Nervous System 5 lumbar segments corresponding to L1-L5

vertebrae,
Nervous system consists of a network of nerve 5 sacral segments corresponding to S1-S5
cells that gather information about the vertebrae, and 1 coccygeal segment.
conditions of the body and the external The 44 cm long spinal cord is shorter than the
environment, process and integrpate that spinal column, so segments do not perfectly
information and then send instructions to correspond to the vertebrae.
muscles and glands which carry out the
responses to the conditions detected. Cerebrospinal fluid
•A colorless fluid is produced in the ventricles
of the brain; it surrounds the brain and spinal
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM cord and it cushions the brain and cord from
•Consists of the brain and spinal cord shocks that could cause injury.
•Processes information and creates a •It is maintained at a level
response that is delivered to the appropriate around 1/2 - 2/3 cup.
part of the body through the
peripheral nervous system. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
•consists of peripheral nerves, that is the
THE BRAIN spinal nerves and the cranial nerves.
•The major areas of the brain— •It connects the brain and spinal cord
Brain stem (CNS) to the rest of the body including the
– medulla, pons, midbrain; muscles, sensory organs and organs of the
Diencephalon digestive, respiratory, excretory and
– thalamus & hypothalamus; circulatory systems.
Cerebellum
Cerebrum Neurons
- is responsible for processing and relaying It is the functional unit of the nervous system.
information It is specialized for transmitting impulses from
THE SPINAL CORD one location in the body to another
•The main communication link between the
brain and the rest of the body. Parts of a Neuron
•Dendrite
Cerebellum – receive stimulus and carries it impulses
– coordination of movement and aspects of toward the cell body
motor learning •Cell Body with nucleus
•Cerebrum – nucleus & most of cytoplasm
– conscious activity including perception, •Axon
emotion, thought, and planning – fiber which carries impulses away from cell
•Thalamus body
– Brain’s switchboard – filters and then •Schwann Cells
relays information to various brain regions - cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the
•Medulla Peripheral Nervous System
– vital reflexes as heart beat and respiration •Myelin sheath
•Brainstem – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon –
– medulla, pons, and midbrain (involuntary makes the axon look gray
responses) and relays information from spine •Node of Ranvier
to upper brain – gaps or nodes in the
•Hypothalamus
– involved in regulating activities internal Types of Neurons
organs, monitoring information from the •Sensory neurons
autonomic nervous system, controlling the carry impulses from the sense organs, such as
pituitary gland and its hormones, and the eyes and ears, to the spinal cord and
regulating sleep and brain.
•Motor neurons
Spinal cord has 31 segments carry impulses from the brain and the spinal
: 8 cervical segments that correspond to the cord to muscles and glands.
C1-C8 vertebrae; •Interneurons
12 thoracic segments corresponding to the T1- process information from sensory neurons and
T12 vertebrae; then send commands to other interneurons or
motor neurons.
 Langerhans, adrenals, ovaries in the
Somatic Nervous System (voluntary) female and testes in the male.
•Relays information from skin, sense organs & The function of the endocrine system is the
muscles to CNS production and regulation of chemical
•Brings responses back to skeletal muscles for substances called hormones
responses
Hormone
is a chemical transmitter. It is released in small
Autonomic Nervous System amounts from glands, and is transported in the
•It controls the involuntary responses by bloodstream to target organs or other cells.
influencing the heart, smooth muscles and Hormones
glands. are chemical messengers, transferring
•It is controlled by the medulla oblongata and information and instructions from one set of
the hypothalamus of the brain. cells to another.
•It is divided into the ‘sympathetic’ and
‘parasympathetic’ divisions. Types and Characteristics of Hormones
The sympathetic nervous system is 1.STEROID HORMONES
responsible for the ‘flight or fight’ responses... these hormones are lipid – soluble and derived
increased alertness, metabolic rate, from cholesterol.
respiration, blood pressure, heart rate, and Examples:
sweating AND a decrease in digestive and a.Cortisol
urinary function. – secreted by adrenal cortex
•The parasympathetic nervous system •regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat
counteracts the responses of the sympathetic metabolism;
system... restoring homeostasis •has an anti-inflammatory effect;
•helps the body cope during times of stress
•Synapse - small gap or space between the
axon of one neuron and the dendrite of b.Testosterone
another - the neurons do not actually tough at – secreted by the testicles.
the synapse •It is essential for normal growth and
•It is junction between neurons which uses development of the male sex organs.
neurotransmitters to start the impulse in the •Testosterone is responsible for the
second neuron or an effector (muscle or erection of the penis.
gland)
•The synapse insures one-way transmission c.Progesterone and Estrogen
of impulses – produced by the ovary
•These hormones prepare the uterus for
Neurotransmitters pregnancy, promote the development of
– are chemical substance that transfers mammary glands, play a role in sex drive, and
information across a synapse, the junction develop secondary sex characteristics in the
between a neuron and another neuron.It acts female.
by diffusing across the synapse and binding to •Estrogen is essential for the growth,
the protein receptor molecules on the development, and maintenance of female sex
postsynaptic membrane. organs
Examples:
•NORADRENAL INE 2.AMINES
•ACETYL CHOL INE these hormones are amino acid derivatives.
•DOPAMINE Examples:
a.Triiodothyronine
Endocrine system also known as T3. It affects almost every
is made up of glands and tissues that secrete physiological process in the body, including
hormones. Hormones influence the growth and development,
metabolism of cells, the growth and metabolism, body temperature, and heart rate.
development of body parts and homeostasis. b.Thyroxine
Endocrine glands are ductless. They secrete also known as T4. It stimulate the
the hormones directly into the bloodstream consumption of oxygen and thus the
metabolism of all cells and tissues in
The primary endocrine glands are the the body.
pituitary (the master gland), pineal, thyroid,
parathyroid, islets of 3.PEPTIDES / PROTEINS
these hormones are water – soluble. luteum remains after ovulation; it produces
They make up the largest hormone group. estrogen and progesterone.
Examples
a.Glucagon PLANT RESPONSE
– produced by pancreas •Plants, like animals, respond to stimuli in their
•It stimulates the conversion of stored environment as a safety measure to ensure
glycogen (stored in the liver) to glucose, which their survival. Most plants respond more slowly
can be released into the bloodstream. This than animals by growing, either towards or
process is called glycogenolysis. away from stimuli.
•It promotes the production of glucose from •This sort of response is called a tropism and it
amino acid molecules. This process is called is brought about by hormones, which are
gluconeogenesis. involved in the control of many aspects of
•It reduces glucose consumption by the liver plant growth and development.
so that as much glucose as possible can be •Different plant hormones interact
secreted into the bloodstream to maintain with one another to bring about the necessary
blood glucose levels. responses.
•Glucagon also acts on adipose tissue to
stimulate the breakdown of fat stores into the Phototropism
bloodstream. •Phototropism is a change in the growth of a
b.Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) plant in response to light.
– secreted by the posterior lobe of the •The stalk displays positive phototropism
pituitary gland. It stimulates the reabsorption of growing towards the light
water by the renal tubules.
c.Oxytocin – secreted by the posterior lobe of Geotropism/ Gravitropism
the pituitary gland. It stimulates the uterus to •Geotropism is a change in growth of a plant in
contract during labor, delivery, or parturition. response to gravity.
d.Adrenocorticotropin(ACTH) •The stalk displays a negative geotropism
essential for the growth of the adrenal cortex. growing away from gravity.
e.Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): •The roots display a positive geotropism
essential for the growth and development of growing towards gravity.
the thyroid gland.
f.Calcitonin Hydrotropism
influences bone and calcium metabolism; •Hydrotropism is a change in the growth of a
maintains a homeostasis of calcium in the plant in response to water.
blood plasma •The roots display a positive hydrotropism
g.Insulin growing towards water.
regulates how the body uses and stores
glucose and fat. Many of the body’s cells rely •Thigmotropism is a movement in which an
on insulin to take glucose from the organism moves or grows in response to touch
blood for energy. or contact stimuli
h.Growth Hormone (GH): •It usually occurs when plants grow around a
essential for the growth and development of surface, such as a wall, pot, or trellis.
bones, muscles, and other organs. It also
enhances protein synthesis, decreases the Plant Hormones
use of glucose, and promotes fat destruction. •Plant Hormones are chemicals that occur
i.Prolactin (PRL): naturally in plants. These hormones work at
stimulates the development and growth of the extremely low concentrations.
mammary glands and milk production during •They regulate plant growth and development,
pregnancy. The sucking motion of the baby from seed formation and germination to the
stimulates prolactin secretion. ageing and death of a plant.
j.Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): •They also coordinate many plant responses
is a gonadotropic hormone. It stimulates the to external stimuli, for example, phototropism
growth ovarian follicles in the female and the and geotropism.
production of sperm in the male. •Plant hormones can be divided into two
k.Luteinizing Hormone (LH): classes:
is a gonadotropic hormone stimulating the •Growth promoters
development of corpus luteum in the female : Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins
ovarian follicles and the production of •Growth inhibitors
testosterone in the male.The yellow corpus : Ethylene gas, Abscisic acid
Growth promoters Functions of Gibberellins
Hormones can promote plant growth in two •Promotes cell elongation in the internodes of
ways: plants.
•Stimulating cell division in meristems to •Stimulates growth of the ovary wall into a fruit.
produce new cells. •Stimulates seed germination and release of
•Stimulating elongation in cells. food reserves in seeds.

Auxins C.Cytokinins
Auxins stimulate genes in cells associated with •They are synthesized in the roots and in
plant growth. developing fruits and seeds, and are
•Auxins carry out multiple roles having to do transported to various parts of the plant.
with plant growth including: •It promotes cell division in apical meristem
•Tropisms and cambium of stem.
•Apical dominance •Promote fruit growth
•Growth of adventitious roots •Promote lateral bud growth
•Fruit growth •Break seed and bud dormancy
•Delay leaf senescence
Tropisms
•Tropisms are the growth of a plant toward or Growth Inhibitors
away from a stimulus, including: These chemicals inhibit growth and promote
•Phototropism: in response to light dormancy and abscission in plants.
•Gravitropism: in response to gravity
•Thigmotropism: in response to touch D.Abscisic acid
•Hydrotropism: in response to water •Abscisic acid is found mostly near leaves,
stems, and unripe fruit.
Apical dominance
•Auxins are released from the shoot tip.These Functions of Abscisic Acid
stimulate cell elongation in the stem, but •Stimulation of closing of stomata
suppress the lateral buds. •Inhibition of shoot growth
•Inducing seeds for synthesizing storage of
Adventitious roots proteins
•Adventitious roots are those growing out of
places where roots don’t normally grow. E.Ethylene
•Auxins stimulate root growth on the end of a •Ethylene is present in the tissues of ripening
houseplant cutting. fruits, nodes of stems, senescent leaves, and
flowers.
Fruit growth
•Developing seeds produce auxins that Functions of Ethylene
stimulate growth of the plant ovary into a fruit. •Leads to release of dormancy state
•Removal of seeds from a strawberry prevents •Stimulates shoot and root growth along with
the fruit from growing, but add auxin and will differentiation
grow. •Leaf and fruit abscission
•Flower and leaf senescence stimulation
B.Foolish rice seedlings •Stimulation of fruit ripening
•Gibberellins were discovered when Japanese
scientists were investigating bakanae, or
“foolish rice seedling” disease, that caused
seedlings to grow excessively tall, then fall
over.
Discovery of Gibberellins
•In 1898, Shotaro Hori suggested that the
disease was caused by a fungus that infected
the rice.
•Eiichi Kurosawa in 1926 was able isolate
secretions from the fungus. The secretions
caused the same symptoms when applied to
other rice plants.
•In 1934, Teijiro Yabuta isolated the active
substance and named it gibberellin.