Anatomy of the Nervous

System
 Study of the brain
Neuropsychology

• Study of the brain and the rest of the nervous

system in hopes of gaining a better
understanding of behavior.

• Includes the study of the biological foundations

of consciousness, perception, memory, emotion,
stress, and mental disorders.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Principal Functions
1. Sensory Input
– Any stimuli that is perceived by
our senses like smell, sight,
touch, taste, and hearing
2. Integration
– Synthesis of sensory
information to compute an
appropriate motor response
3. Motor Output
– The response that occurs when
the nervous system activates
certain parts of the body
Organization of the nervous system
The Central
Nervous System
• The main control
system of the body

1. Brain
2. Spinal cord
• A collection of neurons
and supportive tissue
running from the base of
the brain down the center
of the back
• Protected by spinal
column
 The Peripheral
Nervous System • Sensory Division
(afferent) – picks up
• Composed of al the sensory stimuli and
nerves that branch out sends them to the
from the brain and brain
spine that allow the CNS • Motor Division
(efferent) – sends
to communicate with direction from the
the rest of the body brain to the muscles
and glands
• Handles the central • Somatic nervous
nervous system’s system
input and output • Autonomic
nervous system
– Sympathetic
nervous system
– Parasympathetic
nervous system
Two Divisions of the Autonomic System
COMMUNICATION IN THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Neurons
• The brain ’ s communication specialists,
transmitting information to, from, and
within the central nervous system
1. Neurons are the longest living cells in the
body
2. Neurons are irreplaceable (amitotic)
3. Neurons have huge appetites (high
metabolic rate)

Glial cells
• Provide the neurons with nutrients, insulate them, protect the
brain from toxic agents, and remove cellular debris when
neurons die.
 Glial Cells
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System
• Astrocytes • Satellite Cells
– Support, regulate ions
– Surround and support
• Microglial Cells neuron cell bodies
– Immune defense against
invading • Schwann Cells
microorganisms – Insulate, help form the
• Ependymal Cells myelin sheath
– Line cavities; secrete
cerebrospinal fluid
• Oligodendrocytes
– Wrap and insulate, form
the myelin sheath
 Structure of a neuron

• Cell body

• Dendrites

• Axon
 Classifications of Neurons
According to structure According to function
• Multipolar • Sensory Neurons
– three or more processes (afferent)
– Transmits impulses from
• Bipolar sensory receptors
– two processes toward the CNS
• Unipolar • Motor
– one process Neurons(efferent)
– Transmits impulses from
the CNS to the rest of
the body (muscles and
glands)
• Interneurons
(association neurons)
– transmit impulses
between the sensory
and motor neurons
 Myelin sheath
• A fatty material that may surround the axon
of a neuron
• Prevents signals in adjacent cells from
interfering with each other
• Speeds up the conduction of neural impulses
Types of neurons
 Action potential
• A brief change in • Produces an electric
electrical voltage that impulse that travels
occurs between the down the axon into the
inside and outside of axon terminal and
an axon when a neuron stimulates the release
is stimulated of neurotransmitters
How neurons communicate

• Axon terminals release

neurotransmitters from
synaptic vesicles.
• Neurotransmitters
enter synapse.
• Neurotransmitters bind
to receptors that they
fit.
 Synapses

• Messages
from one
neuron to
another pass
over a
microscopic
gap between
neurons
called a
synapse
 Neurotransmitter
• Chemical released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse
that transmits signals to a target cell
• Target cell may be a neuron or some other kind of cell like a
muscle or gland cell.
• Necessary for rapid communication in synapse.
• Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles -
presynaptic side of a synapse.
Illustration of the major elements in chemical synaptic transmission.
 TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS

EXCITATORY INHIBITORY BOTH

Glycine Acetylcholine
Glutamate

GABA Norepinephrine
Aspartate
Serotonin

Nitric oxide
Dopamine
 Classifications of Neurotransmitters
• Amino Acids
– Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) acts as the body's main inhibitory chemical
messenger. GABA contributes to vision, motor control, and plays a role in the
regulation of anxiety. Benzodiazepines, which are used to help treat anxiety,
function by increasing the efficiency of GABA neurotransmitters, which can
increase feelings of relaxation and calm.

– Glutamate is the most plentiful neurotransmitter found in the nervous system

where it plays a role in cognitive functions such as memory and learning. Excessive
amounts of glutamate can cause excitotoxicity resulting in cellular death. This
excitotoxicity caused by glutamate build-up is associated with some diseases and
brain injuries including Alzheimer's disease4, stroke, and epileptic seizures.
• Peptides
– Oxytocin is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It is produced by the
hypothalamus and plays a role in social recognition, bonding, and sexual
reproduction. Synthetic oxytocin such as Pitocin is often used as an aid in labor and
delivery. Both oxytocin and Pitocin cause the uterus to contract during labor.

– Endorphins are neurotransmitters than inhibit the transmission of pain signals and
promote feelings of euphoria. These chemical messengers are produced naturally
by the body in response to pain, but they can also be triggered by other activities
such as aerobic exercise. For example, experiencing a "runner's high" is an example
of pleasurable feelings generated by the production of endorphins.
 Classifications of Neurotransmitters
• Monoamines
– Epinephrine is considered both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. Generally,
epinephrine (adrenaline) is a stress hormone that is released by the adrenal system.
However, it functions as a neurotransmitter in the brain.
– Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in alertness is
involved in the body's fight or flight response. Its role is to help mobilize the body
and brain to take action in times of danger or stress. Levels of this neurotransmitter
are typically lowest during sleep and highest during times of stress.
– Histamine acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal cord. It plays a role in
allergic reactions and is produced as part of the immune system's response to
pathogens.
– Dopamine plays an important role in the coordination of body movements.
Dopamine is also involved in reward, motivation, and additions. Several types of
addictive drugs increase dopamine levels in the brain. Parkinson's disease, which is a
degenerative disease that results in tremors and motor movement impairments, is
caused by the loss of dopamine-generating neurons in the brain.
– Serotonin plays an important role in regulating and modulating mood, sleep,
anxiety, sexuality, and appetite.
 Classifications of Neurotransmitters
• Purines
– Adenosine acts as a neuromodulator in the brain and
is involved in suppressing arousing and improving
sleep.
– Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) acts as a
neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral
nervous systems. It plays a role in autonomic control,
sensory transduction, and communication with glial
cells. Research suggests it may also have a part in
some neurological problems including pain, trauma,
and neurodegenerative disorders
 Classifications of Neurotransmitters
• Gasotransmitters
– Nitric oxide plays a role in affecting smooth muscles, relaxing
them to allow blood vessels to dilate and increase blood flow
to certain areas of the body.
– Carbon monoxide is usually known as being a colorless,
odorless gas that can have toxic and potentially fatal effects
when people are exposed to high levels of the substance.
However, it is also produced naturally by the body where it acts
as a neurotransmitter that helps modulate the body's
inflammatory response.
• Acetylcholine
– Acetylcholine is the only neurotransmitter in its class. Found in
both the central and peripheral nervous systems, it is the
primary neurotransmitter associated with motor neurons. It
plays a role in muscle movements as well as memory and
learning.
 DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
NEUROTRANSMITTER DISEASE
 Acetylcholine  Alzheimer’s

 Dopamine  Parkinson’s disease

 Schizophrenia

 GABA  Epilepsy

 Serotonin  Migraines
 ADD
 Depression

 Glutamate  Migraine
 stroke
 The plastic brain

Plasticity
The brain’s ability to change and adapt in response to experience,
by reorganizing or growing new neural connections
 The Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is the collection of glands
that produce hormones that regulate metabolism,
growth and development, tissue function, sexual
function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among
other things.
• Endocrine glands release hormones into the
bloodstream
– Hormones are chemical substances that affect the
functioning of other organs. They are secreted directly
into the blood, which carries them to organs and tissues
of the body to exert their functions.
Functions of Hormones
• Development and growth
• Metabolism of food items
• Sexual function and reproductive growth and health
• Cognitive function and mood
• Maintenance of body temperature and thirst
 Hormone Types
1. Eicosanoids
2. Steroids
3. Amino acid/protein derivatives
(amines, peptides, and proteins)
 Important Hormones
➢ Hormones of Thyroid
– Thyroid gland basically releases two hormones Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine
(T4), which helps in controlling the metabolism of our body. Further these hormones
regulates weight, determines energy levels, internal body temperature, skin, hair etc
➢ Insulin
– This hormone is released by pancreas. It allows the body to use glucose or sugar from
carbohydrates in the food for energy or to store glucose for future use. It helps in
keeping blood sugar level from getting too high i.e. hyperglycemia or too low i.e.
hypoglycemia
➢ Estrogen
– It is a female sex hormone released by the ovaries. It is responsible for the
reproduction, menstruation and menopause. Excess of estrogen in the female body
increases the risk of breast cancer, uterine cancer, depression, moodiness etc. If
estrogen level is less in female body leads to acne, skin lesions, thinning skin, hair loss
et
➢ Progesterone
– Progesterone hormone is produced in the ovaries, the placenta when a woman gets
pregnant and the adrenal glands. It stimulates and regulates various functions. It plays
an important role in maintaining pregnancy. It helps body to prepare for conception,
pregnancy and regulates the monthly cycle. When pregnancy doesn’t occur,
progesterone levels drop and menstrual cycle occurs. It also plays a role in the sexual
desire.
 Important Hormones
➢ Prolactin
– This hormone is released by the pituitary gland after a child birth for lactation,
which enables female to breast feed. Levels of prolactin hormone rise during
pregnancy i.e. it also plays an important role in fertility by inhibiting follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
➢ Testosterone
– It is a male sex hormone. It is an anabolic steroid by nature which helps in
building body muscles. In males it plays an important role in the development
of male reproductive tissues; testes and prostrate. It also promotes secondary
sexual characteristics like increasing the mass of muscles and bones, growth of
body hair etc. If testosterone is secreted insufficient in men then it may lead to
abnormalities including frailty and bone loss
➢ Serotonin
– It is a mood-boosting effect hormone or also known as nature’s feel-good
chemical. It is associated with learning and memory, regulating sleep, digestion,
regulates mood, some muscular functions etc. Due to the imbalance of
serotonin in the body, brain does not produce enough of the hormone to
regulate mood or stress level. Low level of serotonin causes depression,
migraine, weight gain, insomnia, craving of carbohydrate etc. Excess level of
serotonin in the body causes agitation, stage of confusion, sedation etc.
 Important Hormones
➢ Cortisol
– This hormone is produced by the adrenal gland. It helps you stay healthy and
energetic. Its main role is to control physical and psychological stress. In danger
condition it increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration etc. At stressful
times body secretes cortisol to cope up with the situation. High level of cortisol
consistently causes ulcer, high blood pressure, anxiety, high levels of
cholesterol etc. Similarly, low level of cortisol in the body causes alcoholism,
condition responsible for a chronic fatigue syndrome etc.
➢ Adrenaline
– Adrenaline hormone is secreted in the medulla in the adrenal gland as well as
some of the central nervous system’s neurons. It is also known as emergency
hormone because it initiates the quick reaction which makes the individual to
think and respond quickly to the stress. It increases the metabolic rate, dilation
of blood vessels going to the heart and the brain. During stressful situation,
adrenaline quickly releases in to the blood, send impulses to the organs to
create a specific response
➢ Growth Hormone
– It is also known as somatotropin hormone. It is basically a protein hormone
having 190 amino acids which is synthesised and secreted by the cells called
somatotrophs in the anterior pituitary. It stimulates growth, cell reproduction
cell regeneration and in boosting metabolism. It is important in human
development.
 Effect of Hormones
Hormones have the following effects on the body:
• stimulation or inhibition of growth
• wake-sleep cycle and other circadian rhythms
• mood swings
• induction or suppression of apoptosis (programmed cell
death)
• activation or inhibition of the immune system
• regulation of metabolism
• preparation of the body for mating, fighting, fleeing, and
other activity
• preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such
as puberty, parenting, and menopause
• control of the reproductive cycle
• hunger cravings
THE BRAIN
Gross Anatomy of the Brain
Major Regions of the Brain

• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Brainstem
– Midbrain
– Pons
– Medulla oblongata
• Diencephalon
Cerebrum
 Cerebrum
• Frontal Lobe
– Involved in reasoning, motor
control, emotion, and
language.
– It contains the motor cortex,
which is involved in planning
and coordinating movement;
the prefrontal cortex, which
is responsible for higher-level
cognitive functioning; and
Broca’s area, which is
essential for language
production.
– It is the “control panel” of
our personality and our
ability to communicate.
 Phineas Gage
• Gage was a railroad
construction foreman.

• An 1848 explosion
forced a steel tamping
rod through his head.

• Others said he was “no

longer Gage”.
Broca’s Area and
Wernicke’s Area
 Cerebrum
• Parietal Lobe
– involved in processing information from the body’s senses
– it contains the somatosensory cortex, which is essential for
processing sensory information from across the body, such
as touch, temperature, and pain
• Temporal Lobe
– associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some
aspects of language.
– the auditory cortex, the main area responsible for
processing auditory information, is located within the
temporal lobe. Wernicke’s area, important for speech
comprehension, is also located here.
 Cerebrum
• Occipital Lobe
– responsible for interpreting incoming visual information
(primary visual cortex)
 Cerebellum
• Primarily in charge of movement and
coordination
• Receives information from the
sensory systems, the spinal cord, and
other parts of the brain and then
regulates motor movements.
• The cerebellum coordinates
voluntary movements such as
posture, balance, coordination, and
speech, resulting in smooth and
balanced muscular activity.
• It is also important for learning motor
behaviors.
The Brain Stem

• Pons (part of
metencephalon)
– Involved in sleeping, waking, and
dreaming, and certain reflexes
(chewing, tasting, saliva production)

• Medulla Oblongata
(myelencephalon)
– Responsible for certain automatic
functions such as breathing and
heart rate

• Midbrain
(mesencephalon)
– Arouses cortex and screens incoming
information
 Midbrain
• also called mesencephalon
• serves important functions in motor
movement, particularly movements of
the eye, and in auditory and visual
processing
– Tectum
• Superior colliculi - receives input from the
retina and the visual cortex
• Inferior colliculi - receives auditory fibres and
projects it to the thalamus
– Tegmentum
• Relays inhibitory signals to the thalamus and
basal nuclei preventing unwanted body
movement
 Diencephalon
• Thalamus
– relays motor and sensory signals to the
cerebral cortex
– also helps in the regulation of
consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
• Hypothalamus
– keeps the body in homeostasis as much
as possible
– homeostasis means a healthful,
balanced bodily state
• body temperature
• Thirst
• appetite and weight control
• Emotions
• sex drive
• blood pressure and heart rate
• balancing bodily fluids
Lobes of the cerebral
cortex