Nervous Part 2

Because learning changes everything.
Chapter 8
Nervous System Part 2
Lecture Outline
Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Eleventh Edition
Cinnamon VanPutte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
The Nervous System
• The nervous system can be divided into the central

nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
• The central nervous system (CNS), consists of the brain

and spinal cord.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the

nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord.
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 2
Spinal Cord
• Extends from the

foramen magnum to the
2nd lumbar vertebra
• Protected by vertebral
column
• Spinal nerves allow

movement
• If damaged paralysis
can occur
Figure 8.14
Access the text alternative for slide images.
Gray Matter and White Matter
Gray Matter:
• center of spinal cord
• looks like letter H or a butterfly
White Matter:
• Outer layer of spinal cord
• contains myelinated fibers
Spinal Cord Cross Section
Figure 8.15
Reflexes
• A reflex is an involuntary reaction in response to a

stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the
CNS.
• Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli more quickly

than is possible if conscious thought is involved.
• Most reflexes occur in the spinal cord or brainstem rather

than in the higher brain centers.
• A reflex arc is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex

occurs and has five basic components.
Reflex Arc Components
1. A sensory receptor
2. A sensory neuron
3. Interneurons, which are neurons located between and

communicating with two other neurons
4. A motor neuron
5. An effector organ (muscles or glands).
Reflex Arc
Figure 8.16
Reflexes 1
• The simplest reflex is the stretch reflex.
• A stretch reflex occurs when muscles contract in

response to a stretching force applied to them.
• The knee-jerk reflex, or patellar reflex is a classic

example of a stretch reflex.
Reflexes 2
• The withdrawal reflex, or flexor reflex, is to remove a limb

or another body part from a painful stimulus.
• The sensory receptors are pain receptors, and stimulation

of these receptors initiates the reflex.
Withdrawal Reflex
Figure 8.17
Spinal Nerves
• Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal roots and

ventral roots.
• Contain axons of sensory and somatic motor neurons.
• Located between vertebra.
• Categorized by region of vertebral column from which it

emerges (C for cervical).
• 31 pairs organized in 3 plexuses.
Cervical Plexus
• Spinal nerves C1-4
• Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and skin of

neck and back of head.
Brachial Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1.
• Supply nerves to the upper limbs, shoulders, hand.
Lumbosacral Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4.
• Supplies nerves lower limbs.
Plexuses
Figure 8.19a
Dermatome 1
• The nerves arising from each region of the spinal cord and
vertebral column supply specific regions of the body.
• A dermatome is the area of skin supplied with sensory

innervation by a pair of spinal nerves.
• Each of the spinal nerves except C1 has a specific

cutaneous sensory distribution.
Dermatome 2
Figure 8.19b
The Brain
The four major regions of the brain are:
• the brainstem
• the cerebellum
• the diencephalon
• the cerebrum
Brainstem
Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education
Components:
• Medulla oblongata
• Pons
• Midbrain Figure 8.20
Brainstem Components 1
Medulla oblongata
• Location:
• continuous with spinal cord
• Function:
• regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting, hiccupping, coughing, sneezing, balance
• Other:
• involved in conscious control of skeletal muscle
Pons
• Location:
• above medulla, bridge between cerebrum and cerebellum
• Function:
• breathing, chewing, salivation, swallowing, relay station between
cerebrum and cerebellum
Midbrain
• Location:
• above pons
• Function:
• coordinated eye movement, pupil diameter, turning head toward
noise
• Other:
• the dorsal part has the four colliculi which are involved in visual and
auditory reflexes
Reticular Formation
• Location:
• scattered throughout brainstem
• Function:
• regulates cyclical motor function, respiration, walking, chewing,
arousing and maintaining consciousness, regulates sleep-wake
cycle
Cerebellum
Location:
• attached to the brainstem by the cerebellar peduncles
Characteristics:
• means “little brain”
• cortex is composed of gyri, sulci, gray matter
Functions:
• controls balance
• muscle tone
• coordination of fine motor function
Diencephalon 1
Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education
Located between the brainstem and cerebrum

Components:
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus Figure 8.20
Diencephalon Components 1
Thalamus
• Characteristics:
• largest portion of diencephalon
• Function:
• regulates sensory input traveling from the spinal cord and brainstem
to the cerebral cortex
• influences moods and detects pain
Epithalamus:
• Location:
• above thalamus
• Function:
• emotional and visceral response to odors
• contains the pineal gland which is an endocrine gland that plays a

role in controlling some long-term cycles that are influenced by the
light-dark cycle
Hypothalamus
• Location:
• below thalamus
• Characteristics:
• controls pituitary gland and is connected to it by infundibulum
• Function:
• controls homeostasis, body temp, thirst, hunger, fear, rage, sexual
emotions
Diencephalon 2
Figure 8.22
Cerebrum Characteristics
Largest portion of brain

Divisions:
• Right hemisphere
• Left hemisphere
separated by
longitudinal fissure
Lobes: frontal, parietal,
occipital, and temporal,
Rebecca Gray/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 8.23b
Cerebrum Components
Cerebral Cortex
• Location:
• surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter
• Function:
• controls thinking, communicating
• remembering, understanding, and initiates voluntary movements
Cerebrum Surface Features
Longitudinal fissure:
• divides cerebrum into left and right hemispheres
Gyri:
• folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface area
Sulci:
• shallow indentations
Fissure:
• deep indentations
Cerebral Hemispheres
Left hemisphere:
• controls right side of body
• responsible for math, analytic, and speech
Right hemisphere:
• controls left side of body

• responsible for music, art, abstract ideas
Corpus callosum:
• connection between the two hemispheres
Lobes of the Brain 1
Frontal lobe
• Location: anterior
• Function: controls voluntary motor functions, aggression,

moods, smell
Parietal lobe
• Location: top
• Function: evaluates sensory input such as touch, pain,

pressure, temperature, taste
Lobes of the Brain 2
Occipital lobe
• Location: posterior
• Function: vision
Temporal lobe
• Location: lateral
• Function: hearing, smell, memory
Cerebrum 1
©R. T. Hutchings
Figure 8.23a
Cerebrum 2
Rebecca Gray/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 8.23b
Speech
Mainly in left hemisphere
Sensory speech (Wernicke’s area):
• parietal lobe
• where words are heard and comprehended
Motor speech (Broca’s area):
• frontal lobe
• where words are formulated
Memory 1
• Working memory occurs when the brain briefly stores

information required for an immediate performance of a
task. It lasts only a few seconds to minutes.
• Short-term memory lasts longer than working memory

and can be retained for a few minutes to a few days.
Memory 2
• Short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory,

where it may be stored for only a few minutes or become
permanent, by consolidation.
• Consolidation is a gradual process involving the formation

of new and stronger synaptic connections.
• The length of time memory is stored may depend on how

often it is retrieved and used.
Memory 3
• Declarative memory, or explicit memory, involves the

retention of facts, such as names, dates, and places, as
well as related emotional undertones.
• Procedural memory, or reflexive memory, involves the

development of motor skills, such as riding a bicycle.
Meninges 1
• The meninges are three connective tissue layers that

surround the brain and spinal cord.
• The outermost (most superficial) meningeal layer is the

dura mater, which is the toughest of all the meninges.
• The dura mater forms two layers around the brain and
only one layer around the spinal cord.
• The second meningeal membrane is the very thin, wispy

arachnoid mater.
Meninges 2
• The space between the dura mater and the arachnoid

mater is the subdural space, which is normally only a
potential space containing a very small amount of serous
fluid.
• The third meningeal membrane, the pia mater, is very

tightly bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
Meninges 3
• Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater is the

subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal
fluid and contains blood vessels.
Meninges
Figure 8.33
Ventricles 1
• The CNS contains fluid-filled cavities, called ventricles.
• Each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively large

cavity called the lateral ventricle.
Cerebrospinal Fluid 1
• Cerebrospinal Fluid Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the

brain and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion
around the CNS.
• The ependymal cells located in the choroid plexuses of

the ventricles produce the CSF.
• CSF fills the brain ventricles, the central canal of the spinal
cord, and the subarachnoid space.
Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid
Figure 8.35
Cranial Nerves 1
• 12 pair of cranial nerves
• Named by roman numerals
• 2 categories of functions: sensory and motor
Cranial Nerves 2
• Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) is a pure sensory nerve for

smell
• Cranial Nerve II (Optic) is a pure sensory nerve for vision
• Cranial Nerve III (Occulomotor) is a pure motor nerve for

eye movement
• Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) is a pure motor nerve for eye

movement
Cranial Nerves 3
• Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a motor and sensory

nerve. It is sensory for pain, touch, and temperature for the
eye and lower and upper jaws. It is motor for muscles of
chewing.
• Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure motor nerve for eye

movement
• Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a sensory and motor

nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor for facial
expression.
Cranial Nerves 4
• Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear) is a pure sensory

nerve for hearing and equilibrium
• Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal) is both a motor and

sensory nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor for
swallowing.
• Cranial Nerve X (Vagus) is both a motor and sensory

nerve. It is sensory and motor for organs in the thoracic
and abdominal cavities.
Cranial Nerves 5
• Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory) is a pure motor nerve for the

trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and muscles of the larynx.
• Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) is a pure motor nerve for

the tongue
Cranial Nerves 6
Figure 8.36
Autonomic Nervous System 1
• The autonomic neurons innervate smooth muscle, cardiac

muscle, and glands.
• Autonomic functions are largely controlled unconsciously.
• The autonomic nervous system is composed of the

sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.
• Increased activity in sympathetic neurons generally

prepares the individual for physical activity, whereas
parasympathetic stimulation generally activates
involuntary functions, such as digestion, that are normally
associated with the body at rest.
• In the autonomic nervous system, two neurons in series

extend from the CNS to the effector organs.
• The first neuron is called the preganglionic neuron; the

second neuron is the postganglionic neuron.
Enteric Nervous System 1
The enteric nervous system (ENS) consists of plexuses

within the wall of the digestive tract.
The plexuses include:
• Sensory neurons that connect the digestive tract to the

CNS.
• Sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons that connect

the CNS to the digestive tract.
• Enteric neurons, located entirely within the enteric

plexuses.
Enteric Nervous System 2
• Enteric neurons are capable of monitoring and controlling

the digestive tract independently of the CNS through local
reflexes.
• For example, stretching of the digestive tract is detected

by enteric sensory neurons, which stimulate enteric
interneurons. The enteric interneurons stimulate enteric
motor neurons, which stimulate glands to secrete.
Because learning changes everything. ®
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Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

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Because learning changes everything.

• The nervous system can be divided into the central

• The central nervous system (CNS), consists of the brain

• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the

• Extends from the

• Spinal nerves allow

• center of spinal cord

• looks like letter H or a butterfly

• Outer layer of spinal cord

• contains myelinated fibers

• A reflex is an involuntary reaction in response to a

• Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli more quickly

• Most reflexes occur in the spinal cord or brainstem rather

• A reflex arc is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex

3. Interneurons, which are neurons located between and

5. An effector organ (muscles or glands).

• The simplest reflex is the stretch reflex.

• A stretch reflex occurs when muscles contract in

• The knee-jerk reflex, or patellar reflex is a classic

• The withdrawal reflex, or flexor reflex, is to remove a limb

• The sensory receptors are pain receptors, and stimulation

• Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal roots and

• Contain axons of sensory and somatic motor neurons.

• Located between vertebra.

• Categorized by region of vertebral column from which it

• 31 pairs organized in 3 plexuses.

• Spinal nerves C1-4

• Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and skin of

• Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1.

• Supply nerves to the upper limbs, shoulders, hand.

• Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4.

• Supplies nerves lower limbs.

• A dermatome is the area of skin supplied with sensory

• Each of the spinal nerves except C1 has a specific

The four major regions of the brain are:

Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education

Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education

Located between the brainstem and cerebrum

• influences moods and detects pain

• contains the pineal gland which is an endocrine gland that plays a

Largest portion of brain

Rebecca Gray/McGraw-Hill Education

• remembering, understanding, and initiates voluntary movements

• divides cerebrum into left and right hemispheres

• folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface area

• controls right side of body

• responsible for math, analytic, and speech

• controls left side of body

• connection between the two hemispheres

• Function: controls voluntary motor functions, aggression,

• Function: evaluates sensory input such as touch, pain,

Rebecca Gray/McGraw-Hill Education

Mainly in left hemisphere

Sensory speech (Wernicke’s area):

• where words are heard and comprehended

Motor speech (Broca’s area):

• where words are formulated

• Working memory occurs when the brain briefly stores

• Short-term memory lasts longer than working memory

• Short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory,