeri Area, 1945.
[15] R. M. Shackleton, Pleistocene Movements in the Gregory Rift Valley, 1955.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is indebted to Mr. S. Stock and Mr. M. W. Jowett for final revision
of text and illuStrations before submission to the Government Printer.
45
APPENDIX
ANALYSIS OF DRILLING RESULTS
N.B.———The figures contained in this appendix include the drilling results up to the
end of April, 1956.
1. NAKURU _
Number of boreholes drilled . . . . . . . . .. 56
Successful boreholes (over 208 gallons/hour) .. .. 54
Average yield in gallons/hour .. .. .. .. .. 2,285
Average depth in feet . . . . . . . .' . . . .. 439
Unsuccessful boreholes . . . . . . . . .. . . 2
2. RONGAI
Number of boreholes drilled .. . . . . .. . . 34
Successful boreholes .. . . . . . . .. . . 28
Average yield in gallons /hour . . . . . . . . . . 1,212
Average depth in feet .. . . .. . . . . . . 425
Unsuccessful boreholes . . . . . . . . .. . . 6
3. SOLAI—NORTH MENENGAI
Number of boreholes drilled . . .. .. .. . . 44
Successful boreholes .. . . .. . . . . .. 36
Average yield in gallons/ hour .. .. .. .. 1,677
Average depth in feet .. .. .. .. .. .. 436
Unsuccessful boreholes . . .. . . .. .. . . 8 .
46
4. KAMfI-YA-MO’I‘O—LOMOLO
Number of boreholes drilled~ .. .. .. .. .. 13
Successful boreholes .. . .. .. .. .. 5‘
Average yield in gallons/hour .. .. .. 1,685
Average depth in feet . . .. .. .. .. .. 525
'Unsuccessful boreholes . . .. .. .. .. .. 8
V(a)H. l—E. G. Thomhill
(b) C.557——Land Bank
' (c)C.591—E. G. Thomhill
(d) C.615—E. G. Thornhill
(e) C.642—J. Stanning
(f) C.680—W. E. McLean
, (g) C.1036—-W. Evans
(h) 01809—11; cf. 1. Hissey
All due to great depth of the hydrostatic level in the highly fissured and
faulted Kampi-ya-Moto—McCall’s Sidings area.
Drilling to 800 ft. on the site of 0642 would probably obtain a supply. In
the case of the other abortive sites drilling to 1,000 ft. might fail to obtain
a supply, and 1n the event of any very deep aquifer being struck, the rest
level would show little or no sub-artesian rise, making pumping costly
and difficult'in the extreme.
47
5. ELMEN’IEITA _ c
Number of boreholes drilled .. .. .. / .. .. 33
Successful boreholes .. .. .. .. .. .. 29
Average yield in gallons / hour . . .. .. .. . . 1,460
Average depth in feet .. .. .. .. .. .. 489
Unsuccessful boreholes .. .. .. .. .. .. 4
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13
time as the volcanic rocks referred to above. They are often scoriacious and fissile.
Nepheline has never been identified in thin sections of these lavas. There is a
considerable resemblance to the faulted Nakuru phonolitic trachytes which cover
the floor of the Rift Valley south of Nakuru.
Samples from boreholes C1837 and C2006 show that a succession of flows of
phonolitic trachyte which underlie the Menengai volcanics on the south-west edge
of the Rongai plain to the west of the volcano are underlain by flows of aphanitic
phonolite with abundant interstitial nepheline. The paucity of surface exposures make
it an impossibility to determine what the relationships of these lavas are to the remainder
of the faulted lavas in the area.
glass. This uppermost flow has the appearance of a single lava flow but shows a streaky
banding and inclusions of pyroclastic material, and there is one well-marked horizon
containing boulders of trachytic lava in a devitrified glassy matrix; the boulders are
angular and some exceed four feet in diameter. The uppermost flow is thought to be
a welded tuff or trachyte ignimbrite. The uppermost horizon of all consists of green
crystal trachytic tuff composed of clear felspar crystals and small pyroclastic fragments
in a glassy matrix. This tuff is known locally as “building stone”. It varies cOn-
siderably in appearance and texture, forming discontinuous outcrops on the outer
slopes. On the south and east slopes coarse dominantly crystal tutfs outcrop, while on
the northern slopes finer green glassy ash overlies the uppermost ignimbrites.
In March, 1957, workings in a quarry on the Eldama Ravine road, one mile
west of Nakuru, exposed moulds of trees, within the body of the uppermost ignimbrite
flow of Menengai. These moulds (Plate 1) have the form of cylinders, of a foot
diameter and about six feet in height. They taper upwards. Only two vertically situated
moulds were seen, but there were many more in the floor of the quarry, lying hori-
zontally with a parallel arrangement away from the centre of Menengai. Some of these
horizontal moulds are very small (branches?) and a bifurcation suggesting the branch-
ing of a tree was seen in one case. The vertical cylinders show a crude spiral ribbing
pattern. The ignimbrite is discoloured and oxidised, where in contact with the moulds,
which contain a little loose gravel but no charcoal. The banding of the ignimbrite
is bent upwards around the tree moulds. The absence of any charcoal is explained by
the theory that the trees were completely vaporized by the enveloping mass of incan-
descent ash and gas, which rolled down the mountain side in a heavy cloud or nue’e
ardente. The cloud coalesced into a mass of very hot glass which subsequently moved
a little way down the slope, in the manner of a lava flow, thus producing flow structures.
It is noteworthy that the trees are situated near the termination of the flow where
coalescing would be advanced and movement sluggish. The preservation of these
tree moulds in situ is strong evidence for an origin in nuéer ardentes for these welded
tufl‘s; a normal trachyte lava near its termination would almost certainly uproot the
trees and would leave some remnant in the form of charcoal.
Within the coarse glassy tufis on the eastern slopes are included small fragments
of aegirine syenite, a coarse holo-crystalline rock thought to be derived from a central
intrusive plug of syenite underlying the original vent. This may be compared with the
well-known syenite plugs of Mount Kenya and Mawenzi. Many boulders of this
syenite are scattered on the slopes of the volcano above Menenhill Farm. This syenite
is completely devoid of nepheline, compatible with the fact that nepheline has not
been identified in any of the Menengai lavas. It is probable that syenite represents
the hyperbyssal magma from which the trachyte effusives were derived. Similar syenite
boulders are found on Longonot (verbal communication, Mr. R. G. Dodson).
The condition of the volcano at the termination of the first phase of eruption
is envisaged as a cone, with a diameter of about 12 miles; the slopes were smooth,
rising to a comparatively small central crater between 8,000 and 9,000 feet above
sea level.
The Formation of the Caldera
Calderas are defined as “extensive craters out of all proportion to the size of the
volcano”. Two mechanisms are generally accepted for their formation: (i) catastrophic
evisceration by explosion; (ii) piecemeal foundering of the superstructure of the cone
into the underlying magma chamber. The fundamental difference between the two
processes is that in the first type of caldera the material from the obliterated super-
structure is scattered in the form of pyroclastic deposits over a large area, outside
the limits of the caldera, whilst in the second process the bulk of the lost material
is engulfed within the limits of the caldera. A caldera that shows extensive evidence
of inward foundering is considered to be a subsidence caldera even though explosive
eruptions played a large part in its formation. Subsidence calderas are characterized
15
by large deposits of airborne pumice around the volcano, but little or no fragments
recognizable as being derived from the original superstructure. Menengai is a caldera
showing such features. Subsidence was undoubtedly the dominant mechanism, though
this subsidence appears to have been the direct result of explosive eruptions.
The sequence of events in the formation of subsidence caldera is illustrated
in Fig. 2 which is based on the work of van Bemrnelen and Howell Williams and
appears in Physical Geology by A. Holmes, 1944. The magma chamber underlying
the central vent is supposed to be stoped out until it has a much greater diameter
than the vent; the level of the magma can be dropped, either as a result of explosive
eruptions rapidly ejecting a large part of it through the central vent, or through the
opening of a parasitic vent on the lower slopes of the volcano, tapping the central
magma reservoir. The sudden, recession of the magma level leaves the superstructure
of the cone wholly unsupported, fractures develop, and blocks of the superstructure
founder int-o the depths, where they are probably to a certain degree assimilated. There
is no evidence of any parasitic vent near Menengai, and there is evidence that the
formation of the caldera coincided with a period of explosive eruption scattering
pyroclastic material over a wide area surrounding the volcano.
r,
A
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(r33) (“J
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Fig. 2.—Subsideuce ealderas. The mechanism of formation. (After A. Holmes, van Bemmelen
and B. Williams.)
16
That subsidence has taken place cannot seriously be doubted. Subsidence structures
are preserved at several points along the rim. These structures are characterized by a
reversal of the normal outward dip of the lava flows in the wall, a marked tilt inwards
having been effected. Where only partially developed the structures are monoclinal,
but the more strongly developed structures are bounded by steep or vertical fault
dislocations. For example, on the south wall, between the Menengai Forest Reserve
and the caldera, a block of the wall is preserved in a partially foundered state. This
block is bounded on either side by monoclinal flexures, but these pass into a fault
dislocation in the centre section, duplicating the caldera wall over a distance of about
a mile. The tongue-like projection of the wall on the western margin shows all the
features typical of these structures. The outward slope of the lavas in the wall is
reversed by a gentle monoclinal flexure which passes inwards into several abrupt
dislocations hading very steeply towards the crater, and throwing down the peninsular
segment of the wall 300 feet into the crater. This is illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4, drawn
from photographs, which clearly show the marked tilt of the subsided block towards
the centre of the crater.
Subsidence in the north-west sector has dropped the rim of the crater to such
an extent that later lava flows erupted within the crater have piled up higher than
the actual rim, and the terminal cliff of the later lava flow rises 100 feet above
the rim, the caldera wall being completely obscured by this later flow. This structure
and the two trough-like structures near Rhodora Farm and Prentice’s Farm appear
to have developed along earlier structural lines disrupting the underlying faulted lavas
over which the volcano erupted. In the Rhodora structure a central flap, bounded
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STEEF DELDG‘TIONS
HAD/N6 TOWARDS CALDiBA
Wl M
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Fig. 4b.—Sketch showing the reversal of the normal outward slope of lava flows in a
promontory projecting from the western wall of Menengai caldera, consequent
on the foundering of the central part of the volcano.
(Erratum: for top lava read trachyte ignimbritc.)
by faults has dropped inwards along a hinge-like monoclinal flexure, parallel to the
caldera wall. The curved facets in the crater rim are revealed most strikingly on
the map (Map No. 3) and are in themselves a strong indication of the piecemeal
nature of the subsidence process.