DK - Pocket Genius - Earth
DK - Pocket Genius - Earth
DK - Pocket Genius - Earth
Earth
Earth
Locators Locators
A red dot shows the Red shaded
location of a feature areas show
and a red rectangle the extent of
of larger features. larger features.
Area locations Area shading
4 | EARTH
Sun
Earth
Jupiter
The solar system
The solar system is made up of the Sun, eight planets,
more than 170 moons, and millions of small, rocky bodies,
such as asteroids and comets. The planets revolve around the
Sun in paths called orbits. The four planets closest to the Sun
are balls of rock and metal, while the other four are
made up mostly of gas and liquid.
Geological timeline
People who study the Earth are called geologists. Using sources
such as fossils, rocks, and minerals, they have divided the Earth’s
history into different portions of time. The longest are called eons,
which are made up of eras, which consist of periods.
First life
About three billion years ago, the first traces
of life appeared in the form of bacteria living
in shallow seas. They built mounds out of
sand, called stromatolites. These mounds
are still forming in some areas today, and
provide a record of life on the Earth.
Stromatolites
eon phanerozoic
Complex life
Life-forms grew much more complex
during the Cambrian period. From
Ordovician times onward, small
land plants began to develop. By
the Devonian period, bigger fernlike
and treelike plants formed the first
forests, along with giant fungi, such
as Prototaxites. These provided
habitats for the first land animals.
About 7 in (18 cm) Aglaophyton
are dwarfed by giant fungi
GEOLOGICAL TIMELINE | 7
Age of dinosaurs
Dinosaurs first evolved in the
Triassic Period as small, two-legged
animals, such as Coelophysis. They
Homo
continued to evolve in the Jurassic habilis
Period, and became the dominant
life-forms on land.
Mass extinction
Fossil records show that at
the end of the Cretaceous
Period, about 65 million
years ago, an asteroid or
comet collided with the
Earth. It is thought to
have killed huge numbers
of species, including the
dinosaurs. This marked
the end of the Mesozoic Era.
8 | EARTH
Direction of the
Earth’s rotation
Plate tectonics
More than 200 million years ago, the Earth consisted of one large landmass—a “supercontinent”
called Pangaea. The movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates over millions of years broke up
this landmass, creating the modern continents. This movement of plates is known as plate
tectonics, and continues to take place today.
Plate boundary
Where two tectonic plates meet,
different types of plate boundary are
formed, based on how the plates move.
Plate movement can cause earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions.
Plate
boundary
Most earthquakes
occur in the Ring
of Fire, which
covers many plate
edges around the
Hotspots are areas Pacific Ocean
of high volcanic activity
12 | EARTH
Fault systems
The constant movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates causes its
crust to split apart. This can lead to massive blocks of rock slipping
past one another, resulting in huge cracks in the Earth’s surface
called faults. Plates sometimes get stuck as they push past each
other, causing energy to build up. When they eventually
slip free, the sudden jolt can cause an earthquake.
The San Andreas Fault slices across California’s Location From Cape Mendocino,
coastal region. To its west is the Pacific plate, northern California, to the Gulf of California
which stretches from the edge of California almost PLate boundary tyPe Transform
to Asia. To the east is the North American plate,
Length 808 miles (1,300 km)
which makes up most of the continent. The
inhabited areas on this fault, particularly in
southern California, are prone to earthquakes.
Africa’s Great Rift Valley runs through This fault lay inactive for a thousand
the middle of Kenya. It is part of a huge set of years. But in 2004, a part of it slipped, causing
cracks in the Earth’s crust called the East African a huge earthquake and tsunami in the Indian
Rift System. In northeastern Africa, this system Ocean. Giant waves swept far inland, destroying
divides the African plate from the Arabian plate, coastlines and killing about 280,000 people.
cutting past the Sinai Peninsula.
Sinai Peninsula
55 tons
Cave of Crystals
Giant crystals of selenite, a form of the mineral gypsum,
are found 1,000 ft (300 m) below the Naica mine in
Mexico. They formed when a magma chamber boiled
the water below the Earth’s surface at a consistent
temperature for 500,000 years. The heat solidified the
crystals in the water and helped them grow. They are
now some of the largest natural crystals in the world.
16 | EARTH
LAND | 17
Land
About 30 percent of the Earth’s surface is
covered by land. A wide range of landscapes
are found on the Earth, including mountains,
deserts, forests, and grasslands. Many of these
landscapes are shaped by the wind and rain,
while others, such as deltas and valleys, are
formed by rivers and glaciers. Human activity
can also shape the landscape. People use the
countryside as farmland to grow crops or herd
animals, while urban areas feature tall buildings
and well-developed roads and highways.
voLcanic effect
Volcanic eruptions can change
the landscape in many ways.
When lava comes into contact
with water, it can cool to form
islands. Also, volcanic ash acts
as fertilizer, helping plants grow.
18 | LAND
World biomes
Regions that share the same climate, soils, vegetation,
and animals are known as biomes. Scientists divide the
world into a number of biomes, or habitats, ranging
from dry deserts with very little life to wet rainforests
teeming with plants and animals.
Wetlands
Mountains are high, rocky
Grasslands areas that are colder than
Tundra most lower areas. Many
mountains are permanently
Deserts covered in ice and snow.
Oceans
WORLD BIOMES | 19
EUROPE
Coniferous forests
form the world’s largest
ASIA
continuous land biome. They
consist of coniferous trees
AFRICA that cover about 17 percent
of the Earth’s land area.
EQUATOR
Mountains
focus on... Masses of rock that rise high above their
life surroundings are called mountains. They
Many plants are pushed up by plate movements over
and animals have
adapted to the cold many millions of years to create soaring
temperatures of peaks. At present, mountains cover
the mountains.
20 percent of the Earth’s land surface.
Rocky Mountains
▲ Lady Amherst’s
pheasant lives in the
The Rocky Mountains are made up of at least 100
mountain forests of
separate ranges. They are part of one of the largest
Asia. It moves up and
mountain belts on Earth—the Western cordillera. The
down the mountains
landscape of the mountain chain is complex and varied,
with the seasons.
with towering peaks and active volcanoes.
Andes
Urals
Also known as “the stone belt,” the Ural Location From the Arctic Ocean
mountain range separates Europe from Asia. to the border between Russia and Kazakhstan
The central and southern parts of this range highest peak Narodnaya, Russia
are covered with thick forests, while farther (6,215 ft/1,895 m)
north, there are alpine meadows and tundra.
Length 1,500 miles (2,400 km)
22 | LAND
Pyrenees Alps
Atlas Mountains
Drakensberg Plateau
Himalayas
Formed within the last 50 million years, the location From northern Pakistan
Himalayas are one of the world’s youngest and India, across Nepal and Bhutan to China
mountain belts. They are the highest mountains highest peak Mount Everest, Nepal
on the Earth, and are getting higher at a rate of (29,035 ft/8,850 m)
1
/6 in (4 mm) every year, because the Indian plate
length 1,500 miles (2,400 km)
is still pushing into the Eurasian plate.
Southern Alps
New Zealand’s Alps were formed by the location New Zealand’s South
collision of the Pacific plate and the Australian Island, from northeast to southwest
plate. The range is at its highest near the center. highest peak Mount Cook, New Zealand
Its western slopes are covered in forests because (12,285 ft/3,745 m)
of the year-round rains brought by the winds
length 300 miles (500 km)
blowing from that direction.
Transantarctic Mountains
Volcanoes
A volcano is both an opening in the Earth’s focus on...
crust through which magma, ash, and hot types
There are many
gases erupt from below its surface, and the different types of
structure created by this eruption. Volcanic volcano, depending
on their shape or the
eruptions can cause widespread destruction. way they were formed.
About 7,000 years ago, a massive Kilauea is the most active of the overlapping
eruption destroyed Mount Mazama and formed volcanoes that have built up the island of Hawaii,
a crater, or caldera. over time, heavy rain and which rises more than 13,000 ft (4,000 m) from the
snowfall caused water levels in the crater to ocean floor. since 1983, flows from Kilauea have
rise, creating crater Lake. As the lake is not fed covered more than 40 sq miles (100 sq km).
by streams or rivers, which carry sediments—
particles of rock, mineral, or plant and animal
remains—its water is extremely clear. LOCATION southeast Hawaii
TYPE shield volcano
hEIGhT 4,000 ft (1,220 m)
LOCATION southern cascade Range, oregon
TYPE collapsed stratovolcano
hEIGhT 8,170 ft (2,490 m)
VoLcAnoEs | 27
surtsey
Europe’s highest active volcano, Etna is Rising from the savanna plains of eastern
almost constantly erupting. It produces Africa, Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain
rivers of basaltic lava that flow down to on the continent. It is made up of three
the foot of the volcano on all sides. volcanic cones—Kibo, Mawenzi, and
Shira—of which the central snow-capped
cone, Kibo, is the highest.
LOCATION Eastern Sicily, southwest Italy
TYPE Stratovolcano
hEIGhT 10,990 ft (3,350 m)
VOLCANOES | 29
Mount Fuji
Mount Erebus
lowered
the Earth’s
temperatures
by 1ºF (0.5ºC) for a year
LAND | 31
Volcanic features
When magma cools and solidifies under the focuS on...
Earth’s surface, it creates a variety of features LAVA
Magma that has
in different ways. Some are formed from erupted onto the
Earth’s surface is called
igneous rock, some from water heated up by lava. It can take various
magma, and others from collapsed craters. forms after it cools.
Yellowstone Caldera
This huge volcanic caldera is 45 miles (72 km) LOCATION Yellowstone national
wide. It contains about 200 geysers—springs Park, Wyoming
that release bursts of hot water and steam. It TYPE Geyser, hot spring, and fumarole
also has thousands of fumaroles (volcanic outlets
AgE 600,000 years
that emit steam and other gases), boiling mud
pools, and hot springs producing a steady
stream of hot water.
VoLcAnIc fEATuREs | 33
Valley of
Devil’s Tower
Ten Thousand Smokes
In 1912, novarupta Volcano erupted,
filling the ukak valley with ash. The water
below the volcanic material heated up and
worked its way up to the surface. for the next
15 years, snakelike wisps of steam escaped
through thousands of cracks, which gave
this valley its name.
Giant’s Causeway
LOCATION Northernmost
point of County Antrim,
Northern Ireland, UK
TYPE Fissure vent
AgE 50–60
million years
VOLCANIC FEATURES | 35
Aïr Mountains
Whin Sill
Rocks
Rocks are solid materials—consisting of one or more minerals—
that make up the Earth’s crust. Based on how they are formed,
rocks can be classified into three main types—igneous, which form
when magma becomes solid; sedimentary, which form when rock
pieces or organic matter get deposited; and metamorphic, which
form when there is a change in temperature or pressure.
Granite Basalt
type Igneous
formation Intense heat
minerals Sodium plagioclase,
pyroxene, and olivine
Color Grayish black to black when fresh
type Igneous
formation Intense heat
minerals Potassium-feldspar, quartz,
sodium, and mica
Color White-red, pale green-blue,
and gray-black
ROCKS | 37
Schist Slate
Schist originates deep within mountain Slate is mud that has been heavily
ranges. It usually has a medium to coarse compressed, or packed together by
texture, with visible pressure. Because of this
mineral grains. It is rich compression, it is hard
in minerals such as and waterproof, and
mica and quartz. can be split into thin
sheets—all of which
make it ideal for
covering roofs.
type Metamorphic
formation High pressure and temperature type Metamorphic
minerals Quartz, mica, and feldspar formation Pressure
color Variable, including white and shades minerals Quartz, mica, and feldspar
of gray, green, blue, brown, and black
color Gray, also tinged green or purple
Marble
type Metamorphic
formation Heat and pressure
minerals Calcite
color Mainly white, pink, green,
brown, and black
38 | LAND
Limestone Sandstone
type Sedimentary
formation
Surface deposition
type Sedimentary
minerals Quartz
formation Surface water deposition and feldspar
minerals Calcite color Variable, including
color Variable, but mostly white or pale white, yellow, brown, to
shades of yellow, gray, or brown red-black
Conglomerate
type Sedimentary
formation Surface water
compression
minerals Calcite
color Mainly white, pink,
green, brown, and black
ROCKS | 39
Coal
type Sedimentary
formation
Compressed
plant debris
minerals Clay
color Black
Evaporites
type Sedimentary
formation Surface evaporation
of salty water
minerals Halite and gypsum
color Usually white or pale shades
of yellow and gray, through to red Crystal-like structure
40 | LAND
Rivers
A river is a channel of water that flows toward an ocean, lake,
or sea. Smaller streams of water that flow into a river are known
as its tributaries. Rivers are a powerful erosive force and they
can wear down mountains, carve out valleys, and create wide
flood plains.
Mississippi
Along with its tributaries, the Mississippi forms LOCATION US, from Canadian
a huge river system, which covers almost all of border in Minnesota to Gulf of Mexico
the US. Levees, or floodbanks, have been built LeNgTh 2,350 miles (3,780 km)
along this river for protection against floods.
TrIbuTArIes Missouri, Ohio, Arkansas,
and Tennessee
RIVERS | 41
Amazon
In terms of both the size of its basin (hollow LOCATION Peruvian Andes, across
depression) and the volume of water it carries, Brazil to the Atlantic Ocean
the Amazon is the largest river on the Earth. Its LeNgTh 3,995 miles (6,430 km)
slow-moving stretches are covered with plants,
TrIbuTArIes Jurua, Madeira, and Negro
such as giant water lilies, the leaves of which
can grow up to about 6½ ft (2 m) wide.
Thames Danube
The Thames originates from springs The Danube begins at the meeting
in the Cotswolds, a ridge of limestone hills. point of the Brege and Brigach rivers. The river
The longest river entirely in England, it flows also features the Iron Gate—the deepest gorge
through a wide valley with clay deposits. in Europe, with sides 2,625 ft (800 m) high.
Nile Congo
The Nile is the longest river in the The Congo is an important source of food and
world. It is a valuable source of water for the transportation to the people who live along its
region and has produced rich farmland along banks, but they live with the risk of flooding. Its
its banks. In the winter, rains and snowmelt flow is so strong and constant that it does not form
from the Ethiopian mountains would cause the a delta (a deposition of sediments at a river’s
Nile to flood, depositing fertile soil across mouth). Instead, it flows far out into the Atlantic
the flood plain. However, the construction Ocean, depositing sediments on the ocean floor.
of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 controlled
this annual flooding and farmers now have
to use artificial fertilizers.
Indus
Ganges
LOCATION From east Africa, across One of the most sacred rivers in India,
the continent to the Atlantic Ocean the Ganges is worshiped as a goddess by
LeNgTh 2,900 miles (4,670 km) Hindus. It carries more sand and silt to the
sea than any other river in the world.
TrIbuTArIes Kwa, Lualaba, Sangha,
and Ubangi
LOCATION Along the Himalayas to the
Bay of Bengal in India
LeNgTh 1,555 miles (2,505 km)
TrIbuTArIes Brahmaputra, Ghaghar,
and Yamuna
Murray
40 million
homeless
LAND | 45
and passages.
Niagara Falls
The Niagara Falls are the second largest waterfall location Border between
in the world, and include the Bridal Veil, American, Canada and US
and Horseshoe falls. Originally, 51/2 billion tYpe Waterfall
gallons (20 billion liters) of water flowed over the
river Niagara
falls every hour. Today, dams and tunnels have
been built to control the flow.
RIVER FEATURES | 47
Vercors
Okavango Delta
Lake Ladoga
The oldest lake in the world, Baikal The Caspian Sea is the Earth’s largest inland body
formed about 25 million years ago. It continues of water. It was once open sea, but got landlocked
to widen at a rate of about 1 in (21/2 cm) every following the movement of tectonic plates. Its
year. It is also the Earth’s deepest lake, water level is constantly rising and falling due to
containing 20 percent of the planet’s entire climate change, which affects the level of the rivers
surface fresh water. flowing into it and the rate of evaporation.
Dead Sea
LAKES | 51
Lake Vostok
Wetlands
When water collects on land and cannot drain, it builds up and
forms flooded areas called wetlands. Lagoons are areas of shallow
sea separated by islands or reefs, while swamps are wooded areas
submerged in water. Marshes are similar to swamps, but they are
covered with grasses and reeds.
The bottom of this swamp is covered with fallen LOCATION About 25 miles (40 km)
trees and other plants. At its center is a circular inland from the Atlantic Ocean, in North
freshwater lake called Lake Drummond. These Carolina and Virginia
wetlands are unusual in being located above TYPE Swamp
sea level, whereas most swamps are found
AREA 600 sq miles (1,550 sq km)
in low-lying natural basins or craters.
WETLANDS | 53
Everglades
Llanos wetlands
Every May, heavy rains flood the Llanos LOCATION Orinoco River and its
wetlands, creating islands of forests. These tributaries in western Venezuela
waterlogged areas are important habitats TYPE Swamp and marsh
for water birds, supporting about 90 percent
AREA 4,000 sq miles (10,000 sq km)
of the world’s population of the endangered
scarlet ibis.
54 | LAND
Pantanal
The world’s largest freshwater wetland, the LOCATION Mato Grosso and
Pantanal occupies about a third of the upper Mato Grosso do Sul states of Brazil,
basin of the Paraguay River. When the river extending into Bolivia and Paraguay
floods every year, this swamp acts as a TYPE Swamp and marsh
sponge and soaks up the excess water.
AREA 50,000 sq miles (130,000 sq km)
Camargue Sudd
This wetland is famous for its unique These marshes are a landscape of
breed of white horses and for its birds, including reed-beds and papyrus, with areas of water
greater flamingos and black-winged stilts. that are choked by dense mats of floating water
hyacinth. An incomplete and abandoned canal
project on its eastern side has left a huge trough,
LOCATION Rhône Delta, France which blocks the migration of large mammals.
TYPE Lagoon and marsh
AREA 330 sq miles (850 sq km)
LOCATION White Nile River, southern Sudan
TYPE Marsh
AREA 13,300 sq miles (34,500 sq km)
WETLANDS | 55
Sundarbans
Coorong
The Coorong is a long, shallow lagoon that LOCATION Mouth of the Murray
is separated from the Southern Ocean by a River, Australia
narrow sand dune peninsula. It is one of the TYPE Lagoon
best sites for bird-watching in Australia, as
AREA 80 sq miles (200 sq km)
it is home to more than 230 species of bird.
56 | LAND
The Malaspina Glacier features the Covering 80 percent of Greenland, this ice
largest piedmont lobe in the world. This glacial sheet is the largest ice mass in the northern
type occurs when a valley glacier—formed hemisphere. Most northern Atlantic icebergs
when a glacier moves down a mountain into originate from this glacier, which contains
a valley—spreads out onto a low, flat area. 10 percent of the world’s
fresh water. It has an
average thickness of
Location Coast of St. Elias Mountains, Alaska 5,900 ft (1,790 m).
type Piedmont lobe
aRea 1,500 sq miles (3,900 sq km)
GLACIERS | 57
Vatnajökull Icecap
LOCATION Antarctica
TYPE Ice sheet
AREA 5.3 million sq miles (13.7 million sq km)
58 | EARTH
LAND | 59
so harsh
that only a few birds, including
emperor penguins, can breed
during this time
Glacial features
As glaciers move through and wear away mountainous regions,
they create unique landforms. Great masses of ice can carve out
valleys, flatten mountains, and pick up rocks and carry them for
great distances. Some glacial features only become apparent
when glaciers melt and disappear.
location Yorkshire, UK
type Erratic
glacier Ice sheet
GLACIAL FEATURES | 61
Clew Bay
Drumlins are long, oval mounds of sediment location County Mayo, Ireland
that have been smoothed in the direction of a type Drumlin
glacier’s flow. In Clew Bay, clusters of drumlins
glacier Valley glacier
appear as islands in the sea.
Deserts
Areas of land that receive an average rainfall fOCUS ON...
of less than 10 in (250 mm) a year are called lAnD forms
Deserts feature a
deserts. Hot deserts have high temperatures variety of landscapes,
year-round, while in cold deserts, the winters from mountains and
plateaus to plains.
are freezing.
Its high altitude and northerly position This is the driest place on the Earth,
make the Great Basin Desert the only cold and includes stretches of land where rain has
desert in the US. Its vegetation includes never been recorded. In certain areas of this
sagebrush, blackbrush, and shadscale, desert, coastal fogs form, providing some
along with a few cacti. moisture for the growth of plants such as cacti.
location Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, location The coast of northern Chile,
Wyoming, Colorado, and California west of the Andes, between Arica and Vallenar
type Sandy and gravelly type Rocky and salty
area 158,000 sq miles (409,000 sq km) area 40,600 sq miles (105,200 sq km)
rainfall 10 in (250 mm) rainfall Less than 3/5 in (15 mm)
DESERTS | 63
▲ In some deserts, wind covers ▲ Inselbergs, also known as ▲ Desert sand dunes are hills
the rocks in a dark coating called monadnocks, are isolated hills of sand made by wind blowing
desert varnish. Many of these that stand out above the flat over the desert. They occur in
rocks feature ancient rock art. desert surface around them. varying shapes and sizes.
Kalahari Desert
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula contains some of the LOCATION From Syria to Yemen and
largest sandy desert areas in the world. This Oman, east of the Red Sea
includes the Ar Rub ’al Khali, or Empty Quarter, TYPE Sandy and gravelly
in the south, which covers an area about
AREA 900,000 sq miles (2.3 million sq km)
the size of France.
RAINFALL 2–8 in (50–200 mm)
DESERTS | 65
Gobi Desert
As in most Australian deserts, the sand here LOCATION North of western Australia,
is bright red because it is coated in iron oxides, extending as far as the Indian Ocean
which is similar to rust. The Great Sandy Desert TYPE Gravelly and sandy
is known for its dunes, which the wind constantly
AREA 130,000 sq miles (340,000 sq km)
changes into new shapes.
RAINFALL 10–12 in (250–300 mm)
66 | EARTH
landForms oF mojave
Found within the Mojave Desert of California,
Death Valley is the lowest, hottest, and driest
part of the North American continent. Large rocks,
called “sailing stones,” appear to move across
the ground of this desert—no one knows how.
LAND | 67
stones move
mysteriously across the land,
leaving trails on the ground
68 | LAnD
Forests
foCus on... A forest is an area with a high density of trees.
trees Covering about 30 percent of the Earth’s land
forests are made surface, forests are found in regions with
up of two main types
of tree—evergreen enough heat and rainfall to support tree
and deciduous. growth. The trees provide oxygen and food-
rich habitats for a wide variety of animals.
These forests are famous for being home High rainfall and coastal fogs create
to the world’s largest tree species—the giant ideal conditions for the growth of some
sequoia. These trees may grow for over 2,000 huge trees in this forest, such as the redwood,
years and reach almost 328 ft (100 m) in height. Douglas fir, sitka spruce, and western hemlock.
Amazon rainforest
The largest area of tropical rainforest in the location From the Andes,
world, the Amazon rainforest covers much South America, to the Atlantic Ocean
of the basin of the Amazon River. More than type Tropical rainforest
half of the world’s species of plant, animal,
area 2.3 million sq miles (6 million sq km)
and insect live in this rainforest.
Madagascan rainforest
This mixed forest mostly features cedar pine, location Northeast China, through Korea,
black fir, and local species of spruce, ash, southeast Russia, and northern Japan
maple, linden, and walnut. Its wildlife includes
type Deciduous temperate and evergreen
mammals such as the musk deer and the rare
temperate forests
Siberian tiger.
area 1.2 million sq miles (3.2 million sq km)
FORESTS | 73
This forest grows on the eastern slopes location Northeast Queensland, from
of the country’s coastal mountain ranges, Cape York south to the Connors Range
where the average annual rainfall is more
type Tropical rainforest
than 59 in (150 cm). Its trees range from
65 ft (20 m) to 130 ft (40 m) tall. area 4,000 sq miles (10,500 sq km)
Grasslands
Grasslands are areas where there is not enough rain for many trees
to grow, but there is enough to prevent deserts from forming. There
are two types—temperate grasslands, which have hot summers,
cold winters, and year-round rainfall; and tropical grasslands,
or savanna, which have wet and dry seasons.
The Great Plains is by far the largest This huge plain has varying landscapes.
area of grassland in North America. Its land The eastern side has a mild climate all year
is so fertile that most of it is now used for round, and features pampas grass, which is
agriculture. Only one percent is still in its known for its tall stems with silky, featherlike
natural, wild state. flowers. Toward the Andes, the land is extremely
dry and turns into a semi-desert.
Serengeti Plains
These plains feature a mix of grasslands and location From northwest Tanzania,
forests, and have the largest populations of east of Lake Victoria, to southwest Kenya
grazing animals in Africa. Every summer, when type Tropical
the grasses dry up, more than 1.3 million blue
area 8,900 sq miles (23,000 sq km)
wildebeest, 200,000 zebras, and 40,000 Thomson’s
gazelles migrate across the Serengeti in search
of fresh grass and drinking water.
Tundra
The term tundra is used to describe a vast and almost treeless
landscape that covers about 20 percent of the Earth’s land surface.
The ground remains frozen for most of the year. In some areas, the
top layer thaws during the spring and the summer. Where the ground
remains frozen for at least two years, it is known as permafrost.
Eurasian tundra
This region features a variety of landscapes, location From Iceland in the west,
from the freezing damp plains of Siberia to through northern Scandinavia, Russia,
the island groups of the southern Arctic Ocean. and Siberia
A number of small, long-lived plants, such as area 1.3 million sq miles (3.3 million sq km)
mosses and rushes, are found here. These
temperature -76°F–77°F (-60°C–25°C)
plants grow only during a short, 90-day period
from May to July. Many migratory animals arrive rainfall 8–12 in (200–300 mm)
during these warmer months.
Tundra colors
In the tundra, the temperature rises during the summer,
and the frozen topsoil melts to form small pools. The
ground thaws just enough to allow plants to reproduce,
before the winter sets in. When the spring arrives, these
plants flower, and the region shows splashes of color.
LAND | 79
the Sun
In the summer,
never sets
over the tundra
80 | LAND
Agricultural areas
Farming began in the Middle East around 10,000 years ago, and
today, it actively involves two billion people worldwide. Farming can
be arable (growing crops) or pastoral (rearing livestock such as cattle
and pigs). Farming practices depend on many things, including
climate, altitude, soil condition, economics, and local traditions.
TYPE Arable
AREA 14 million sq miles (36 million sq km)
mAin counTRiEs China, US, India,
and Russia
Cattle are an important source of meat, but are
also kept for their milk. The largest cattle farms
are found where there are vast areas of open
land, such as North America, South America,
and Australia.
TYPE Pastoral
AREA 11.2 million sq miles (29 million sq km)
mAin counTRiEs US, China, Brazil,
Argentina, and Australia
AGRICULTURAL AREAS | 81
Growing rice requires lots of water. In A plantation is a large estate where only
hilly areas, rice is grown in terraces—levels cut one type of crop is grown. Most large-
into the hillsides to keep soil and water in place. scale commercial crops that are grown in
Rice was first cultivated in Asia, which remains warm climates are produced in plantations.
the world’s largest producer of this crop. These include tea, coffee, bananas, palm oil,
cocoa, sugar cane, and cotton.
TYPE Arable
AREA 4.6 million sq miles (12 million sq km) TYPE Arable
mAin counTRiEs China, India, Indonesia, AREA 3.1 million sq miles (8 million sq km)
Bangladesh, and Vietnam mAin counTRiEs Malaysia,
Brazil, Mexico, India, and Cuba
Mixed farming
In this type of farming, farmers grow and TYPE Arable and pastoral
rear a range of crops and livestock, rather AREA 21 million sq miles (54 million sq km)
than concentrating on a single product. This
mAin counTRiEs China, India, US,
reduces farmer’s risk of losses, for example, if a
Russia, and France
particular crop gets infected or if animals get sick.
82 | LAND
The largest city in the US, New York is one of the COUNTRY US
world’s leading cultural and financial centers. It is AREA 470 sq miles (1,215 sq km)
also famous for its skyline, which is made up of
POPULATION 8.2 million
many extremely tall buildings called skyscrapers,
such as the Empire State Building.
URBAN AREAS | 83
The city of London was established As India’s capital city, New Delhi is a key
by the Romans more than 2,000 years ago. It is political, financial, and industrial center.
located on the Thames River, which is famous for The Rashtrapati Bhavan—the official residence
the many bridges built over it, including Tower of the president of India—is located here, as
Bridge. The capital city of the UK, London is are other important government buildings.
a global center of finance and theater.
COUNTRY India
COUNTRY UK AREA 575 sq miles (1,485 sq km)
AREA 605 sq miles (1,570 sq km) POPULATION 12.3 million
POPULATION 12.8 million
Tokyo
Ocean
Oceans cover about two-thirds of the Earth’s
surface, at an average depth of 12,100 ft
(3,700 m). The Earth’s oceans formed more than
three billion years ago. Until the first life-forms
emerged onto land 450 million years ago, life
was found only in the oceans. Over time, the
oceans have grown and shrunk as the Earth’s
internal forces have moved the continents
around. The movement of heat and moisture
between the oceans and the atmosphere plays
a crucial role in shaping the world’s climates.
Ocean currents
Ocean water is constantly moving, both at the surface and far below
the waves, circulating warm water from the equator and cold water
from the poles. The patterns of this movement are called ocean
currents. These currents are influenced by several factors, including
the Earth’s rotation, the winds, and tidal changes in sea level.
Surface currents
OCEAN CURRENTS | 87
Cold, salty
deep-water current
Meeting of currents
SOUTH The movement of water at the
INDIAN
GYRE
ocean’s surface is called a surface
current. When cold water flows
deep down, it stirs up seabed
nutrients, which comes up to the
ocean’s surface. This provides good
feeding grounds for sea animals.
88 | OCEAN
Arctic Ocean
NORTH
AMERICA
SEAS AND OCEANS | 89
Chukchi Sea
Water low in salt content flows from the Pacific AREA 225,000 sq miles
Ocean into the colder, more saline (salty) water (582,000 sq km)
of the Chukchi Sea. Rich in nutrients, this mixed mAximum dEpth 360 ft (110 m)
water supports a wide variety of marine life,
inflows Bering and East Siberian seas,
which includes large populations of walrus
and Arctic Basin
and several species of seals.
Atlantic Ocean
An almost landlocked body of water, The world’s largest inland sea, the Mediterranean
the Black Sea mostly occupies a deep, was separated from the Atlantic Ocean to the
broad basin separating Europe from Asia. west when the Earth’s sea level dropped, about six
million years ago. Over the next two million years,
the region flooded, the water levels rose, and the
area 163,000 sq miles (422,000 sq km) sea linked to the Atlantic again.
maximum depth 7,200 ft (2,200 m)
inflows Sea of Azov, Mediterranean
Sea; Danube, Dniester, Dnieper, and
Kizil Irmak rivers
SEAS AND OCEANS | 91
This is the only sea of the northern This oval basin contains mostly shallow waters.
Atlantic that is not bordered by land. It is created Mangrove swamps, tidal marshes, beaches,
by three currents around its edge—the Canaries lagoons, and estuaries are found along its
Current, the North Equatorial Current, and the coasts. The Mississippi River carries a huge
Gulf Stream. The Sargasso Sea is named for volume of sand and silt into the Gulf of Mexico.
the wide mats of sargassum, a yellow-brown These sediments are deposited on the seafloor,
seaweed, that float on its surface. This seaweed forming an enormous fan-shaped delta with
supports a variety of animal life. wide salt marshes.
area 2 million sq miles (5.2 million sq km) area 615,000 sq miles (1.6 million sq km)
maximum depth 23,000 ft (7,000 m) maximum depth 17,060 ft (5,200 m)
inflows None inflows Caribbean Sea; Mississippi, Brazos,
Colorado, Alabama, Apalachicola, and
Rio Grande rivers
The sargassum seaweed has tiny
gas-filled bladders, allowing it to
float on the water surface
Caribbean Sea
SEAS AND OCEANS | 93
Indian Ocean
ASIA Formed over the last 120 million years,
the Indian Ocean is one of the world’s youngest
ocean basins. Its mostly warm waters create
ideal conditions for a large variety of marine
life. Twice every year, the monsoon winds
reverse the flow of its currents, bringing
AFRICA
up nutrient-rich water from the ocean’s
depths. This pattern is unique to the
INDIAN OCEAN Indian Ocean.
Arabian Sea
The Arabian Sea occupies the northwestern part area 1.5 million sq miles
of the Indian Ocean. In addition to supporting a (3.9 million sq km)
huge fishing industry, it is also an important trade maximum depth 19,030 ft (5,800 m)
route linking the Red Sea with the Persian Gulf.
inflows Indus and Narmada rivers
SEAS AND OCEANS | 95
Andaman Sea
Persian Gulf
This warm, salty sea is known for the huge area 93,000 sq miles
oil reserves found beneath its floor. Its eastern (241,000 sq km)
shore is mountainous, while its western shore maximum depth 360 ft (110 m)
has many islands, lagoons, and tidal flats. Many
inflows Tigris, Euphrates, and Karun rivers
artificial islands have been built along its coast,
such as the Palm Islands in the UAE, which
are shaped like palm trees.
96 | OCEAN
Pacific Ocean
Sea of Okhotsk
The South China Sea stretches for more area 1.4 million sq miles
than 1,680 miles (2,700 km) around Asia’s (3.7 million sq km)
mainland. The Gulf of Thailand, which branches maximum depth 16,455 ft (5,015 m)
out from the sea, has 42 forest-covered islands,
inflows Xi Jiang, Mekong, Red, Tha Chin,
which rise from the sea as rock formations.
and Chao Phraya rivers
These islands make up a marine park called
the Ang Thong National Park.
Coral Sea
Famous for the world’s largest coral reef—the area 1.8 million sq miles
Great Barrier Reef—the Coral Sea also contains (4.8 million sq km)
many individual reefs and small islands, collectively maximum depth 30,070 ft (9,165 m)
called the Coral Sea Islands Territory. This sea has
inflows West central Pacific Ocean;
a tropical climate, with frequent typhoons (violent
Fly, Purari, and Kikori rivers
tropical storms) between January and April.
98 | OCEAN
Southern Ocean
ANTARCTICA
area 7.8 million sq miles (20 million sq km)
maximum depth 23,735 ft (7,235 m)
inflows Summer melting of sea-ice and
SOUTHERN icebergs calved from Antarctic ice shelves
OCEAN
Scotia Sea
This cold sea lies between the southern Atlantic area 350,000 sq miles (900,000 sq km)
Ocean and the Southern Ocean. Icebergs from maximum depth 13,000 ft (4,000 m)
the Antarctic Ice Sheet can be found here all
inflows Southern Ocean to the west
year round, and in the winter, sea-ice forms
of Drake Passage
at the region’s edges.
SEAS AND OCEANS | 99
Of all the seas around Antarctica, the Heavily covered in ice, this sea is home
Ross Sea has the least sea-ice, making it very to the Weddell seal, which swims beneath
accessible to shipping. The sea is home to the the ice and can break through to the surface
icefish, which has a special protein in its body to create breathing holes. Colonies of emperor
that prevents it from freezing. penguins are also found in this sea.
area 370,000 sq miles (960,000 sq km) area 1.1 million sq miles (2.8 million sq km)
maximum depth 8,200 ft (2,500 m) maximum depth 10,000 ft (3,000 m)
inflows Icebergs calved from the inflows Icebergs calved from the
Ross Ice Shelf Ronne-Filchner Ice shelf
Disappearing islanD
The Pacific Ocean is dotted with volcanoes that once
erupted from the ocean floor but are now extinct.
Bora Bora island is one of these volcanoes. As its
deep source of heat cools and the rocks contract,
the island is slowly sinking back beneath the waves.
OCEAN | 101
The four-million-year-old
tropical island of Bora Bora
is sinking
at the rate of ½ in (1 cm)
every 100 years
102 | OCEAN
Types of reef
A fringing reef is formed A barrier reef runs parallel An atoll is a ring of coral reefs
as corals grow around an to the shore but is separated or low-lying coral islands that
island or along a shoreline. from it by a large lagoon. surrounds a shallow lagoon.
Coral damage
Today, coral reefs face many threats to their survival.
Pollution and rising water temperatures can kill
corals, which lose color when they die—this
is known as coral bleaching. Reefs are also
damaged by human activity, such as using
dynamite to catch fish.
Coral bleaching
104 | ocEAn
Coral reefs
focus on... Among the Earth’s most spectacular and
polyps diverse habitats, coral reefs support
corals are made more species per unit of area than any
up of tiny individual
creatures known other marine environment. They also
as polyps. protect islands and coasts from erosion.
The coral formations of the Lighthouse The largest raised coral atoll in the
Reef surround a large, circular sinkhole known world, Aldabra is situated on top of an ancient
as the Great Blue Hole. The sinkhole is about volcanic peak. Strong ocean tides in Aldabra’s
480 ft (145 m) deep and features a number of lagoon have turned
ancient stalactites hanging from its slanting walls. raised clumps of
reef into small,
mushroom-shaped
location Western Caribbean, islands known as
60 miles (80 km) east of central Belize champignons.
type Atoll with patch reef
area 116 sq miles (300 sq km)
Maldives
location Southwest of
Sri Lanka, in the Indian Ocean
type Atoll and fringing reef
area 3,500 sq miles
(9,000 sq km)
106 | OCEAN
The Red Sea contains a variety of reefs. The location Red Sea coasts of Egypt,
northern area has mostly fringing reefs, with reef Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Eritrea,
flats (flat areas of reef next to the shore) only a and Yemen
few yards wide, while the southern Red Sea has type Fringing reef, patch reef, and barrier
a much wider area of shallow continental shelf— reef, and atoll
the underwater extension of a continent. The
aRea 6,300 sq miles (16,500 sq km)
Red Sea reefs are home to a spectacular range
of corals and fish, including the Red Sea lionfish.
CORAL REEFS | 107
Nusa Tenggara
location Southern
Indonesia, from Lombok in
the west to Timor in the east
type Fringing reef and
barrier reef
area 2,000 sq miles
(5,000 sq km)
skeleton remains
and new corals grow on it
rEEf building
Many organisms, such as algae, corals, and mollusks, help
form the foundation of a coral reef. The force of the waves
and the grazing of animals help break the animal shells into
sand, which fills the gaps in the growing reef. Algae bind it
all together to form reef rock.
OCEAN | 109
110 | oCEAn
Coastal features
foCus on... A broad area of land that borders the sea
formation is called a coast. Coasts can feature gulfs,
of Coasts lagoons, dunes, and beaches. These are
Coasts can be formed by different processes such as
shaped by a variety
of processes. the flow of tides, breaking waves, or the
buildup of sediments.
▲ Marine-based
processes include
waves, tides, currents,
and changing sea levels.
COASTAL FEATURES | 111
A spit is a narrow strip of land As the surrounding land rises, the sea
connected to the coast at one end. This spit level falls by about 1/3 in (7 mm) a year in this
is named after Dungeness in England. Its northern arm of the Baltic Sea, revealing new
unique shape was formed by winds blowing islands along the coast. The water has a low
from different directions in different seasons. salt content because of the large amount of
fresh water that flows into it.
This limestone arch used to be a cliff. Sea This arid (dry) region has low gravel plains in the
waves wore away the softer layers of rock south, while in the north, sand dunes extend
at the bottom of the cliff, leaving the harder to the sea. Due to strong winds, the shapes
rock at the top, creating an arch. of the dunes are constantly changing.
Kerala backwaters
These slow-moving stretches of water are made LOCAtION Southeast Cochin, Kerala, India
up of a chain of lagoons and small lakes linked tYPe Lagoon
by canals. Fed by 38 rivers, the backwaters cover
SIZe 400 sq miles (1,000 sq km)
almost half the length of the state of Kerala.
COASTAL FEATURES | 113
The aerial, or above-ground, roots of The longest river in Asia and its busiest
mangrove plants trap muddy sediment to waterway, the Yangtze River carries large
form wetland swamps. The Kinabatangan amounts of silt and mud, which are deposited
mangroves feature a range of lowland forests in its estuary, dividing the river into three smaller
and open reed marsh. channels and many streams.
Ha Long Bay
When the roof of a natural rock arch erodes LOCAtION Near Port Campbell,
or collapses, it leaves behind a rock pillar Victoria, Australia
called a stack. The Twelve Apostles is a tYPe Marine-based coast
group of sea stacks that were formed by
SIZe 2 miles (3 km)
the continuing wave erosion and collapse
of 20-million-year-old limestone cliffs. They
are still being eroded today.
SKELETON SHIPWRECKS
On the Skeleton Coast, cold air from the Atlantic
Ocean and dry air from the Namib Desert form thick
fogs, which have often caused sailors to lose their way.
Many shipwrecks have been found here, including the
Eduard Bohlen, which was washed ashore in 1909.
OCEAN | 117
Atmosphere
A layer of gases, called the atmosphere, surrounds
the Earth. The Sun’s rays pass through the atmosphere,
warming the Earth’s surface and the air above it, causing
the air to move and water to evaporate. This results in
different weather conditions. Changes in weather can
also be caused by land-based events, such as the
volcanic eruptions at Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, in 2010,
which created a huge ash cloud.
destructive whirl
Swirling winds over
warm ocean waters lead
to hurricanes. In 2011,
Hurricane Irene hit the
US, the Atlantic coast of
Canada, and the Caribbean.
120 | ATMOSPHERE
Water
evaporates
from sea
Vapor
cools to
form clouds
Water seeps
into ground
Water returns to sea via
rivers and streams Water cycle
Jet streams
Jet streams are long, narrow bands
of high-speed winds in the upper
troposphere or lower stratosphere. The
wind here is so strong that pilots can cut
hours off their flight time by flying along
these jet streams. Hot air from the aircraft
engines condenses to form long, thin clouds
of water vapor, known as contrails.
Contrails above the Red Sea
122 | ATMOSPHERE
Precipitation Dew
When air cools, water
vapor condenses—turns Dew forms overnight when warm, moist
air rising from the ground meets cold night air,
from gas into liquid—forming causing the rising moisture to condense
clouds. When cloud particles on the ground as droplets of water.
Rain
CLOUD Nimbostratus–
cumulonimbus
INteNsIty Light to heavy
PRECIPITATION | 123
Haar
Hail Snow
Hailstones are lumps of ice that form When tiny ice crystals in clouds stick together,
when frozen drops of rain, kept in the air by they form snowflakes. When they become heavy
strong winds, get blown around in freezing enough, they fall to the ground as snow. Snowfall
thunderclouds until they are heavy enough is heaviest when temperatures are around freezing
to fall to the Earth. They may be smaller point, which is 32º F (0º C).
than peas or as big as oranges.
Cloud types
Clouds consist of ice crystals or water droplets. foCUs oN...
According to the height of their base above the lightning
Electrical charges
ground, they are identified as high, middle, or within clouds build up
low. Cloud types are defined by air temperature and result in lightning,
seen in various shapes
and the amount of water in the cloud. and forms in the sky.
Cirrus Cirrocumulus
Altitude 20,000–40,000 ft
(6,000–12,000 m)
shApe Layers or patches of cells
precipitAtion None
cLouD TYPES | 125
Cirrostratus Altocumulus
Altostratus
Stratocumulus
Stratus
Cumulus
These individual, puffy clouds look like cotton altitude 0–6,500 ft (0–2,000 m)
balls floating in the sky. Cumulus clouds are flat
shape Cauliflower or fluffy
at the base and have rounded tops that often
look like cauliflower heads. They appear very precipitation Occasional rain
white, with clearly defined edges. or snow showers
128 | ATMOSPHERE
Cumulonimbus
Nimbostratus
CLOUD TYPES | 129
Lenticular clouds
trapped inside it
for half an hour due to upward air currents
Clouds of danger
Unlike other clouds, cumulonimbus clouds may
release all their moisture at once, resulting in
lightning, severe hailstorms, thunderstorms, and
even tornadoes. This makes these clouds especially
dangerous for planes to fly through.
ATMOSPHERE | 131
132 | ATMOSPHERE
Storms
A storm is a powerful disturbance in the atmosphere. It typically
features strong winds, cloudy skies, and heavy precipitation.
Violent storms produce strong, fast winds such as tornadoes
(narrow funnels of rapidly spinning air), cyclones (warm winds
rising in a spiral), and hurricanes (tropical cyclones).
LOCAtiOn Oklahoma
yeAr 1999
type Tornado
Hurricane Katrina
One of the five deadliest hurricanes to hit the US, LOCAtiOn New Orleans, Louisiana
Hurricane Katrina killed more than 1,800 people
yeAr 2005
and caused damage worth 90 billion dollars. In
New Orleans, high waves and torrential rains led type Hurricane
to widespread flooding. About 80 percent of the
city was flooded up to a depth of 23 ft (7 m).
location China
year 2010
type Dust storm
location Myanmar
year 2008
type Cyclone
STORMS | 135
lifted a train
weighing 91 tons (83 metric tonnes)
up into the air and tossed it 80 ft
(24 m) away from the track
tornado force
A tornado, or twister, is a storm in
which a column of air, usually about
328 ft (100 m) wide, spins violently. It can
completely destroy an area, uprooting trees,
overturning cars, and wrecking buildings.
ATMOSPHERE | 137
138 | EARTH
CLIMATE | 139
Climate
The weather changes every day, with
variations in temperature, precipitation, wind,
and clouds. When the weather is examined
over several years, a pattern emerges. This
pattern, repeated over many years, is known
as the climate of a particular region. Scientists
divide the world into regions according to their
climates. These regions range from icy polar
zones to hot tropical areas.
global warming
At present, the average global
temperature is rising, but this
rise is not spread evenly
around the Earth. Some
areas are getting warmer,
while others are getting colder.
140 | CLIMATE
Global warming
Global warming is the term given to the rise in the Earth’s average
temperature. Climate change is a natural process and has been
going on for billions of years. However, human activity has recently
caused the rate of change to increase, which is causing many
serious environmental problems.
Climate regions
The climate of a region determines its main focus on...
characteristics—temperature, rainfall, soil FaCtors
Many factors are
type, and plant growth. Based on these, responsible for the
regions are identified and classified into variations in climate
around the world.
different biomes, or climate regions.
temperate tropical
Temperate areas have varied climates, Humid, tropical climates have a high annual
but the average monthly temperature ranges rainfall and an average yearly temperature of
between 64°f (18°c) and 27°f (-3°c). In the at least 64ºf (18ºc). More than half the world’s
warmest month, the average temperature species of plant are found in these regions,
is above 50˚f (10˚c). These regions have which typically feature a dense tree cover.
four distinct seasons, but can experience
unpredictable weather throughout the year.
Mountain
Polar
Mediterranean
Arid
Arid areas are hot and dry, with high levels of distribution Most deserts
evaporation and low precipitation. They include typical location I-n-Salah, Algeria,
hot deserts such as the Sahara, which receives where the temperature ranges from 70˚F (21˚C)
no rain for years, and semidesert areas such to 113˚F (45˚C).
as the Sahel, which has a short rainy season.
146 | EARTH
• The Earth’s diameter at the equator • The Earth’s average surface temperature
is 7,926 miles (12,756 km). is 59ºF (15ºc).
▶ c.1100 ▶ 1824
The Chinese invent the magnetic compass. William Buckland of the University of Oxford
It uses a pivoting magnetized needle to point writes the first scientific paper about a
to the Earth’s poles. dinosaur, pioneering the use of fossils to
reconstruct the Earth's timeline.
▶ 1519–21
Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan ▶ 1827
sets out on the first sailing expedition French mathematician Jean Baptiste
around the world. He is killed in the Fourier introduces the concept of the
Philippines, but the surviving sailors greenhouse effect.
complete the voyage.
▶ 1880
▶ 1543 English geologist John Milne invents the
Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus modern seismograph (an instrument
argues that the planets orbit the sun for measuring earthquakes).
and that the earth spins on its axis.
Until this time, most people believed that the ▶ 1895
Earth lay at the center of the universe. Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius
suggests that carbon dioxide added to the
▶ 1609 Earth’s atmosphere helps trap heat from
Italian astronomer and mathematician the Sun, leading to global warming.
Galileo Galilei uses a telescope to produce
the first scientific proof for Copernicus’s theory ▶ 1912
about the movement of the planets. German meteorologist Alfred Wegener
proposes the theory of continental drift.
▶ 1669 He claims that about 270 mya a giant
Danish scholar Nicolaus Steno describes landmass, the supercontinent of Pangaea,
the principles of stratigraphy. This says broke up into smaller pieces, leading to the
that layers of rock, or strata, are deposited continents we recognize today.
one on top of the other, with the youngest
strata being on top. ▶ 1953
US scientist Claire Patterson first
▶ 1798 accurately estimates the earth’s age
English physicist Henry Cavendish determines by comparing measurements taken
the mass and density of the Earth. from meteorites and minerals.
148 | EARTH
drumlins 61
Dungeness Spit 111
fossil fuels 141
fringing reefs 103, 104–7
HI
Durdle Door 112 Fuji, Mount 29 Ha Long Bay 113
dust storms 134 fumaroles 33 haar 123
habitats 18
E G hail 123, 130
Half Dome 34–5
Earth Ganges 43 hanging valleys 60
atmosphere 120–1 geology 6–15 Himalayas 24
facts and statistics 146–9 geysers 32 hotspots 11
formation of 4–5 Giant’s Causeway 34 Hubbard Glacier 56–7
inside 8–9 glacial features 60–1, 110 Hudson Bay 91
moving 10–11 glaciers 17, 56–9, 141 human activity 17
earthquakes 10, 11, 12, 146 Global Conveyor Belt 87 humans 7
El Capitan 34–5 global warming 103, 139, hurricanes 119, 132, 133
environmental problems 140–1 140–1 ice sheets 56–9
equator 8, 143 Gobi Desert 65 ice storms 133
Erebus, Mount 29 granite 36 icebergs 56, 59
erosion 17 grasslands 17, 18, 74–5 icecaps 56, 57
coastal 110, 111, 112, 115 gravity 8 igneous rocks 9, 32, 36
erratic boulders 60 Great Alpine Fault 13 Indian Ocean 94
eruptions, volcanic 17, 26–7, Great Barrier Reef 97, 107 Indus River 42–3
30–1, 119, 148–9 Great Basin Desert 62 inselbergs 63
estuaries 113 Great Bear Lake 48
Etna, Mount 28
Eurasian boreal forest 70–1
Great Dismal Swamp 52
Great Dividing Range 24
JKL
Eurasian tundra 77 Great Ice Storm 133 jet streams 121
European mixed forest 70 Great Plains 74 Jurassic Period 7
evaporites 39 Great Rift Valley 13 Kalahari Desert 64
Everglades 53 Great Salt Lake 49 karst landscapes 46, 47
evergreen trees 68 Great Sandy Desert 65 Katrina, Hurricane 133
Eyjafjallajökull 119 Great Slave Lake 48 Kerala backwaters 112
greenhouse effect/gases kettle lakes 61
F 140–1, 147
Greenland Ice Sheet 56–7
Kilauea 26
Kilimanjaro, Mount 28–9
farming 17, 80–1 Gryllefjord cirque 61 Kinabatangan mangroves 113
fault systems 12–13 Gulf of Bothnia 111 Ladoga, Lake 49
floods 44–5, 141 Gulf of Mexico 92–3 lagoons 52, 54, 55, 103,
forests 17, 19, 68–73 gyres 86 112, 114
154 | EARTH
Acknowledgments
Dorling Kindersley would like to thank: Dreamstime.com: Meandr (b). 50 Dreamstime.com: Images: Saki Ono / Flickr Open (br). 106 Corbis:
Caitlin Doyle for proofreading and Helen Peters Dshamanov (bl). 50–51 Dreamstime.com: Alexandr Carlos Villoch / Robert Harding Specialist Stock. 107
for indexing. Malyshev (tc); Witr (bc). 51 Science Photo Library: Alamy Images: Jeff Mondragon (tr). Getty Images:
Marshall Space Flight Center / Nasa (br). 52 Corbis: Aaron Foster / Photographer’s Choice (br). 108–109
The publisher would like to thank the following Sean Russell / fstop (b). 53 Alamy Images: Juergen Dreamstime.com: Vilainecrevette. 110 Alamy Images:
for their kind permission to reproduce Richter (b). Getty Images: Randy Wells / Stone (tr). 54 Clint Farlinger (br). Dreamstime.com: Sibel Aisha (tl);
their photographs: Corbis: Kazuyoshi Nomachi (br). Dreamstime.com: David Woods (bl). 111 Corbis: Buddy Mays (cr); Neil
Lagartija (bl). Getty Images: Natphotos / Digital Vision Rabinowitz (cl). Dreamstime.com: John.59 (b). 112
(Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-center; f-far; l-left; (t). 55 Alamy Images: Images and Stories (t). Getty Corbis: Michele Falzone / JAI (b). Getty Images:
r-right; t-top) Images: Peter Walton Photography / Photolibrary (b). Thomas Dressler / Gallo Images (tr). 113 Corbis:
56 NASA: (bl). 56–57 Dreamstime.com: Maxfx (tc). Thomas Marent / Minden Pictures (cl). Dreamstime.
1 NASA: Visible Earth / Reto Stockli / Alan Nelson / Corbis: James Balog / Aurora Photos (bc). 57 Corbis: com: Plotnikov (b). NASA: Visible Earth (cr). 114 Alamy
Fritz Hasler (clb). 2–3 Getty Images: Ron Dahlquist / Frank Krahmer (br). Dreamstime.com: Ihervas (cr). Images: Bill Bachman (tr). 115 Dreamstime.com:
Perspectives (c). 4–5 Science Photo Library: Mark 58–59 Getty Images: moodboard / the Agency Daria Angelova. 116–117 Corbis: George Steinmetz.
Garlick (b). 5 Dreamstime.com: Brett Critchley (crb). Collection. 60 Alamy Images: Chris Mattison (cl). 118 Corbis: Arctic-Images. 119 NASA: Scientific
NASA: Visible Earth / Reto Stockli / Alan Nelson / Fritz Tony Waltham Geophotos: (br). 61 Getty Images: Visualization Studio Collection (bc). 120 NASA: (c, bc).
Hasler (tr / Earth); JPL (tc, tl, tl / Uranus, tc / Mars, tr / Joe Cornish / The Image Bank (t). SuperStock: Courtesy of the National Science Foundation: Rhys
Venus); Hubble Space Telescope Collection (tr, tr / imagebroker.net (br). Tony Waltham Geophotos: (clb). Boulton (cr). 121 Corbis: (br). 122 Corbis: Imaginechina
Mercury, tc / Jupiter). 6 Corbis: Reg Morrison / Auscape 62 Corbis: Momatiuk—Eastcott (bl). Dreamstime.com: (bl); Frank Krahmer (tr). 123 Corbis: W. Perry Conway
/ Minden Pictures (cl). 6–7 Dorling Kindersley: Peter Attila Tatár (br). 63 Corbis: Peter Johnson (br). (bl). Getty Images: Don Johnston / All Canada Photos
Minister, Digital Sculptor (tc). 7 Getty Images: Dreamstime.com: Genghiscat (tl). Getty Images: Cris (br); SuperStock (ca). 124 Dreamstime.com: Rudy
Encyclopaedia Britannica / UIG (cr); Max Dannenbaum / Bouroncle / Afp (tc); Danita Delimont / Gallo Images (tr); Umans (bl). 125 Corbis: Mark Laricchia (tc).
Stone (br). 8–9 Dorling Kindersley: Satellite Imagemap Frans Lemmens / Stone (cl). 64 Corbis: Paul Souders Dreamstime.com: Ben Goode (tc/Cloud-to-Cloud);
Copyright (c) 1996–2003 Planetary Visions (c). 9 (t); George Steinmetz (b). 65 Getty Images: Ted Mead / Skydaver42 (tr); Intrepix (cr). Getty Images: Stocktrek
Dreamstime.com: Keith Wheatley (br). Shutterstock: Photolibrary (tl, b). 66–67 Corbis: Ed Darack / Science Images (tl). 126 Getty Images: Graeme Norways /
(cr). 12 Corbis: Lloyd Cluff (b). 13 Corbis: Xinhua / Faction. 68 Alamy Images: Arco Images / Meissner, D Stone (b). 127 Corbis: Onne van der Wal (t). 128–129
XINHUA (tr). NASA: (crb); JSC Digital Image Collection (cr). Shutterstock: Yuriy Kulyk (cl). 69 Corbis: Jim Corbis: Adam Jones / Visuals Unlimited (tc). 128
(bl). 14–15 Getty Images: Carsten Peter / Speleoresearch Brandenburg / Minden Pictures (cl); Jochen Schlenker / Corbis: Tsui Hung / Redlink (b). 129 Corbis:
and Films / National Geographic. 16 Corbis: George Westend61 (cr); Frans Lanting (b). 70 Corbis: Adrian Momatiuk—Eastcott (br). 130–131 Corbis: Mike
Steinmetz. 17 Getty Images: Sami Sarkis / Arbib (bl). Getty Images: Tim Graham (tr). 70–71 Hollingshead / Science Faction. 132 Douglas P. Berry:
Photographer’s Choice RF (bc). 18 Dreamstime.com: Dreamstime.com: Steffen Foerster (bc). 71 Corbis: (cl). Corbis: Jim Reed (br). 133 Corbis: Christopher J.
Yarek Gora (crb); Stephan Pietzko (c). 19 Courtesy of Frans Lanting (tr). 72 Corbis: Ocean. 73 Getty Images: Morris (b); Mike Theiss / Ultimate Chase (t). 134
the National Science Foundation: Peter Rejcek (tl). Ted Mead / Photolibrary (br); Peter Walton Photography / Dreamstime.com: Gordon Tipene (br). Getty Images:
Shutterstock: (cra, bc). 20 Dreamstime.com: Mike Photolibrary (t). 74 Getty Images: DEA / P Jaccod (br); STR / AFP (cr). NASA: Earth Observatory / Jeff
Brake (bl); Steve Estvanik (br). 21 Corbis: Momatiuk— Zack Seckler / The Image Bank (bl). 75 Corbis: Haiku Schmaltz (tr). 135 Corbis: Andrew Brownbill / Epa.
Eastcott (tr). Dreamstime.com: Sergeytoronto (b). 22 Expressed / First Light (t); ony Waltham / Robert 136–137 Getty Images: Willoughby Owen / Flickr. 138
Dreamstime.com: Ams22 (tl). 22–23 Corbis: Yann Harding World Imagery (br); Image Source (cl). 76 Corbis: Paul Souders. 139 Dreamstime.com: Ollirg
Arthus-Bertrand (bc); Kay Nietfeld / dpa (tc). 23 Getty Corbis: Alaska Stock (b). 77 Corbis: Jenny E. Ross. (bc). 140–141 Corbis: Paul Souders (b). 141 Corbis:
Images: LatitudeStock—David Forman / Gallo Images 78-79 Getty Images: Robert Postma / First Light. 80 Liu Liqun (tl). Dreamstime.com: Aji Jayachandran (cr).
(br). 24 Corbis: Myung Jo Lee / Aflo Relax (t); Nigel Alamy Images: Bill Bachman (cr). Dreamstime.com: 142 Getty Images: John W Banagan / Stockbyte (bl).
Pavitt / JAI (br). 25 Corbis: Galen Rowell (bl). Bondarenko Olesya (bl). 81 Dreamstime.com: Ina Van 142–143 Dreamstime.com: Asci Advertising and
Dreamstime.com: Blagov58 (t). 26 Dreamstime. Hateren (cl); Ivan Kok Cheong Hor (cr). Getty Images: Publishing (bc). 144 Corbis: David DuChemin / Design
com: Leonid Spektor (bl). 26–27 Corbis: Roger Peter Walton Photography / Photolibrary (b). 82 Corbis: Pics (b); Colin Monteath / Hedgehog House / Minden
Ressmeyer (bc). 27 Alamy Images: FLPA (br). Corbis: Danny Lehman (tr). Dreamstime.com: Saurabh13 (b). Pictures (t). 145 Corbis: George Steinmetz.
Richard Roscoe / Stocktrek Images (tl); Lothar Slabon / 83 Corbis: airyuhi / a.collectionRF / amanaimages (b);
Epa (tr). 28 Corbis: Vittoriano Rastelli (bl). 28–29 Ocean (cr). Dreamstime.com: Lucaparodi (cl). 84 Jacket images: Front: Dorling Kindersley: Chris
Corbis: Kazuyoshi Nomachi (c). 29 Corbis: George Getty Images: Matt Cardy. 85 Corbis: David Wrobel / Reynolds and the BBC Team, cb, Andy Crawford /
Steinmetz (br). Dreamstime.com: Craig Hanson (cr). Visuals Unlimited (bc). 87 NASA: (cr). 89 Corbis: Galen Donks Models—modelmaker, cr, David Donkin—
30–31 Corbis: Alberto Garcia. 32 Dreamstime.com: Rowell (t); Paul Souders (br). Dreamstime.com: Oleg
modelmaker, ftr, cl, Donks Models—modelmaker, tr,
Derekteo (b). 33 Corbis: Roger Ressmeyer (tl); Ralph Kozlov (bl). 90–91 Getty Images: Slow Images /
White (tr). Dorling Kindersley: Natural History Museum, Photographer’s Choice (bc). 91 Dreamstime.com: Patryk crb, Donk Models—modelmaker, tc, Simon Mumford,
London (tc). Dreamstime.com: Adreslebedev (cl); Kosmider (tl). Getty Images: Ron Erwin / All Canada c. PunchStock: Photodisc, clb; Back: Dorling
Miloslav Doubrava (br). 34 Dreamstime.com: Photos (tr). 92 Corbis: Dave Reede / All Canada Photos Kindersley: Donks Models—modelmaker, clb;
Dariophotography (br). 34–35 Dreamstime.com: (bl). 92–93 Getty Images: Carlos Davila / Photographer’s Spine: Dorling Kindersley: Simon Mumford, t.
Piter99 (tc). 35 Corbis: Yann Arthus-Bertrand (cr). Choice RF (bc). 94 Getty Images: Image Source (b).
Dreamstime.com: Davedt (bl). 39 Alamy Images: 95 Dreamstime.com: Mohamed Farhadi (b); Lestor
WidStock (tr). 41 Dreamstime.com: Victorua (br). (tr). 96 Corbis: Michael S. Yamashita (br). 97 Dorling All other images © Dorling Kindersley
Getty Images: Olivier Goujon / Robert Harding World Kindersley: Rough Guide (t). Dreamstime.com: Bin
Imagery (t). 42 Corbis: NASA (bl). 42–43 Dreamstime. Zhou (b). 98–99 Getty Images: Frank Krahmer / Riser
com: Ewamewa2 (bc). Getty Images: Robert Caputo / (b). 99 Getty Images: Fotosearch (tl); Wayne Lynch / All For further information see: www.dkimages.com
Aurora (t). 43 Alamy Images: Bill Bachman (br). Corbis: Canada Photos (br). 100–101 Corbis: Frans Lanting.
Martin Harvey (tr). 44–45 Dreamstime.com: Chun 102–103 Getty Images: Panoramic Images (b). 103
Guo. 46 Dreamstime.com: Giovanni Gagliardi (b). Dreamstime.com: Barefootflyer (tl, tr); Debra Law
46–47 Corbis: Adam Woolfitt (tc). 47 Alamy Images: (tc); Melvinlee (cl). 104 Alamy Images: Stephen Frink
Olivier Parent (tr). Corbis: Frans Lanting (bl). 48 Getty Collection (br). Dreamstime.com: Asther Lau Choon
Images: Marilyn Angel Wynn / Nativestock (bl); David Siew (cl); David Espin (tl); Harmonia101 (bl). 105
Prichard / First Light (br). 49 Corbis: Scott T. Smith (tl). Corbis: Martin Harvey (tr); Kevin Schafer (bl). Getty