Q1: What is meant by physiological psychology and how neuro-endocrine system is crucial

in determining behaviour of individuals? Also, briefly discuss the history in the development
of Physiological psychology.

A1: Physiological psychology refers to the scientific study of the biological basis of
behaviour which is the relationship between the behaviour and the biological nature of the
organism. It is the field of biopsychology (or behavioural neuroscience) that combines the
discipline of psychology and physiology, the study of how the human body functions.
Physiological psychology, overall, aims to correlate the biological aspects to human
behaviour, as well as to ascertain the anatomical and physiological foundations of behaviour.

The neuroendocrine system is studied as one integrated system in physiological psychology

because the nervous system and the endocrine system work together to influence human
physiology in its aspects of growth, metabolism, reproduction as well as the role of the
endocrine system in influencing our emotions, and thus our behaviour.

Physiological psychology as a field emerged in the 1800s but its history roots back to a
million years ago.

1) The history of physiological psychology began with the period of the primitive
humans dating as back as 1 million BC, in the wide savannah. Primitive humans were
hunters who understood simply that injury to the brain could cause death, and hence
began to perform crude forms of brain surgeries in case of injury to the skull.
Trephination, one of the first forms of brain surgery, took place around 7000 BCE
during the Neolithic times. Trephination was a highly invasive procedure that
involved drilling a hole into the skull.
2) The period of Ancient Egyptians, back in around 1700 BCE, when physicians
documented 28 cases of brain, skull and spinal injury in a famous document called the
Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus that gives detailed structures on the brain and instructs
physicians how to determine if an injury is treatable or not
3) Chinese Acupuncture, as derived from the Taoist traditions of 8,000 years or older,
involved the use of needles or acupuncture points at different areas of the body aimed
at relieving body tension.. Based on the Yin-Yang philosophy, and originated by Shen
Nung who is considered the father of Chinese Medicine.

The Period of Greek Philosophy when Greek philosophers began to discuss the mind at
length regarding its consciousness, thinking and reasoning abilities, as well as perception,
judgement, emotion and intelligence.

4) In Ancient Greece, Hippocrates studied the effects of brain damage on emotion,

intelligence, and the senses from studying brain injured patients that he termed
'gladiators'. Hippocrates formulated that the brain was the seat of our joys, pleasures,
sorrows and our sensation and intelligence.
5) Greek Philosopher (Plato) correctly identified that the mind was the seat of the brain,
however his student Aristotle believed that mind was in the heart and that the brain to
him was merely a radiator to cool bloodflow.
6) Galen (Roman physician) agreed with Hippocrates on the brain as the seat of the
mind. He carried out dissections, and found the cerebrum to be soft and cerbellum
hard. Galen also discovered the fluid-filled ventricles, which he thought
(cerebrospinal fluid) was used to communicate.
7) Rene Descartes' Theory of Mind-Body Dualism (17th Century): This metaphysical
concept states that the mind and body are qualitatively different, but interact in the
pineal gland. ‘Dualism’ refers to the idea that the human is composed of separate
parts between the physical qualities (size, weight, colour) and the mental qualities
(consciousness, perceptual and emotional experiences). Descartes described reflex
actions (an involuntary, nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimuli) as a
basis of understanding behaviour from a neuro-scientific view.
8) Galvani (Italian physician) in 1771 discovered that the muscles of a dead frog would
twitch upon electrical stimulation. His findings contributed to the field of
bioelectricity.
9) Muller on Specific Nerve Energies, proposed the theory that the nature of a sensation
depends on which sensory fibres are stimulated, and not on how those fibres are
stimulated.
10) Muller's student, Helmholtz measured the speed of nerve conduction as well as
researching the physiology of vision and visual perception.
11) Ramon Cajal proposed the Neuron Doctrine, which proposes that neurons are
separate and communicate through gaps (later termed as 'synaptic gaps’ by
Sherrington). Cajal is considered the father of modern neuroscience as a pioneer of
the microscopic structure of the brain and his illustrations of brain cells are still used
today.
12) Sherrington studied reflex action in dogs. Based on his behavioural experiments, he
inferred about synaptic transmission. He named the gap Cajal pointed out as 'synapse'.
13) French physiologist, Pierre Flourens conducted many brain ablations (small areas of
intentional damage) and discovered the role of cerebellum in movement coordination.
He was also the first to scientifically prove that the mind was located in the brain, not
the heart. Flourens is considered the founder of experimental brain science as well as
a pioneer in anaesthesia.
14) Franz Gall studied the skull bumps and proposed the modularity of the brain, that is,
different parts of the brain performed different functions.
15) Paul Broca studied patient Tan after his death and found an area in the brain involved
with speech production, he termed as 'Broca's area'.
16) Carl Wernicke identified a brain region involved with speech comprehension and
termed it as 'Wernicke's area'.
17) Brodmann divided the brain into many distinct areas or regions and delineated their
role in behavioural function.
18) Karl Lashley changed the way people understood memory back then. By using rats as
a subject, he proved that the idea of an engram (a memory repository within the brain)
was false.
19) James Olds, by studying the reward centres in the brain, discovered that electrical
stimulation to the brain evoked emotional responses in animals.
 20) Wilder Penfield electrically stimulated human brain to localize epileptic foci. He
discovered that stimulation of specific brain regions evoked specific memories. He
also described the sensory and motor cortex in the human brain.
21) Roger Sperry on brain lateralization, carried out experiments to discover the left and
right hemispheres of the brain.
22) Mishkin studied the neurobiological mechanisms of learning and memory in primates,
through lesioning of the primate brain in the regions specialized for behavioural
learning and other cognitive tasks.
23) Christopher Koch, at present promotes the study of consciousness through the modern
tools of neurobiology.

Q2: Differentiate between Central Nervous system and Peripheral Nervous system.

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Consists of the brain and the spinal cord Consists of the nerves (spinal and cranial
which runs through the vertebrae. nerves) and the ganglion (a collection of
neuronal bodies found in the voluntary and
autonomic branches of the peripheral nervous
system)
The spinal cord has 3 major functions: The main functions of the peripheral nervous
i) To carry sensory information via afferent system include the regulation of voluntary
(sensory) nerve fibres from receptors movements (such as chewing food, walking,
throughout the body to the brain. and facial expressions).
ii) To conduct information via efferent The PNS also regulates autonomic functions
(motor) nerve fibres from the brain to such as breathing, heart rate, and digesting –
muscles and glands. the unconscious bodily behaviours.
iii) Controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes The PNS connects the CNS to the organs,
without input from the brain. limbs and skin.
The brain, a part of the CNS, is specialized The peripheral nervous system is further
with the different lobes of the brain:- divided into the somatic nervous system
(connecting the central nervous system to
Frontal lobe: Lies in the front of the deep voluntary muscles) and the autonomic
central fissure, contains the motor cortex nervous system (connecting the central
(area concerned with control of body nervous system to involuntary muscles,
movement). The frontal lobe is the biggest glands)
part of the brain and comparatively bigger in
humans than in animals, it is concerned with The autonomic nervous system is further
the thinking and reasoning part of the mind. subdivided into two systems:

Parietal lobe: Contains the somatosensory Sympathetic nervous system (readies body
cortex (area in which information from the for activity by use of energy): It activates in
skin senses-touch, temperature, pressure is response to stress by displaying symptoms of
carried). Also responsible for comprehending increased heartbeat, perspiration, decreased
language. digestion, etc.

Occipital lobe: Primary function involved Parasympathetic nervous system (readies

with vision, it contains the sensory area that body for restoration of energy): It activates
receives input from the eyes. when we are relaxed, it works to reverse the
effects caused by the sympathetic nervous
Temporal lobe: Located along the side of system, by increasing the digestive rate,
each hemisphere. Primary function involves slows heartbeat, lowers blood pressure and
hearing and receives input from the ears. diverts blood away from the skeletal muscles,
etc.)
Size of the cells: the nerve axons (the slender PNS nerve axons can be up to 1 meter long
projections of nerve cells that carry impulses) (for instance, the nerve that activates the big
are much shorter, rarely longer than a few toe).
millimetres.
Regeneration Capacity of the cells: Nerve Peripheral nerve cells have the capacity for
cells in the central nervous system do not regeneration.
have regenerative capabilities.

Q3) Delineate the secretion and functions of following endocrine glands:-

(a) Thyroid gland

(b) Gonads (male and female)

(c) Pineal

(d) Pituitary gland

(e) Pancreas

A3: a) Thyroid Gland

 The thyroid gland, a butterfly-shaped endocrine organ, is located in the neck, anterior to
the trachea or windpipe. It also has two lobes with a middle section called the isthmus.
Each lobe measures about 4-5 cm in length and 1.5 cm in width.
 The thyroid gland secretes the thyroid hormones (T3, T4 and calcitonin) which are
responsible for our growth, metabolism and development. These thyroid hormones also
have the distinguishing ability to pick up iodine from the bloodstream which is called
‘iodine trapping’. T3 has 3 atoms of iodine and T4 has 4 atoms of iodine.
 The follicular cells, which is the major cells in the thyroid gland, releases T3 and T4
(thyroxin), and the parafollicular cells (also called C3 cells) are the neuroendocrine cells
that reside in the connective tissues. The parafollicular cells release the hormone
calcitonin which regulates the level of calcium and phosphorus in the body.
 T3 inhibits the production of the thyroid stimulating hormone or TSH from the pituitary
gland. As T3 levels rise, TSH levels reduce, and thus a negative feedback loop is created.
The pituitary gland is also prompted to release TSH when the hypothalamus releases
thyrotropin-releasing hormones (TRH).
 Abnormality of hormonal secretion from the thyroid gland- such as over activity of the
thyroid gland can cause hyperthyroidism which is accompanied by symptoms of dry eyes,
bulging eyes (in the case of Grave’s disease) tremors, weakness of the body, anxiety,
thinning hair, insomnia, light sensitivity, an elevated pulse, etc.
 An under-activity/ low production of hormonal secretion from the thyroid gland can cause
hypothyroidism accompanied with dry skin, reduced heart rate, sluggishness, puffiness,
hair loss, lethargy and weight gain.

b) Gonads (Male Testes and Female Ovaries)

In both sexes, the luteinizing hormone plays an important role in the secretion of hormones
from the gonads. The LH targets the theca cells surrounding the follicles that secrete
oestrogen.
The Follicle Stimulating Hormone secreted from the anterior pituitary gland induces
“superovulation” in both humans and animals. Superovulation refers to the
development/maturation of more than the usual number of mature follicles leading to an
increased number of mature gametes. The FSH stimulates the granulosa cells for the
maturation of the follicles.

Gonads in the male body (Testes):-

 The luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the Leydig cells also known as the
interstitial Leydig cells which are located adjacent to the seminiferous cells to secrete
testosterone from the testes. The seminiferous tubules of the testes are the site of the
germination, maturation, and transportation of the sperm cells.
 The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) works in sustaining the maturation of the
sperm cells.
 Testosterone release leads to sperm production as well as the emergence of the
secondary sexual characteristics in males such as a deep, hoarse voice facial hair
growth, as well as underarm, abdominal and pubic hair growth, enlargement of the
Adam’s apple (larynx), heavier skull and bone structure, improved stature (the
average adult male is taller than the average adult female), etc.
 Testosterone also affects the overall physiological, physical, mental and emotional or
psychological function of the person:-
o Role in blood circulation: Testosterone release leads to production of RBCs in
the bone marrow which counteracts with the effects of anaemia often found in
the elderly population.
o Role in the CNS: Decreased T levels are related with feelings of depression;
testosterone therapy has been effective in reversing the levels of depression
leading to better mood overall.
o Role in metabolism: Testosterone secretion is useful for fat metabolism and
helps with reducing the likelihood of type-2 diabetes.
o Role in sexual function: For males, decreased testosterone levels are often
reported with decreased libido, difficulty reaching arousal, decreased pleasure
from sexual intercourse and reduced power on their orgasms.
Gonads in the female body (Ovaries):-

 The ovaries secrete mainly two hormones, oestrogen and progesterone. In females,
ovulation of mature follicles on the ovary is induced by a large burst of LH or the
luteinizing hormonal secretion.
 The oestrogen hormone:-
o Is responsible for the development of the secondary female sexual characteristics
such as enlarged breasts, enlarged external genitalia, increase in weight (mainly
the hips) and regulates the menstrual cycle.
o Is responsible for the maturation of the follicle cells (the cells that produce the
oestrogen hormone) in the follicular phase.
o Oestrogen also protects bone health.

 The follicle cells then transform into the corpus luteum which then secretes the
progesterone hormone:-
o The progesterone hormone is necessary for the maintenance of pregnancy.
Secretion of the progesterone hormone leads to the thickening of the uterus
(endometrium) for fertilization of the embryo as well as preparing the breasts
for milk production.

c) Pineal Gland

 The pineal gland, also called epiphysis, or pineal organ or pineal body, is a pine cone
shaped organ located in the midbrain. The main output of the pineal gland and how it
communicates with the rest of the nervous system is through the secretion of melatonin.
 The pineal gland secretes melatonin through pinealocytes (the secretory cells of the pineal
gland) which has a role in our circadian rhythm (the body’s biological 24 hour sleep-wake
cycle which is characterized by the timings of daylight and darkness in the environment).
The circadian rhythm also involves the daily bodily rhythms of when you feel tired,
asleep, wake up, and feel alert around the same time each day.
 Melatonin secretion from the pineal gland is affected by amount of light entering the eye
in the retina. The SCN (suprachiasmatic nerve) located in the retina, sends neural signals
to the hypothalamus and the spinal cord which then secretes melatonin. Melatonin
secretion is highest in the middle of the night and lowest by daylight hours.
 Melatonin also controls the body's metabolism, sex drive, immune system, reproduction,
appetite, balance and muscular coordination.
 The pineal gland also has a role in reproductive function: The pineal gland, through the
release of melatonin, inhibits the secretion of the gonad related hormones (or
gonadotropins) mainly the luteinizing hormone and the follicle stimulating hormone
secreted from the anterior pituitary gland.
d) Pituitary Gland

 The pituitary gland also known as the master gland for its role in endocrine function. The
pituitary gland is a small part in the brain seated at the base of the skull and attached to a
brain region, the hypothalamus that controls its activity.
 The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts: the anterior pituitary (that makes up
80% of the gland) and the posterior pituitary.
 The anterior pituitary is connected by short blood vessels. The hormonal activity is
directed by the hypothalamus that sends chemical messages to the gland that either inhibit
or stimulate hormonal production.
 The hormones produced from the anterior pituitary are the human growth hormone (GH),
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH), follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and prolactin.
 The posterior pituitary gland secrets hormones directly into the bloodstream under the
command of the brain, from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland through the nerve
cells. It secretes mainly two hormones: vasopressin and oxytocin.
 Vasopressin (also known as the anti-diuretic hormone or ADH) targets the kidneys that
conserve water and is important for fluid and electrolyte balance.
 Oxytocin is important during pregnancy mainly during childbirth as it regulates the
muscles of the uterus for contraction as well as the smooth muscles of the breast for milk
production.

e) Pancreas

 The pancreas is the abdominal organ located behind the stomach, surrounded by the liver
and spleen. The pancreas has a role in digestion and regulation of the blood sugar level in
the body.
 The pancreas releases the pancreatic juices or the digestive enzymes of amylase (to
breakdown sugar), proteases (to break down proteins) and lipase (to break down fats).
 The pancreas has both endocrine functioning (secretion of hormones directly into the
bloodstream) and exocrine functioning (the secretion of the pancreatic juices into the
pancreatic duct).
 In endocrine functioning, the islets of Langerhans are the groups of pancreatic cells that
secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood.
 The islets of Langerhans consist of alpha, beta and delta cells. The Alpha (or A) cells
secrete glucagon, the Beta (or B) cells secrete insulin and the delta (or C) cells secrete
somatostatin that inhibits the secretion of the other pancreatic hormones of glucagon and
insulin. The islets of Langerhans was discovered and named after the German anatomist,
Paul Langerhans in the 1800s.
 Glucagon’s role in the body is to prevent the blood glucose levels from dropping too low.
It stimulates the conversion of the stored glycogen in the liver into glucose, which is then
released directly into the bloodstream. This process is known as glycogenolysis.
 Glucagon also stimulates the production of glucose from the proteins/fats. This process is
known as gluconeogenesis.
 Glucagon works along with the insulin hormone to regulate the blood sugar levels.
Glucagon releases glucose to prevent the blood sugar level from dropping too low
(known as hypoglycaemia) and insulin is released to prevent the blood sugar levels from
rising too high known as hyperglycaemia.
 Insulin controls how the body uses carbohydrates found in food. The main action of
insulin is to allow the cells to take up glucose to be used as a source of energy and to
maintain the amount of glucose in the blood sugar levels. It stores extra glucose as fats in
the body for conservation and later use when glucose levels are low.
 Problems with levels of insulin secretion and hormonal functioning can result in diabetes,
both type-1 and type-2 diabetes.
 Overall, the hormone insulin plays a role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins. It allows the muscle cells to take up amino acids (the building blocks of
proteins), and it inhibits the breakdown and release of fats by storing the extra glucose as
fats in the body.
 At times of acute stress, the physiological response being the secretion of adrenaline
causes the insulin levels to stop so that the body can prepare for the situation from the
higher blood glucose levels.

Q4) What are some of the abnormalities of endocrine glands? Mention any 5
abnormalities/disorders.

1. Thyroid gland disorders: Goitre, a condition of an enlarged thyroid gland resulting in

swelling of the neck, is caused by iodine deficiency in the body. Without adequate
iodine, the thyroid progressively enlarges (develops a goiter) as it tries to keep up
with demand for thyroid hormone production. The TSI (thyroid stimulating
immunoglobin) is also responsible for the uncontrolled production of TH as it is not
regulated by a feedback loop, thus leading to the formation of goitre.

2. A disorder of the anterior pituitary gland caused by hypoactivity (lower than

required secretion of the hormones) is acromicria. The rare disorder is characterized
by the atrophy (degeneration) of the extremities of the body leading to a smallness of
the hands, limbs, nose and jaw. Signs of acromicria also include hypothyroidism. It is
caused by the under-secretion of the GH from the hypothalamus and a case of
panhypopituitarism (a condition in which the pituitary gland stops making most or all
of its hormones).

3. A disorder of the posterior pituitary gland caused by hyperactivity is SIADH

(Symptoms of inappropriate secretion of ADH, anti-diuretic hormone). It is
characterized by the loss of sodium through urine due to over/hyper-secretion of
 ADH. Causes involve cerebral tumours, lung tumours and lung cancer. Symptoms
involve weight loss and loss of appetite, weakness of the muscles-spasms, cramps,
headaches, nausea and vomiting.

4. Diabetes Inspidus: A disorder of the posterior pituitary gland caused by

hypoactivity which is characterized by excess excretion of water from the kidneys.
a. Deficiency of ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) due to lesion of degeneration of
the supra optic and paraventricular nuclei located in the hypothalamus and by
the atrophy of the posterior pituitary resulting in its hypoactivity.
b. Signs include polyuria and polydipsia (intake of excess water) as well as
dehydration.

5. Disorders of the Adrenal gland:

a) Cushing’s disease: Case of a hyperactive adrenal cortex leading to a
rounded face, obesity, thin and frail skin and poor wound healing.
b) Addison’s disease: Caused by a hypo-active adrenal cortex leading to
decreased appetite and weight loss, cold intolerance and stress
susceptibility.