Vateud Atc Manuall

2010
ATC Manual
VATSIM Europe Division
ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. 6 1.1 VATSIM Rules .................................................................................................... 6 1.2 The Role and Responsibility of an Air Traffic Controller ....................... 6 1.3 Controller Functions......................................................................................... 7 1.3.1 Clearance Delivery (DEL) ........................................................................ 8 1.3.2 Ground (GND) ............................................................................................ 8 1.3.3 Tower (TWR) ............................................................................................... 8 1.3.4 Departure Control (DEP) ......................................................................... 8 1.3.5 Approach Control (APP) ........................................................................... 8 1.3.6 Area Control Center (ACC) ..................................................................... 9 1.3.7 Flight Information Centre (FIS) ............................................................ 9 2 ATC THE BASICS ........................................................................................................ 10 2.1 The responsibility and role of a ATCO [S] .............................................. 10 2.2 Controller functions [S] ................................................................................ 11 2.2.1 Clearance Delivery (DEL) [S] .............................................................. 12 2.2.2 Ground (GND) [S] ................................................................................... 12 2.2.3 Tower (TWR) [S] ..................................................................................... 12 2.2.4 Departure Control (DEP) [SS] ............................................................. 12 2.2.5 Approach Control (APP) [SS]............................................................... 12 2.2.6 Area Control Center (ACC) [C]............................................................ 13 2.2.7 Flight Information Centre (FIS) [SC] ................................................ 13 2.3 The VATSIM community [S] ....................................................................... 13 2.4 About VATSIM [S] .......................................................................................... 14 3 METEREOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 16 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 16 3.2 METAR Aviation Routine Weather Report [S/S+] ............................ 16 3.2.1 Wind [S] ..................................................................................................... 17 3.2.2 Visibility [S+]............................................................................................ 18 3.2.3 Runway Visual Range [S+] .................................................................. 18 3.2.4 Weather Phenomena [S+] ................................................................... 19 3.2.5 Clouds [S+] ............................................................................................... 19 3.2.6 CAVOK [S+] .............................................................................................. 20 3.2.7 Temperature [S+] ................................................................................... 20 3.2.8 Dew point [S+] ........................................................................................ 20 3.2.9 Air Pressure QNH [S] ............................................................................. 20 3.2.10 Trend [S] .................................................................................................... 20 3.2.11 Runway Conditions [C] .......................................................................... 21 3.3 VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions [C] .............................................. 22 3.4 Metar Rerefence .............................................................................................. 22 4 ALTITUDE AND FLIGHT LEVEL ..................................................................................... 24 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 24 4.2 Pressure [S] ..................................................................................................... 24 4.3 Temperature [C] ............................................................................................. 25 4.4 Mean Sea Level (MSL) [S+]........................................................................ 25 4.5 Altitude [S] ....................................................................................................... 25 4.6 Height [S+] ...................................................................................................... 25
2
4.7 Flight Level (FL) [S+] ................................................................................... 25 4.8 Transition Level, Altitude and Layer [S+] .............................................. 25 4.9 Minimum usable flight levels [C] ............................................................... 26 4.10 Minimal altitudes MOCA, MRVA and MSA [C+] ..................................... 27 4.11 Minimum En route altitudes (MEA) [C+] ................................................ 27 5 AIRSPACE .................................................................................................................... 29 5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 29 5.2 Types and classes of airspace [S+].......................................................... 29 5.2.1 Eurocontrol harmonize the upper airspace [C+] .......................... 29 5.2.2 Difference in real life and on-line [S] ............................................... 29 5.3 Airspace classes A to G [S+] ...................................................................... 30 5.3.1 Class A (controlled) [C] ......................................................................... 31 5.3.2 Class B (controlled) [C] ......................................................................... 31 5.3.3 Class C (controlled) [C] ......................................................................... 31 5.3.4 Class D (controlled) [C]......................................................................... 32 5.3.5 Class E (controlled) [C] ......................................................................... 32 5.3.6 Class F (uncontrolled) [C] .................................................................... 32 5.3.7 Class G (uncontrolled) [C].................................................................... 32 5.4 Types of airspace Controlled airspace [S] .......................................... 32 5.4.1 Control Zone (CTR) [S+] ...................................................................... 32 5.4.2 Terminal Area (TMA) [S+] ................................................................... 32 5.4.3 Control Area (CTA) [S+] ....................................................................... 33 5.5 Types of airspace Uncontrolled airspace [C+] .................................. 33 5.5.1 Traffic Information Zone (TIZ) [C+] ................................................. 33 5.5.2 Traffic Information Area (TIA) [C+] .................................................. 33 5.6 Airways and Routes [C] ................................................................................ 33 5.6.1 Low altitude Airways [C] ....................................................................... 33 5.6.2 High altitude Airways [C] ...................................................................... 33 5.6.3 VOR and LF/MF Routes [C+] ............................................................... 34 5.6.4 Route Directions [S+] ............................................................................ 34 5.7 RVSM [C] ........................................................................................................... 34 5.8 MNPS/RVSM Approval [C+] ........................................................................ 34 5.8.1 RVSM/MNPS Policy of VATSIM-EUROPE Division [C+] ................ 35 6 AERODROMES .............................................................................................................. 37 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 37 6.2 Runway designators (numbers) [S] ......................................................... 37 6.3 Traffic Circuit [S+] ......................................................................................... 37 6.4 Chart over typical airport [S] ..................................................................... 38 6.5 Instrument Landing System ILS [C] ........................................................ 38 6.5.1 Localizer [C] .............................................................................................. 38 6.5.2 Glide path [C] ........................................................................................... 38 6.5.3 Marker Beacons [C] ................................................................................ 39 6.5.4 ILS Classification [C] .............................................................................. 39 6.6 Available runway length [C+] .................................................................... 40 6.7 Lights [C] .......................................................................................................... 41 6.7.1 PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator [C]................................ 41 6.7.2 Runway Lights [C]................................................................................... 41
3
6.7.3 Taxiway Lights [C+] ............................................................................... 41 6.8 Areas of interest [S+] ................................................................................... 42 6.8.1 Movement area [S+] .............................................................................. 42 6.8.2 Manoeuvring Area [S+] ....................................................................... 42 6.8.3 Runway [S+] ........................................................................................... 42 6.9 ICAO and Airport names [S+].................................................................... 42 7 AIRCRAFT .................................................................................................................... 43 7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 43 7.2 Wake Turbulence [S]..................................................................................... 43 7.2.1 Separation due to vortex [C]............................................................... 43 7.2.2 Waiving wake turbulence Separation [C+] ..................................... 44 7.3 Aircraft Approach Category [C] ................................................................. 44 7.4 Aircraft classification [C] .............................................................................. 44 7.5 Equipment suffix [C] ..................................................................................... 45 7.6 Aircraft performance table........................................................................... 45 7.7 Equipment suffix table .................................................................................. 48 7.8 Automatic Altitude Reporting (MODE C) ................................................. 49 8 NAVIGATION ................................................................................................................ 50 8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 50 8.2 Position Reference System [C] .................................................................. 50 8.3 Loxodrom and Great Circles [C+] ............................................................. 50 8.4 Directions [S]................................................................................................... 51 8.5 Variation [C]..................................................................................................... 51 8.6 Speed [S] .......................................................................................................... 51 8.6.1 Speed for the pilot [C] ........................................................................... 51 8.6.2 Indicated Air Speed (IAS) [S+] .......................................................... 52 8.6.3 True Air Speed (TAS) [S+] .................................................................. 52 8.6.4 Ground Speed (GS) [S] ......................................................................... 52 8.6.5 Mach (M) [S] ............................................................................................. 52 8.7 Wind [S] ............................................................................................................ 52 8.8 Time [S+] ......................................................................................................... 53 8.8.1 Date and reading time [S+] ................................................................ 53 8.9 Navigational aids [S] ..................................................................................... 53 8.9.1 Non Directional Beacon - NDB [S+] ................................................ 53 8.9.2 Very high freq. Omni-directional Radio range VOR [S+] ....... 54 8.9.3 Distance Measuring Equipment DME [S+] .................................. 54 8.9.4 Intersection / Fix [S+]........................................................................... 54 8.9.5 Global Positioning System GPS [S+] ............................................ 55 8.9.6 Inerital Navigation System (INS) [C+] ............................................ 55 8.9.7 ATS Routes [S+] ..................................................................................... 55 8.9.8 Flight Management System FMS [C] ............................................. 56 8.10 Navigational Aids Limitations [C+] ........................................................... 56 8.11 Further reading ............................................................................................... 57 9 CONTROLLING ............................................................................................................. 59 9.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 59 9.2 Radar Clients [S] ............................................................................................ 59 9.3 Clearance [S] ................................................................................................... 59
4
9.4 Call sign [S]...................................................................................................... 59 9.5 Transponder [S] .............................................................................................. 60 9.5.1 More about transponders [S] .............................................................. 61 9.6 Understanding Charts [S+] ......................................................................... 61 9.6.1 Standard Instrument Departure SID [S] ......................................... 61 9.6.2 Standard Instrument Arrival STAR [S+] ......................................... 61 9.6.3 Transition [C]............................................................................................ 62 9.6.4 Routes [S+] .............................................................................................. 62 9.6.5 Approach [S+].......................................................................................... 62 9.6.6 Precision approaches [S+] ................................................................... 62 9.6.7 Non-precision approaches [C] ............................................................. 62 9.6.8 Visual approach [S+] ............................................................................. 63 9.6.9 Minima [C] ................................................................................................. 63 9.6.10 Runway Visual Range (RVR) [C] ........................................................ 63 9.6.11 Missed approach Point (MAP) [C]....................................................... 63 9.6.12 ILS categories [C] ................................................................................... 63 9.7 Flight plan and Route [S]............................................................................. 64 9.7.1 Example of route [S+]........................................................................... 65 9.7.2 Speed and cruising level [S+]............................................................. 65 9.7.3 Changes in speed and cruising level [C+] ...................................... 65 9.7.4 RVSM Tansitions [C+]............................................................................ 66 9.7.5 A Real Flight Plan [ref] .......................................................................... 66 9.8 Separation [S] ................................................................................................. 67 9.8.1 Vertical separation [S] ........................................................................... 67 9.8.2 Horizontal separation [S]...................................................................... 68 9.8.3 Separation between departing traffic [S+] ..................................... 68 9.8.4 Wake turbulence spacing minima [C] ............................................... 69 9.8.5 Speed and height [S+] .......................................................................... 69 9.8.6 Minimum Speed [C] ................................................................................ 69 9.9 ATIS [S] ............................................................................................................. 70
INTRODUCTION
1.1
VATSIM Rules
The VATSIM Code of Regulations and Code of Conduct are designed to maximise everyone's enjoyment of the VATSIM network. Consequently, it is important that you remember the following key points: You must provide full and accurate details when registering to VATSIM. If any of your details are incorrect, it is important that you update them as soon as possible via the "Member Services" link on the main VATSIM website. You can only have one account with VATSIM. If you have accidentally created another due to a misunderstanding during registration, please inform the central Membership Team via the "Member Services" link on the main VATSIM website. You can only connect to the network once, unless you are connecting with an ATIS (Airport Terminal Information Service) facility too. In such instances, if someone is already connected as an ATIS facility, you should not - just 1 per airport. Apart from this, duplicate connections are prohibited. You must never give anyone access to your account. If you do, you risk permanent suspension. Your controller information in your controller client must not exceed 4 lines (as per www.vatsim.net/EC). If you find yourself in online conflict, you should call a supervisor by typing .wallop followed by your message o e.g .wallop I am having problems with ABC123. (Note: This does not work in FSInn) You should never use the GUARD frequency (121.50). If you are flying in uncontrolled airspace, please tune UNICOM 122.80 . A pilot must never simulate a HIJACK (by squawking 7500). Any member doing so will be automatically disconnected from the network. You must never control traffic whilst connected as an Observer (OBS). An Air Traffic Controller has the right to refuse an emergency aircraft. In such situations, a pilot can either: o Disconnect from the network o Cancel the emergency and resume normal flight Active ATC callsigns are (with reference to VATSIM GRP rating in brackets): o Ground Controller (S1) _DEL and _GND o Tower Controller (S2) _TWR o TMA Controller (S3) _APP and _DEP o Enroute Controller (C1) _CTR and _FSS (both radar and non-radar control services)
1.2
The Role and Responsibility of an Air Traffic Controller
We start with the most important: As a controller, your main task is to separate aircraft. Your responsibility is therefore to make sure no collisions occur. You must at all time avoid any risk of collision. Now that we have said it in three different ways, we hope that you remember what your main task is.
But there are other tasks as well.. Prevent collisions between aircraft. Prevent collisions between aircraft and ground obstacles on ground. Expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic. Provide advice and information for safe and efficient conduct of flight. Make it as real as it gets and at the same time understand that all involved shall have as fun as possible. As a controller, you have a good overview over the traffic, but you never know how the situation is inside the cockpit where the pilots sit. Your responsibility is therefore to the traffic situation. You are not responsible to how the aircraft is flown. Every pilot has a responsibility for his aircraft. Sometimes, there is a disagreement between you as a controller and the pilot as to what is the right action in the current situation. Remember that it is the pilot who has final word in these situations. This doesn't mean that he can fly his aircraft the way he pleases, but rather that you cannot give the pilot an instruction which he or his aircraft is physically unable to perform. To avoid this kind of conflicts, it is always important to give the reason why unusual instructions are given. It is very rare that disputes occur in our virtual world. We always try to help each other. If you end up in a dispute anyway, try to remember that we are real people in a virtual world. If you or anybody else makes a mistake, no lives are at stake. This is the most important difference between real life and the virtual world. Try not to get angry, never argue with anybody, but rather point out the problem in a calm and constructive manner. The above can be summarized in common sense and humility - two good characteristics. If a situation gets unpleasant or hatred, or if a pilot deliberately tries to sabotage our environment, you should try to contact a Supervisor (SUP) or Administrator (ADM). These people have a responsibility to act in this kind of situations and they are also the only ones who can expel pilots and controllers. Let's move on from this boring but necessary topic and look closer on your task as a controller. Apart from separation, you should also give service to the aircraft. Simply said, you should guide the pilots from point A to point B. The pilots are in a never ending need of current information. They need weather and traffic information etc. It is your responsibility to deliver this information as correctly and quickly as possible. There is one final task which isn't less important than the others. That is to have fun. We want you to enjoy yourself online VATSIM!
1.3
Controller Functions
One of the most common mistakes made in the VATSIM environment is the misconception of a particular facility's function. A controller can work in many different roles, where maybe Tower is the most well known. Every role has its own responsibilities and working tasks as described below. Note that in the online environment we have reduced the number of tasks. In real life there are many more. A basic summary of what each position does follows below. The usual practice is that a position takes over all of the lower when they are unmanned.
7
Example: TWR handles all the duties of the position DEL, GND and TWR if none of the lower is on line. If DEL gets online, then DEL will of course handle DEL and TWR will handle GND and TWR. Finally (to make things really clear) if GND gets online, then GND handles DEL and GND and TWR only TWR. Note that some positions require a minimum rating. There may also be stricter local rules that apply for certain controller functions. Please refer to your local vACC for more information. 1.3.1 Clearance Delivery (DEL) Clearance Delivery gives ATC clearances to the pilot after checking the Flight Plan. If the Flight Plan contains error it is DELs responsibi lity to correct them before releasing the aircraft. This function is not often in use online during normal operation, but you might see it on very busy airports and during fly-inns. 1.3.2 Ground (GND) Ground Control is responsible for exercising general surveillance on the airport movement area - apron. Ground gives taxi clearances and restrictions. Note however that Ground isn't responsible for the runways, they are towers responsibility. When the aircraft is approaching the active runway, Ground hands over to Tower, who owns the runways. If an aircraft needs to cross a runway, (active or inactive) on its way to its destination a specific clearance to do so must be obtained. Ground then needs to coordinate with tower to get approval or hand over the aircraft to TWR for that clearance (the first being the preferable). There are a few airports that have runways that are used as taxi-ways. They are controlled by GND, if this is clearly stated and coordinated between TWR and GND. 1.3.3 Tower (TWR) Tower is responsible for all take-offs and landings and gives instructions to effect proper sequencing and separation of aircraft for departure. Tower decides which runways are being used for take-offs and landings depending on wind direction etc. You are also responsible for aircraft on the ground when they are on the runway or are about to cross a runway. Landing aircraft are handed over to Ground as soon as they leave the runway (or sooner at towers discretion). Departing aircraft are handed over to the next controller whe n they leave your airspace, which normally means 3000-4500ft. The hand-off can also be done earlier if coordinated between TWR and next controller. 1.3.4 Departure Control (DEP) Departure Control is responsible for ensuring separation between departures once they are handed over from TWR. This controller may also suggest headings or vectors as appropriate to maintain this separation. APP take care of DEP, when this position isnt manned. 1.3.5 Approach Control (APP) As the name implies, Approach is responsible that aircraft when they approach the airport. For arriving aircraft, the hand over point is normally when the aircraft enters the STAR (Standard Instrument Arrival) entry point. Approach is responsible that separation is made in a safe way. In case the STAR doesn't end at the initial approach fix (final), Approach is responsible for vectoring aircraft on to the final with proper altitude and speed. Approach may also vector aircraft away from a STAR or SID (Standard Instrument Departure if this is necessary for safety reasons, or to get a good traffic flow. Normally Approach also handles departures responsibilities, taking care of departing aircraft which are handed over to Centre
8
Control. Arriving aircraft are usually handed over to Tower when they have established ILS (Instrument Landing System) or when on final for visual approach. 1.3.6 Area Control Center (ACC) Area Control Center (sometimes called Control CTR) provides ATC to aircraft on the enroute phase of flight. This includes giving information that the pilot needs such as weather and traffic information. It usually includes taking care of departing traffic, climbing to their cruising altitude and issuing inbound-clearance to traffic that is approaching the final destination of the flight. ACC is also responsible for all airports where Tower and Approach are not manned. ACC is a demanding position and requires a great deal of experience. 1.3.7 Flight Information Centre (FIS) Flight Information Centre (sometimes called FSS) is an air traffic facility that provides a myriad of services to the pilot, such as pilot briefings, relaying of clearances and broadcasting of weather information. At selected locations, FIS also provides en-route Flight Advisory Services.
ATC THE BASICS
This manual is intended both for those novice to air traffic control, who want to learn the basics, and to those who want to learn more. If you are new to air traffic control, wed like to point out that this manual is quite comprehensive, and it is absolutely not necessary to know everything in this manual by heart. You will get an idea of what it is all about, and can later use the manual as a reference to get necessary information. Some sections are more advanced than others. The sections are marked according to what level they correspond to in the following way:

(unmarked) Required knowledge for all controllers. [S] Required knowledge for Students and above. [S+] Required knowledge for Senior Students and above. [C] Required knowledge for Controllers and above. [C+] Required knowledge for Senior Controllers and above. [Ref] Reference only for all controllers.
In conjunction to this manual you should also read the GUIDE. The GUIDE contains material that focus more on practical ATC. Additionally, stand alone manuals covering each ATCO position can be found on this site. Finally, we would like to point out that our motto is as real as it gets, but also always remember to have fun while aiming at that goal. Good luck!
2.1
The responsibility and role of a ATCO [S]
We start with the most important: As a controller, your main task is to separate aircraft. Your responsibility is therefore to make sure no collisions occur. You must at all time avoid any risk of collision. Now that we have said it in three different ways, we hope that you remember what your main task is. But there are other tasks as well..

Prevent collisions between aircraft. Prevent collisions between aircraft and ground / obstacles on ground. Expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic. Provide advice and information for safe and efficient conduct of flight. Make it as real as it gets and at the same time understand that all involved shall have as fun as possible.
As a controller, you have a good overview over the traffic, but you never know how the situation is inside the cockpit where the pilots sit. Your responsibility is therefore to the
10
traffic situation. You are not responsible to how the aircraft is flown. Every pilot has a responsibility for his aircraft. Sometimes, there is a disagreement between you as as is the most important difference between real life and the virtual world. Try not to get angry, never argue with anybody, but rather point out the problem in a calm and constructive manner. The above can be summarized in common sense and humility - two good characteristics. If a situation gets unpleasant or hatred, or if a pilot deliberately tries to sabotage our environment, you should try to contact a Supervisor (SUP) or Administrator (ADM). These people have a responsibility to act in this kind of situations, and they are also the only ones who can expel pilots and controllers. Let's move on from this boring but necessary topic and look closer on your task as a controller. Apart from separation, you should also give service to the aircraft. Simply said, you should guide the pilots from point A to point B. The pilots are in a never ending need of current information. They need weather acontroller and the pilot as to what is the right action in the current situation. Remember that it is the pilot who has final word in these situations. This doesn't mean that he can fly his aircraft the way he pleases, but rather that you cannot give the pilot an instruction which he or his aircraft is physically unable to perform. To avoid this kind of conflicts, it is always important to give the reason why unusual instructions are given. It is very rare that disputes occur in our virtual world. We always try to help each other. If you end up in a dispute anyway, try to remember that we are real people in a virtual world. If you or anybody else makes a mistake, no lives are at stake. Thind traffic information etc. It is your responsibility to deliver this information as correctly and quickly as possible. There is one final task which isn't less important than the others. That is to have fun. We want you to enjoy yourself online VATSIM!
2.2
Controller functions [S]
One of the most common mistakes made in the VATSIM environment is the misconception of a particular facility's function. A controller can work in many different roles, where maybe Tower is the most well known. Every role has its own responsibilities and working tasks as described below. Note that in the on line environment, we have reduced the number of tasks, in real life, there are many more. A basic summary of what each position does follows below. The usual practice is that a position takes over all of the lower when they are unmanned. Example: TWR handles all the duties of the position DEL, GND and TWR if none of the lower is on line. If DEL gets online, then DEL will of course handle DEL and TWR will handle GND and TWR.
11
Finally (to make things really clear) if GND gets online, then GND handles DEL and GND and TWR only TWR. Note that some positions require a minimum rating. There may also be stricter local rules that apply for certain controller functions. Please refer to your local vACC for more information. 2.2.1 Clearance Delivery (DEL) [S] Clearance Delivery gives ATC clearances to the pilot after checking the Flight Plan. If the Flight Plan contains error it is DELs responsibility to correct them before releasing the aircraft. This function is not often in use online during normal operation, but you might see it on very busy airports and during fly-inns. 2.2.2 Ground (GND) [S] Ground Control is responsible for exercising general surveillance on the airport movement area - apron. Ground gives taxi clearances and restrictions. Note however that Ground isn't responsible for the runways, they are towers responsibility. When the air craft is approaching the active runway, Ground hands over to Tower, who owns the runways. If an aircraft needs to cross a runway, (active or inactive) on its way to its destination a specific clearance to do so must be obtained. Ground then needs to coordinate with tower to get approval or hand over the aircraft to TWR for that clearance (the first being the preferable). There are a few airports that have runways that are used as taxi-ways. They are controlled by GND, if this is clearly stated and coordinated between TWR and GND. 2.2.3 Tower (TWR) [S] Tower is responsible for all take-offs and landings and gives instructions to effect proper sequencing and separation of aircraft for departure. Tower decides which runways are being used for take-offs and landings depending on wind direction etc. You are also responsible for aircraft on the ground when they are on the runway or are about to cross a runway. Landing aircraft are handed over to Ground as soon as they leave the runway (or sooner at towers discretion). Departing aircraft are handed over to the next controller when they leave your airspace, which normally means 3000-4500 ft. The hand-off can also be done earlier if coordinated between TWR and next controller. 2.2.4 Departure Control (DEP) [SS] Departure Control is responsible for ensuring separation between departures once they are handed over from TWR. This controller may also suggest headings or vectors as appropriate to maintain this separation. APP take care of DEP, when this position isnt manned. 2.2.5 Approach Control (APP) [SS] As the name implies, Approach is responsible that aircraft when they approach the airport. For arriving aircraft, the hand over point is normally when the aircraft enters the STAR (Standard Instrument Arrival) entry point. Approach is responsible that separation is made in a safe way. In case the STAR doesn't end at the initial approach fix (final), Approach is responsible for vectoring aircraft on to the final with proper altitude and speed. Approach may also vector aircraft away from a STAR or SID (Standard Instrument Departure if this is necessary for safety reasons, or to get a good traffic flow. Normally Approach also handles departures responsibilities, taking care o f departing aircraft which are handed over to Centre Control.
12
Arriving aircraft are usually handed over to Tower when they have established ILS (Instrument Landing System) or when on final for visual approach. 2.2.6 Area Control Center (ACC) [C] Area Control Center (sometimes called Control CTR) provides ATC to aircraft on the enroute phase of flight. This includes giving information that the pilot needs such as weather and traffic information. It usually includes taking care of departing traffic, climbing to their cruising altitude and issuing inbound-clearance to traffic that is approaching the final destination of the flight. ACC is also responsible for all airports where Tower and Approach are not manned. ACC is a demanding position and requires a great deal of experience. 2.2.7 Flight Information Centre (FIS) [SC] Flight Information Centre (sometimes called FSS) is an air traffic facility that provides a myriad of services to the pilot, such as pilot briefings, relaying of clearances and broadcasting of weather information. At selected locations, FIS also provides en-route Flight Advisory Services.
2.3
The VATSIM community [S]
VATSIM is a huge and quite complex organisation. There is only one sort of membership, but you can say that there are three different kind of activity that you can engage in. Many members participate in more then one of these activities.

ATC Pilot Administration
As a pilot or ATCO there is little need to know everything about the organisation as such, but from time to time you might want to contact someone from administration to get help or guidance. Since it isnt always easy to know who to turn to, a brief insight in the organisation -tree is presented here for reference. There is also a short description of the history of VATSIM at the end of this section. It is not in the scope of this manual to describe the VATSIM organisation in detail and the best way of finding the right person is to start looking at your own vACCs homepage. There will be a staff-list with contact information on that page. The staff will guide you in the first instance if your request cant be handled within your vACC. You can also turn to the VATSIM forum and ask for help and further assistance.
13
2.4
About VATSIM [S]
An Introduction into the Great Hobby of Online Flight Simulation and Simulated Air Traffic Control It wasn't long ago when the whole world was ours alone. Beginning with Microsoft's Flight Simulator Version 5.0, we could simulate flying to many parts of the world. Flying, however, was a very lonely proposition. There were no other airplanes in the skies while we flew en-route and our arrivals at major airports were like landing in ghost towns. There was dynamic scenery and beginning with Microsoft's Flight Simulator 98, multi-player capability to keep you company. But other than that, Flight Simulator, as wonderful a program as it has been throughout its history, fell flat when it came to simulating air traffic control. In 1997, all of that changed with the introduction of SquawkBox, an add -on program for Flight Simulator 95/98, and ProController, a stand alone program. Over time, SquawkBox has been revised several times and now works with all major Flight Simulation programs including Microsoft Flight Simulators 2002, 2004, FSX, Precision Simulator and the Fly! series of programs.
14
Through the use of ProController, and later on more advanced versions such as ASRC, VRC and more recently Euroscopeand the internet, people operating as air traffic controllers could track and control aircraft in real time as they flew in Flight Simulator by utilizing a simulated radar screen. Pilots, using SquawkBox and more recently FSINN, could now talk to and receive air traffic control from people using one of the ATC software platforms in use. Soon thereafter, various organizations were established to bring order and structure to this new nche in the hobby. The Virtual Air Traffic Simulation Network, known as VATSIM.net or "VATSIM" was created in 2001 by a group of individuals who came together with a goal of creating an organization which truly served the needs of the flight simulation and online air traffic control community. With an eye towards more than just providing a network of computers for users to log into, VATSIM is an online community where people can learn and, at the same time, enjoy the pastimes of flight simulation and air traffic control simulation, all while making new friends from all over the world. VATSIM is not just for individuals who have experience in online flight simulation and ATC. It is perfect for both the new user, and the long time "simmer".
For someone who has just learned about online flight simulation and air traffic control and is interested in real world procedures, VATSIM and its members, many of whom bring real world experience and expertise to our community, offer an ideal environment to learn real world skills. For pilots, you'll be able to fly with radar service by air traffic controllers who issue instruction and assistance in all phases of flight from getting your clearance to arriving at your destination airport. For air traffic control enthusiasts, the entire world is simulated meaning you can work ATC virtually anywherefrom a general aviation airport to the busiest airports in the world. Nearly all of the real world positions are available for you to choose and learn to work.
The best part of all of this is that VATSIM brings real people together who share your passion for flight and air traffic control. When you contact that controller or pilot, you aren't contacting a computer generated voice or image - you will be communicating with a real person who shares the same interests as you! All it takes is a few moments to register and join VATSIM. Once you do, prepare to learn and be rewarded with friendships that will span the globe. In addition, you'll receive the appreciation and thanks of the online flight simulation and air traffic control communities.
15
METEREOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
Weather knowledge is essential in aviation: Visibility, air pressure, thunderstorms, temperature, clouds, rain and dew point etc. All affect flying in one way or another. You are most affected by weather when flying VFR, but also when flying IFR, there are restrictions how bad weather can be before plans must be changed. In this section, we'll look into how weather is reported, but not how weather affects flight. There are many acronyms and concepts in weather reporting, which we will learn throughout the rest of this document. Below we'll cover rather completely the weather report. There are many acronyms and concepts. You need not know them all from the beginning, but you must be able to get the name of the airport, wind and air pressure. Since you as a controller read the weather report to the pilots, you'll soon learn the rest of the acronyms.
3.2
METAR Aviation Routine Weather Report [S/S+ 1]
At major airports, weather observations are made every half hour, day and night. The weather in the METAR is the weather observed 10 minutes before the report. The following is part of a METAR:

Airport (for example EKCH for Kastrup) Observation time (day and time followed by Z) Wind at ground level: direction, speed and unit (knots) Meteorological visibility Runway Visual Range (RVR) if visibility is below 1500 m. Present weather Clouds, amount, type and base Air temperature and dew point QNH (air pressure), preceded by Q. Other information, for example wind change. Landing forecast, trend.
The following is a brief breakdown of some of the basic METAR elements: METAR EHAM 121755Z 21016G24KT 180V240 1500 R06/0600U -RA BR BKN015 0VC025 06/04 Q1005 BECMG 9999=
METAR
TYPE OF REPORT
Either routine (METAR) or non-routine (SPECI). En Route
As a Student you should have knowledge about what a METAR is and recognize the most essential parts (Where, when, winds and QNH) by heart and know where to find information about the other elements. As a Senior Student you should be able to read out a whole METAR.
16
Facilities use either a M or S which follows the time of the report.

EHAM ICAO IDENTIFIER
Four letter ICAO Code. First two digits are the date, followed by the hour and minutes in UTC time (Z). Normally a 5-digit grouping (6-digits if speed is over 99 knots). The first 3-digits is the direction, the next two or three is the speed. G indicates gusts with the highest gust report after it. V indicates variable wind direction. VRB indicates variable wind speed 6 knots or less Note: International stations may use meters per second (MPS) or kilometers per hour (KMH) and code the wind speed accordingly. Prevailing visibility reported in Meters. 2800 represents 2,800 meters and 9999 represents a visibility greater than 10 km. "R" indicates the group followed by the runway heading (06) and the visual range in meters. The report might include a "U" for increasing or "D" for decreasing values. This example shows light rain with mist. Some main weather codes: SN=Snow, GR=Hail, SH=Showers, FG=Fog, +=Heavy, -=Light Shows the amount of sky cover and cloud base height. FEW = less then 1/8 SCT = 1/8 till 3/8 BKN = 4/8 till 7/8 OVC = 8/8 Reported in two, two-digit groups separated by a slant ("/"), in degrees Celsius. Temperature and dewpoint below zero are prefixed with a "M". QNH reported in a four-digit format in HectoPascals (Hpa) preceded with a "Q". In i.e. USA altimeter reports are in inches of mercury. How the weather is going to develop in the time the METAR is current (2 hours). You can here find Sky conditions, Visibility, Wind, Weather TEMPO = Temporary change in weather BECMG = Permanent change in weather
121755Z
DATE and TIME
21016G24KT
WIND
180V240
VRB04KT
1500
VISIBILITY
R06/0600U
RVR VALUES
-RA BR
WX PHENOMENA
BKN015 0VC025
SKY CONDITIONS
06/04
TEMP/DEW POINT
Q1005
ALTIMETER
BECMG 9999=
TREND
3.2.1 Wind [S] Wind is measured 10 m above ground. The direction is from where the wind is coming. The precision is 10 degrees.
17
In the METAR, the wind velocity is a 10 minute average and given in knots (kt). If there are gusts 10 KT over the average value, this is reported as well. The gusts are reported as G17 and should be read gusting or maximum. When flying, the wind direction in itself isn't the most important factor, but its the side -wind component. If the wind direction varies more than 60 degrees and if there's more than 3 kt wind, it is reported as V (variable). If there is less than 3 kt wind and it varies, this is reported as VRB. Calm is reported as 00000KT. Example:

VRB02KT variable two knots 25020KT two five zero degrees two zero knots 15015G25KT one five zero degrees one five knots maximum (or gusting) two five knots 24018G35KT 160V290 two four zero degrees one eight knots maximum (or gusting) three five knots variable between one six zero and two niner zero degrees
3.2.2 Visibility [S+] Visibility is often of vital importance. There are three ways of obtaining the visibility

Flight Visibility is the visibility forward from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight. The Ground Visibility, which is given in the ATIS and METAR, is the visibility at an aerodrome, as reported by an accredited observer. Ground visibility reading, which is measured automatically.
The two latter is the distance measured to a large unlit object, where the contours of this object can be seen. Visibility is affected by moisture, ice crystals, salt or dust in the air. Visibility in darkness is today most often measured with infrared light. Visibility is measured in steps up to 10 km. Visibility below 50 m is written as 0000 and 10 km or more as 9999. Visibility below 5000 m is given in m, and above in km. Example:

450 visibility four five zero meters 1500 visibility one five zero zero (or one thousand five hundred) meters 9999 visibility more then ten kilometres Special case: 1800N 7000S visibility to north one eight zero zero meters, to south seven kilometres.
3.2.3 Runway Visual Range [S+] Runway Visual Range is only measured if visibility is below 1500 m. The RVR instruments (transmissometers) are located at both ends, and in the middle of the runway. These are referred to as RVR Touchdownzone (TDZ), Midpoint and Stop-end. Most important for the landing is the value of the TDZ. The RVR report starts with an R followed by the runway designator. If there is more than one runway in the same direction, L, R and C are used. Other RVR codes:

M: visibility is below what can be measured, or below 50m P: RVR is more than 1500 m
18
V: RVR varies U: RVR is going Up D: RVR is going Down
Examples:

R29L/0700 R-V-R two niner left seven zero zero meters R19R/M0150D R-V-R one niner right below one five zero meters going down R26/0350V0600U R-V-R two six variable between three five zero and six zero zero meters going up
3.2.4 Weather Phenomena [S+] Current weather is included in the METAR. It is abbreviated with two letters. If this isn't enough, the abbreviations can be combined. The abbreviations are listed at the end of this chapter. Some abbreviations can be preceded with a + or -, this lists the intensity. VC means Vicinity, which means within 8 km from the airport. Exception: thunder and cumulonimbus clouds. Sometimes the recent weather is also reported, in this case RE precedes the weather condition. Examples:

SN BLSN Snow and blowing snow +FZDZ FG Heavy freezing drizzle with fog RESN Recent snow
3.2.5 Clouds [S+] There are a number of reported clouds types, but only two are important to differentiate: Cumulonimbus (CB) and Towering Cumulus (TCU). Otherwise, only the fraction of sky covered by clouds is measured. This was previously reported in 1/8's, but nowadays this is described in words:

0/8: Sky clear (SKC) 1-2/8: Few (FEW) 3-4/8: Scattered (SCT) 5-7/8: Broken (BKN) 8/8: Overcast (OVC)
The cloud base above the airport's reference height AGL (Above Ground Level) is measured in hundreds of feet. 001 means 100 ft, 012 = 1200 ft and 120 = 12000 ft. Vertical visibility is reported as VV, and if this is not measured VV///. Examples:

BKN002 Broken two hundred feet SCT013 BKN120 Scattered one thousand three hundred feet broken one two thousand feet. SCT035TCU Scattered three thousand five hundred feet, towering cumulus.
19
3.2.6 CAVOK [S+] CAVOK (read CAV-OH-KAY) replaces visibility, weather and clouds if: visibility 10km; no cloud below 5000 ft (1500m) or below the highest minimum sector altitude, whichever is greater and no CB or TCU (Cumulonimbus); and no precipitation, TS, DS, SS, MIFG, DRDU, DRSA, or DRSN. The full readout of CAVOK can be either Clouds and Visibility OK or Ceiling and Visibility OK. The most common is the latter, but the most correct ought to be the first. This is because ceiling means BKN or OVC when it comes to clouds and the definition of CAVOK is that NO clouds should be present below 5000ft. 3.2.7 Temperature [S+] The air temperature is measured in degrees Celsius. If below 0, it is preceded by an M. 3.2.8 Dew point [S+] The dew point is defined as the temperature the air must be cooled to, to get saturation, i.e. relative humidity 100%. If below 0, it is preceded by an M. Dew point is important to the pilot since this value gives information about visibility, clouds and together with the temperature indicates the risk of ice-formation. The closer the temperature and dew point are, the more humidity is in the air and the worse is the visibility. The difference between temperature and dew point is called spread. If you calculate SPREAD x 400ft you will get the lowest cloud base. Example:
02/M04 Temperature two dew point minus four
3.2.9 Air Pressure QNH [S] As described in other sections in this manual, the air pressure is vital to know, since it affects the altitude measuring system. Air pressure can be measured in different ways, and relative different levels. QNH is air pressure at sea level (or reduced to sea level in standard atmosphere if its measured at another point). QFE is air pressure at the airport. A high value means high air pressure and vice versa. Standard pressure is 1013.25 hPa or 29.92 inch Hg. In the METAR, the value is preceded by a Q if the unit is hPa and A if it's inch Hg. Q is used in Europe. Example:
Q0987 Q-N-H niner eight seven
3.2.10 Trend [S] The trend prognosis should indicate expected changes within next two hours. There are three MAIN concepts used in Trend:

Becoming (BECMG) Temporary (TEMPO) No Significant Change (stable) (NOSIG)
20
The first two can be given with a time reference.
Examples:

BECMG FM1250 TL1340 Becoming from 1250 till 1340 (the change will take place between 12:50 to 13:40) BECMG AT 1400 Becoming at 1400 (will change at 14:00) TEMPO FM 1400 Tempo from 1400 (One or more changes shorter than one hour, from 14:00 to two hours after the METAR was reported.)
Additional Trend prognosis can be From, To and At. 3.2.11 Runway Conditions [C] Runway Condition is not always included in a METAR. It is only when the conditions on the runway might affect aircrafts landing and departing. First the runway number is indicated. This is done with the runway two digit numbers. If the report covers all runways at the airport, 88 is reported. Repeats of earlier given information is indicated with 99. The runway report is given as AABCDDEE as follows:
AA: Runway
01 36 Runway (Left if parallel) 51 86 Right runway (if two parallel) 88 All runways at airport
B: TYPE OF DEPOSIT
0= CLEAR and DRY 1= DAMP 2= WET or Water Patches 3= RIME or FROST (<1mm) 4= DRY SNOW 5= WET SNOW 6= SLUSH 7= ICE 8= COMPACTED or ROLLED SNOW 9= FROZEN RUTS or RIDGES
C: EXTENT OF CONTAMINATION
1=10% or less of RWY covered 2=11-25% of RWY covered 5=26-50% of RWY covered 9=51-100% of RWY covered
/= TYPE of DEPOSIT NOT REPORTED, e.g due to RWY /= NOT REPORTED e.g due to RWY clearance or de-icing in clearance/de-icing in progress progress.
DD: DEPTH OF DEPOSIT

00= less than 1mm 01 to 90= depth in mm, e.g 23=23mm 92= 10cm 93= 15cm 94= 20cm 95= 25cm 96= 30cm 97= 35cm 98= 40cm 99= RWY not operational due to snow, slush, ice, large drifts or RWY clearance. Depth not reported. //= Depth operationally not significant e.g with ice or rolled snow, or not measurable e.g RWY wet.
EE: BRAKING CONDITIONS

FRICTION COEFFICENT Reported figures from 01 to 90 represent FC, e.g 05=FC 0.05, 28=FC 0.28 BRAKING ACTION 91= POOR 92= MEDIUM/POOR 93= MEDIUM 94= MEDIUM/GOOD 95= GOOD 95= GOOD 99= UNRELIABLE, BA and FC not possible to assess, misleading, e.g in case of aquaplaning. //= RWY not operational, BA and FC not reported.
21
3.3
VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions [C]
Please note that the VMC minima differ between countries and you have to refer to your local vACC to get the minimums for your country. If no such values are available you can use the ones below. During a VFR-flight certain VMC-minima, i.e. certain limits for visibility and cloud base has to be fulfilled. These limits depend on what altitude and in what airspace the flight is conducted. A pilot may not fly VFR if the weather is below these minima. Clearance to fly below the minima as special-VFR can be obtained by ATC, but such a clearance can only be given for flights within a CTR and is only valid for an approach or departure to or from the airport when the weather is above minima outside the CTR. The opposite of VMC is instrument metrological conditions (IMC), which is considered to prevail whenever VMC minima arent be met. In our virtual world ATC and pilots may have different weather on the same spot and time because of software and updates from servers. It is therefore good practice to leave the decision if a flight shall be cancelled or postponed due to VMC to the pilot.
VMC MINIMUMS
Class B Class C, D, E
Visibility
At or above FL100: 8 km Below FL100: 5 km Clear of clouds
At or above FL100: 8 km Below FL100: 5 km Horizontal distance minimum 1500m Vertical distance minimum 300m
Clouds
Class F & G
Above 3000ft MSL or 1000ft AGL whichever is higher

Visibility
At or below 3000ft MSL or 1000ft AGL whichever is higher 3 km Clear of clouds and ground in sight
5 km Horizontal distance minimum: 1500m Vertical distance minimum: 300m
Clouds
3.4
Metar Rerefence
CODE
KT G V VV
Weather
Knots Wind Gusts / Maximum Variable wind Vertical Visibility
22
+ VC MI PR BC DR BL SH TS FZ DZ RA SN SG IC PL GR GS BR FG FU HZ SKC FEW SCT BKN OVC CB TCU NSW CAVOK NOSIG Q BECMG FM AT TL RE WS
Light (intensity) Heavy (intestity) In vicinity Shallow Partial Patches Low drifting Blowing Showers Thunderstorm Frezzing Drizzle Rain Snow Snowgrains Diamond dust Ice pellets Hail Snow grain Mist Fog Smoke Haze Sky clear Few Scattered Broken Overcast Cumulonimbus Towering cumulus Nil significant weather Ceiling And Visibility OK Nil significant change QNH Becoming From (time) At (time) To (time) Recent Windshear
23
ALTITUDE AND FLIGHT LEVEL
4.1
Introduction
There are a large number of terms concerning the measurement of altitude within aviation. This chapter will deal with the most usual terms and explain in what situations you use them.
4.2
Pressure [S]
The static pressure is defined as the pressure that the atmosphere is producing. Youve probably heard of high and low pressure, but in aviation you have to be more accurate than that and measure the pressure with digits. In aviation air pressure is measured in hectopascal, hPa. ICAO has defined a standard atmosphere2 in which the pressure at sea level is 1013.25hPa. This is also ca lled standard setting or QNE. Since the air gets thinner with increased altitude, the pressure is reduced. More precisely with 30hPa / 1000feet3. An aircraft altimeter uses this fact by measuring the pressure around the aircraft and translating it to an altitude. The pressure at sea level is however not static and an altimeter has to compensate for this in order to show the correct altitude. This compensation is done manually by the pilot by setting a reference that is calculated from the present air pressure. There are two commonly used methods for calculating this reference and they are abbreviated; QNH and QFE. QNH is the actual air pressure reduced to sea level in standard atmosphere. When setting the correct QNH, the altimeter will show the airfields elevation over MSL (see below), providing that the aircraft is standing on the airfield. QNH is the most common setting in civil and private aircrafts. QFE is the actual air pressure, not reduced to sea level i.e. the air pressure at the airport. When setting the correct QFE, the altimeter will show zero, if the aircraft is standing on the airfield. QFE is rarely used in commercial civil aviation. VFR-traffic sometimes uses QFE and it is common that military aircraft uses QFE instead of QNH. To be correct, not only the pressure, but also the temperature has to be taken in consideration in order to measure the true altitude. OAT combined with QNH is used to calculate true altitude.

Pressure at sea level: 1013.25 hPa Temperature at sea level: +15 degrees Celsius (C) Decline in temperature: 2 degrees C / 1000 ft Tropopaus altitude: 11km Temperature in tropopaus: -56.5 degrees C Temperature is constant between 11-20km
2 3
In standard atmosphere as defined by ICAO In standard atmosphere as defined by ICAO

24
4.3
Temperature [C]
Temperature is a measure of the movement of the molecules in the air. It is measured in Celsius (C), Fahrenheit (F) or Kelvin (K). In aviation OAT (Outside Air Temperature) is used as the real out temperature and the unit used is Celsius. (To be correct TOAT should be used, but OAT is the same as TOAT if the first letter is omitted). The temperature drops 2 degrees C / 1000 ft in standard atmosphere.
4.4
Mean Sea Level (MSL) [S+]
Mean sea level (MSL) is the average height of the sea, with reference to a suitable reference surface. Defining the reference level, however, involves complex measurement, and accurately determining MSL can prove difficult. Lucky for you, this is outside the scope of this manual.
4.5
Altitude [S]
Altitude is defined as the vertical distance between mean sea level (MSL) and an aircraft. When the pilot has set the correct local QNH he will fly on an altitude.
4.6
Height [S+]
Height is defined as the vertical distance between the ground (GND) or an airport and an aircraft. Height may be expressed in charts as number of feet above ground level (AGL). If an aircraft is flying on altitude 1000ft and the airports elevation (which means height above MSL) is 300 ft, the aircraft height is 700ft.
4.7
Flight Level (FL) [S+]
Flight levels are expressed in hundreds of feet of vertical distance from the pressure reference 1013.25. Hence, when flying on flight levels, the pilot has to set the altimeter to the standard pressure 1013.25hPa. If the QNH is 1013.25 FL 80 would be 8000 ft above MSL (in a standard atmosphere). If the QNH is 1003 hPa (i.e. lower then 1013.25) FL 80 would be less then 8000 ft above MSL. (It would be 1013-1003 = 10 x 30ft =300 ft less = 8000-300ft = 7700ft). Flight levels are used above a certain altitude called the transition altitude. This is to avoid that pilots flying en-route have to set their altimeters to local QNH all the time as they fly though areas with different pressure. If two aircraft are at the same location, one at FL160 and the other at FL170 they are still 1000ft apart, as their altimeters deviate by the same amount from the true altitude.
4.8
Transition Level, Altitude and Layer [S+]
Transition altitude (TA) is always the same at an airport, but differs from airport to airport. In Europe 5000 feet is the most common. When an aircraft is climbing trough the transition altitude the pilot will set the altimeter to standard setting (QNE) 1013.25hPa. When an aircraft is above the transition altitude it will fly on flight levels. Upon descent the pilot should set the altimeter to local QNH (or QFE if appropriate) when passing the transition level (TL) at the latest. This means that below the transition level, altitude will be used. Transition layer is defined as the airspace between the TA and the TL. In some countries the transition layer has to be 1000 feet or more, but in some it can be thinner. Whatever the rules, in a specific country are, the TL will thus vary with the air pressure in order to maintain a certain minimum thickness. (This will change, since new rules are soon implemented) You have to look up the local rules in your vACCs operating manual.
25
Rule of thumb is that the TL is lower when the pressure is above standard 1013.25 Hpa, and higher when the pressure is below standard 1013.25 Hpa.
Country
Austria Belgium Denmark France Germany UK Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland
TA4
by AD 4500 5000 4000 5000 by AD 5000 by AD 4500 3000 4000 10500 6000 5000 By AD
4.9
Minimum usable flight levels [C]
Aircraft that are flying at Transition Altitude (TA) or above, set their altimeter to a standard pressure of 1013 Hpa. Because the pressure changes en route, they are actually flying at different altitudes as they travel through areas with differing atmospheric pressure. This works fine for all aircraft at TA or above, because regardless of their actual altitude above mean sea level, they are still separated from each other by 2000 feet. Unfortunately this does not always work between two aircraft assigned an altitude close to TA, and a Flightlevel close to Transition Level (TL). If the local altimeter ever drops below 1013 Hpa, then the 1000 foot separation required between the two aircraft (called Transition Layer) is lost. For this reason, the Transition Level is variable to assure that the Transition Layer is the minimum 1000 feet. Rule of thumb is that the TL is lower when the pressure is above standard 1013 Hpa, and higher when the pressure is below standard 1013 Hpa (as discussed in previous paragraph). To have more idea about Transition Level, please check the below figure.
This is the most common setting, variations may occur on some airports within the country; please refer to the AD for specific settings.
26
4.10 Minimal altitudes MOCA, MRVA and MSA [C+]

MOCA = Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude This is the lowest altitude that an aircraft can fly in IMC (Instrument Meteorological Conditions) and still keep safe clearance from terrain and obstacles. MOCA is often lower then MEA (se below). It is only used in emergencies, especially to get below icing. MRVA = Minimum Radar Vectoring Altitude MRVAs are established where ATC vectors are initiated or requested frequently. They are often lower than other applicable minimum IFR altitudes because they can be more focused in specific areas rather than general like a 25 NM safe altitude around a final approach fix, for example. As a result, these are not published on any instrument approach procedure, but may coincide with published values. Since ATC is responsible for obstacle clearance of an aircraft on radar vectors, the MRVA will, by definition, provide a number of issues like cold weather altimeter errors, terrain and obstructions, restricted airspace, etc. The MANOPS Definition for an MRVA also includes radio coverage, but oddly enough, not radar coverage. It is also supposed to consider the base of controlled airspace in a given area, so the radar vectoring altitudes are often lower in terminal areas where the airspace classification is better designated to include lower transition areas. On this note, ATC may provide vectors to an aircraft in uncontrolled airspace (class G) if requested by the pilot, or if ATC suggests it and the pilot accept it. MSA = Minimum Safe/Sector Altitude Minimum Sector Altitude is the minimum altitude that may be used under emergency conditions which will provide a minimum clearance of 1000ft above obstacles and terrain contained within a sector of 25 NM radius centred on a radio navigational aid. MSA can be given as areas between radials from a VOR at the airport.
4.11 Minimum En route altitudes (MEA) [C+]

MEA's takes into account both navigational aid limitations and obstruction clearance. This is important to you for two reasons. First, if you clear an aircraft below the MEA in your area, and the pilot discovers rocks in the clouds ahead, he may be cranky. Second, in case of radio failure, be aware that the pilot will climb to the MEA if he has not received a new altitude clearance prior to the radio failure.
27
You need to become familiar with the MEA's in your VACC area to the extent that you will not inadvertently clear an aircraft below them. The MEA's can be found on the low altitude en route charts along airways. The number starting with an asterisk is the MOCA, which can be assigned under certain circumstances, but will not be useful in our environment (see above).
28
AIRSPACE
5.1
Introduction
The airspace is divided into different classes and areas. The different airspaces are important to know because different services are provided within them. Please note that the airspace differs a lot in the European countries and you have to refer to your local vACC for more specific information. Here is however the general concept.
5.2
Types and classes of airspace [S+]
There are four types of Airspace; controlled, uncontrolled, special use and other. The type of airspace is dictated by the complexity and density of aircraft movements, the nature of the operations conducted, and the level of safety required. In the uncontrolled airspace separation to other aircraft is solely the responsibility of the pilot. It is a matter of see and be seen. Pilots keep a good look out for other traffic and may use the radio to send blind transmissions. With blind transmission we mea n that no answer is expected. There are seven different types of airspace classes, named A to G. Class A-E is controlled airspace and here air traffic control service is provided. Class F and G are uncontrolled airspace and only flight information service (FIS) is provided. The differences between the airspace classes are described in the next section. Nations and/or states may not introduce all classes of airspace, but will select those appropriate to their needs. In the Sweden, for example, only class C, E and G is used. In Germany class A and B is not used and so on. Refer to local manuals for the area in which you will provide ATC for more information regarding airspaces in use. For the new students the important thing to remember about airspace classes is the fact that they are divided in controlled and uncontrolled airspace. When flying in controlled airspace a clearance is required, with expection of Class E which even if controlled does not require a clearance. For a controller to be able to issue a clearance, it is required that the pilot has submitted a flight-plan, and maintains two-way communication with a controller. Its allowed to send a flight-plan via radio for VFR-flights, even though it is very seldom used on-line. 5.2.1 Eurocontrol harmonize the upper airspace [C+] EUROCONTROL recently harmonised the Airspace Classifications above FL 195 in Operational Improvement 1A and it is now Class C airspace in most member states. The upper limit in most of these countries have also been harmonised to FL 660. In addition, harmonised access rules for VFR flights in this airspace have been agreed. This represents a significant contribution towards facilitating the Single European Sky, improving safety through reducing confusion as to airspace classification rules for those airspace users flying across Europe, and has the potential for improving Air Traffic Management efficiency through producing transparency of international airspace boundaries. For more information about the division of airspace in different countries, please see figure F4.1 at the end of this chapter. 5.2.2 Difference in real life and on-line [S] Procedures on-line for different kind of airspaces might differ from those in force in real life.
29
Some FIR:s have a policy that all pilots shall contact the active controller before commencing a flight, even if the flight only goes through uncontrolled airspace. Please refer to local policy to gain more information regarding the policy in use where you will be controlling. NB! All questions in Eurotest regarding airspace are referring to real life procedures, if nothing else is specified in the question.
5.3
Airspace classes A to G [S+]
Controlled airspace is the airspace within which all aircraft operators are subject to certain pilot-qualifications, operating rules, and equipment-requirements.
For IFR operations in any class of controlled airspace, a pilot must file an IFR flight plan and receive an appropriate ATC clearance. Standard separation is provided to all aircraft operating under IFR in controlled airspace. Pilots flying VFR are responsible to ensure that ATC clearance and radio communication requirements are met prior to entry into Class B, C, or D airspace. Traffic advisories will be provided to all aircraft as the controllers workload permits. Safety Alerts are mandatory services which are provided to all aircraft. There are two types; Terrain/Obstruction Alerts and Aircraft Conflict Alerts.
The following paragraphs are simplified to be more easily read. For full description of the different airspace classes and the rules within, please refer to ICAO Annex 11 or to your local vACCs manual. Controlled Airspace
Service/ Requirements
Separation between All All IFR/IFR IFR/VFR ** IFR/IFR IFR/IFR
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
Class E
I F R
Max. Speed
--
--
250 KIAS below FL100 Yes Yes
250 below FL100 Yes Yes
KIAS
Radio required Clearance required
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
V F R
Separation between VMC minimums
All
VFR/IFR
None
None
See VFR section X.X.X
Max. Speed
--
250 KIAS below FL100
250 KIAS
250 KIAS
30
Radio required Clearance required
NO VFR ALLOWED
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
No No
Uncontrolled Airspace
Service/ Requirements Class F Class G
Separation between
IFR/IFR as far as possible 250 KIAS Yes No
None
I F R V F R
Max. Speed Radio required Clearance required Separation between VMC minimums Max. Speed Radio required Clearance required
250 KIAS Yes No
None
None
See VFR section X.X.X 250 KIAS No No 250 KIAS No No
Simplified - SVFR-flights (where allowed) are treated as IFR in regards of separation. 5.3.1 Class A (controlled) [C] Class A airspace is generally the airspace from FL195 up to and including FL 660. Unless otherwise authorized, all pilots must operate their aircraft under IFR. Class A Airspace is not specifically charted. 5.3.2 Class B (controlled) [C] Class B airspace is generally the airspace from the surface to FL100, surrounding the busy airports in terms of airport operations or passenger emplacements. The configuration of each Class B airspace area is individually tailored and consists of a surface area, and two or more layers (some Class B airspace areas resembles upside-down wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all published instrument procedures once an aircraft enters the airspace. 5.3.3 Class C (controlled) [C] Separation between IFR flights and between IFR and VFR is provided in class C airspace. Separation between VFR and VFR is not provided, but traffic information is provided by ATC and can also be requested by VFR traffic when needed.
31
5.3.4 Class D (controlled) [C] Class D airspace provides standard separation between IFR/IFR, and provides traffic information about VFR. Separation between VFR and VFR is not provided, but traffic information is provided by ATC and can also be requested. 5.3.5 Class E (controlled) [C] Class E airspace provides standard separation between IFR/IFR, and provides traffic information about VFR. Separation between VFR and VFR is not provided and traffic information is provided as far as practical. 5.3.6 Class F (uncontrolled) [C] Class F airspace provides Advisory Service between IFR/IFR separation as far as practical. Flight information service (FIS) is provided between VFR/IFR and VFR/VFR, 5.3.7 Class G (uncontrolled) [C] Class G airspace provides FIS to all flights.
5.4
Types of airspace Controlled airspace [S]
The different airspace classes determines what kind of service and requirements that ATC and aircraft has to give and meet. The airspace is also divided into different types of airspace. We start with the controlled airspace, which can be divided into three different types. Please note that there are big differences between countries regarding the airspace structure!
5.4.1 Control Zone (CTR) [S+] Around all controlled aerodromes (airports) there are control zones. A control zone is established to protect the aerodrome traffic. The coverage of a CTR is usually about 10 to15 kilometres horizontally from the airport and vertically from the ground up to 1000-5000ft above ground level (AGL). This can however differ quite substantially from airport to airport and you have to take a closer look at the AIP over the airport you are manning to make sure you know the boundaries of the airspace. 5.4.2 Terminal Area (TMA) [S+] Above and/or laterally to the controlzone is a TMA. A TMA is usually of class C airspace.
32
The lower limit of the TMA is normally around 1000-5000ft feet AGL and the upper limit is normally FL95. It is common that the lower limit of the TMA is increased in steps from the airport. The construction of the TMA differs a lot from country to country, so you have to refer to your local vACC for more information. 5.4.3 Control Area (CTA) [S+] The Control Area covers a bigger area in the air and is situated above and around TMA:s.
5.5
Types of airspace Uncontrolled airspace [C+]
That the uncontrolled airspace is uncontrolled means that no air traffic control is provided, only flight information service (FIS). Pilots are not required to request clearance to fly in uncontrolled airspace. It is the pilot's responsibility to keep separated to other traffic. Flights in uncontrolled airspace can request information about other traffic from ATC traffic information. Please note that rules regarding how to handle traffic in uncontrolled airspace differ from vACC to vACC. And TIZ and TIA are non-existent in many countries. 5.5.1 Traffic Information Zone (TIZ) [C+] A TIZ can be found closest to the ground around some airports. Information service is provided here and not control. This also means that special phraseology is used when communicating with pilots. Emergency assistance is also provided. 5.5.2 Traffic Information Area (TIA) [C+] TIA is situated above a TIZ and functions in the same way; no control of traffic, just traffic information.
5.6
Airways and Routes [C]
There are two fixed Airway systems established for Air Navigation. These are the Low Altitude Airways (Lower) and the High Altitude Airways (Upper). In addition, we are also talking about VOR and LF/MF routes. The following is a brief description of the three. 5.6.1 Low altitude Airways [C] Low Altitude Airways is a system consisting of designated airways, ranging from FL055 (in some cases higher) up to FL195-2855. These airways are depicted on En Route Low Altitude Charts, e.g. "G1" or "Golf One". 5.6.2 High altitude Airways [C] High Altitude Airways is a system consisting of designated airways, ranging from FL1952856 and upwards. These airways are designated with a preceding "U" in front of the standard route number, e.g. Route "G1" for Upper airways would be "UG1" or "Upper Golf One". These airways are depicted on En Route High Altitude Charts.
5 6
The lower and upper level varies from country to country. The level varies from country to country.
33
5.6.3 VOR and LF/MF Routes [C+] VOR and LF/MF Routes consists of airways designated from 1,500 feet above the surface (in some cases higher) up to, but not including FL195. These airways are depicted on En Route Low Altitude Charts. VOR Routes are based solely on VOR airways, and are identified by the airway number. Except to effect transitions within or between route structures, the altitude limits of airways should not be exceeded. LF/MF airways are based on LF/MF navigation aids, and are depicted brown on charts. You will find these airways mostly over the ocean. They are colored Green and Red for East/West routes, and Amber and Blue for North/South routes. 5.6.4 Route Directions [S+] Some routes are one-way-only, meaning that traffic can only go in one direction on that route. This is to facilitate separation. On some routes traffic is allowed both ways. In some countries the routes are numbered according to a special system i.e. odd routes going from south to north and even from north to south. Exceptions are quite common however and some countries dont have that kind of system at all.
5.7
RVSM [C]
A long time ago, when instruments were not as reliable as they are now, it was decided to apply a minimum vertical separation of 2000 ft above the FL 290, keeping a 1000 ft spacing below this level. So until now, we had the CVSM (Conventional Vertical Separation Minimum) as follows:

1000 ft spacing below FL 290 2000 ft spacing above FL 290
From January 24th, 2002, this rule was changed with the implementation of RVSM (Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum). This was due to the quality of flight instruments now installed onboard aircraft. They are more reliable and more accurate that those of the previous decades. Considering this fact, in addition to the necessity of increasing the control capacity in upper airspace sectors, it was decided to reduce the spacing from 2000 ft to:
1000 ft between FL 290 and FL 410.
5.8
MNPS/RVSM Approval [C+]
MNPS stands for Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications, representing those requested for an aircraft to be RVSM approved. These MNPS are for aircraft able to fly between FL 290 and 410. According to these rules the aircraft can fly into RVSM airspace if is equipped with:

Redundancy altitude device, with high standards of accuracy and reliability. New generation TCAS. (TCAS II Version 7 and later on). Autopilot with advanced altitude hold features. (no oscillations over 75ft at ALT HOLD mode)
34
All aircraft which came out from factories these last 5 years match with these specifications. Most of other planes have been modified to be RVSM approved, thus bringing to about 95% the rate of aircraft concerned by RVSM which are effectively RVSM approved. Some old generation aircraft (DC-8, DC-3, B707...) havent been updated because their operators found it to be too expensive. Also, some military aircraft, and particularly combat aircraft, are not RVSM approved (technical and operational imperatives are different from commercial aircraft). 5.8.1 RVSM/MNPS Policy of VATSIM-EUROPE Division [C+] The only MNPS applicable in our virtual world are the altimeter and the autopilot to be fully operational and therefore VAT-EUD consider all aircraft capable of flying in RVSM airspace. If the pilot wants to fly the "old fashion" way, (if handling a DC-8 for instance), he has to indicate this particular information in the flight plan remark: NON-RVSM. Some pilots are using failure features in FS and hence the altimeter or autopilot may malfunction. If this happens, the pilot is to inform ATC that he cant fly according to RVSMrules.
35
36
AERODROMES
6.1
Introduction
A plane should be in the air and not on the ground, but eventually they all come down preferably at an airport. Hence its important for an air traffic controller to have good knowledge a bout how the airport is built. All airports are built on the same principal, regardless of size. Take a closer look at the chart below and study the design.
6.2
Runway designators (numbers) [S]
A runway is a strip used for take-off and landing. The runways are numbered according to the compass-direction they are headed, rounded off to the closest tenth degrees. A runway that has the course 180 degrees is hence named 18 and one with course 154 is named 15. Since you can use a runway from both directions, it s named with the contra-course from the other side (18/36). Some airports have parallel runways, i.e. more then one runway that has the same number. They are named with the suffixes R (right), and L (left) after the number to tell them apart if they are two and R, C (centre) and L if there are three. There are two pairs of numbers that arent used in some countries; 02/20 and 13/31, even though the runway might have those headings. The reason for this is the risk for mix-up if the figures are reversed.
6.3
Traffic Circuit [S+]
The traffic circuit is a race-track around the airport where every side has its own name. If a plane is doing a instrument-guided approach to the airport, the traffic circuit isnt used. But for visusal approaches some parts or the whole pattern is used. The traffic circuit usually goes anti-clock-wise, called left-(hand)-traffic-pattern/circuit. At some airports its the other way (right-hand), in those instances this has to be clearly stated by ATC.
37
6.4
Chart over typical airport [S]
6.5
Instrument Landing System ILS [C]
Instrument Landing System (ILS) operates between 108 and 111.95 MHz, on odd tens. So 108.20 MHz must be a VOR frequency, and 108.10 can be an ILS frequency. The system consists of three elements; Localizer, glide path and marker beacons. 6.5.1 Localizer [C] Localizer gives information about the lateral navigation, and will guide the pilot straight ahead on the final approach course towards the runway. Basically it transmits a 90 Hz signal on one side (left side of runway) and a 150 Hz on the other side (right side) of the runway. If the instrument in the aircraft senses a stronger 150 Hz signal, it will deflect to the left, and visa versa with 90 Hz. If the instrument senses equal 90 Hz and 150 Hz signal, the needle is in the middle position, and the aircraft is centred on the extended centreline. The localizer signal is usually accurate till 25 nm out. 6.5.2 Glide path [C] Glide path operates between 328.6 till 335 MHz. Again a 90 Hz and a 150 Hz signal is generated. 90 Hz is above the glide path, 150 Hz is below. The glide path angle may vary, but is generally between 2.5 and 3.5 degrees (3 degrees is common). This angle is chosen so that airliners can make a smooth stabilized approach and not have to dive down with high rate of descend. Standard is 300 ft per nm. Again the Glide path frequencies are coupled to the Localizer frequencies.
38
6.5.3 Marker Beacons [C] Marker beacons operate on a fixed frequency of 75 MHz. The purpose is to have a fixed altitude/distance check on the ILS. It is a beacon which transmits straight up. The Outer Marker (OM) is usually around 4 nm out on final, and should therefore be passed at (4 x 300 ft) 1200 ft AGL. The Outer Marker has a 400 Hz signal which triggers a blue flashing light in the cockpit, together with a dah-dah-dah audible tone. Some ILS's have also a Middle Marker (MM). It is positioned 1/2 nm in front of the runway, and has a 1300 Hz signal. It triggers a yellow light in the cockpit, together with a dah-dit-dah audible tone. 6.5.4 ILS Classification [C] ILS Classification is used to determine the accuracy of the landing system. Category one (CAT I) is the least accurate, and CAT III is the best. This means you can fly the approach to lower limits (decision heights) on a CAT III ILS than on a CAT I ILS. When you reach the appropriate limit you need to see the runway, otherwise you have to go around and fly the missed approach procedure. We are only talking about the ground facilities here. In real life there are more factors which can change your lowest limit. 1. Pilot qualification 2. Airplane qualification 3. Ground facility qualification Categories of precision approach and landing operations: (As specified in ICAO EUR Doc 013, second edition April 2005) http://www.paris.icao.int/documents/pdf/eur_doc013_2ed_en.pdf Category I (CAT I): Decision height not lower than 60 m (200 ft) and with either a visibility not less than 800 m or a runway visual range not less than 550 m. Category II (CAT II): Decision height lower than 60 m (200 ft), but not lower than 30 m (100 ft), and a runway visual range not less than 350 m. Category IIIA (CAT IIIA): a) a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft) or no decision height; and b) a runway visual range not less than 200 m. Category IIIB (CAT IIIB): a) a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft) or no decision height; and b) a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less than 50 m. Category IIIC (CAT IIIC): No decision height and no runway visual range limitations. An airport needs to meat several requirements before it can be approved for the higher CATprocedures. We will not go into detail regarding these requirements. If the weather minima for CAT I isnt fulfilled the airport has to reorganize into low visibility procedures. This has effect on the whole airport and uses more resources. Many of
39
these changes dont affect us in the virtual world, but some do and are described in the GUIDE. If low visibility operation are in use CAT II holding point should be used instead of CAT I holding point. If the airport isnt approved for higher approach categories it has to close. Traffic will then be diverted to other airports. Note. Where decision height (DH) and runway visual range (RVR) fall into different categories of operation, the instrument approach and landing operation would be conducted in accordance with the requirements of the most demanding category (e.g. an operation with a DH in the range of CAT IIIA but with an RVR in the range of CAT IIIB would be considered a CAT IIIB operation or an operation with a DH in the range of CAT II but with an RVR in the range of CAT I would be considered a CAT II operation) .
6.6
Available runway length [C+]
The length of the runway is very important when determining if it enough to land and start from. Different airplanes require different length of runway in order to land and take off. This is of course affected by the weight of the aircraft, but also by weather-conditions. The pilot must make sure that the available runway-length is sufficient and the ATC should have knowledge as to what the abbreviations mean and where the information can be found, if needed. The ICAO requires that the first four of the following full runway declared distances be calculated and promulgated for each runway intended to be used by aircraft operators engaged in international commercial air transport: 1. Take-off run available (TORA) The runway length declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off. 2. Take-off distance available (TODA) The TORA plus the length of any remaining runway or clearway beyond the end of the TORA. The usable TODA length is aircraft performance dependent and, as such, must be determined by the aircraft operator before each takeoff. 3. Accelerate stop distance available (ASDA) The runway plus stop way length declared available and suitable for the acceleration and deceleration of an airplane aborting a takeoff. 4. Landing distance available (LDA) The runway length declared available and suitable for a landing airplane. 5. Clearway: A defined plane extending from the end of the runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25 percent, above which neither object nor any terrain protrudes. The ability to use a clearway in runway length calculations is dependent on air carrier policy. 6. Stopway: A defined rectangular surface beyond the end of a runway prepared or suitable for use in lieu of runway to support an airplane, without causing structural damage to the airplane, during an aborted takeoff.
40
6.7
Lights [C]
An airport may look like an over-decorated Christmas-tree during night with all its different lights of different colours. Since we cant control the lights in our virtual environment, (at least yet) it will only be covered briefly. The lightning-system should be turned on when:

During darkness, or when the centre of the sun-disc is more then 6 under the horizon. During daylight, if the visibility and/or cloud-base is under certain minimums. On the request from an aircraft.
6.7.1 PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator [C] PAPI is a light system positioned beside the runway that consists of two, three, or four boxes of lights that provide a visual indication of an airplane's position on the glidepath for the associated runway. Each box of lights is equipped with an optical apparatus that splits light output into two segments, red and white. Depending on the angle of approach, the lights will appear either red of white to the pilot. Ideally the total of lights will change from white to half red, moving in succession from right to left side. The pilot will have reached the normal glidepath (usually 3 degrees) when there is an even split in red and white lights. If an airplane is beneath the glidepath, red lights will outnumber white; if an airplane is above the glidepath, more white lights are visible. 6.7.2 Runway Lights [C] Runway Edge Lights are used to outline the edges of runways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. There are also runway centre lights. These light systems are classified according to the intensity they are capable of producing; High Intensity Runway Lights (LIH or HIRL), Medium Intensity Runway Lights (MIRL) and Low Intensity Runway Lights (LIL or LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL systems have variable intensity controls, wheras the LIRL normally have only one setting. The controller in the tower alters the intensity depending on the weather and pilots requests. Runway edge lights are white. Lights marking the ends of the runway emit red light toward the runway to indicate the end of the runway to a departing aircraft and emit green outward from the active runway to indicate the threshold to landing aircrafts. 6.7.3 Taxiway Lights [C+] Generally taxiways are marked with yellow lines (or sometimes white). A continuous yellow line marks the centerline of the taxiway. Taxiway edges are usually marked with doubble parallel yellow (or white) lines. For night operations, taxiways are usually edged with blue lights, to distinguish them from the white lights of a runway. Larger airports sometimes add additional green centerline lighting. The centerline lighting is embedded in the taxiway, and an aircraft landing gear can thus roll over the lights. The taxiway ids are shown on black and yellow signboards along the taxiway that are lit during darkness.
41
6.8
Areas of interest [S+]
The airport is divided in different areas with different names in order to create a system that is similar on all airports. Different rules apply for the different areas, hence the importance to have knowledge about them. 6.8.1 Movement area [S+] These are the areas on which aircraft can be moved around, are named. This includes the runway, taxiways, apron and other areas intended for aircraft and maintenance vehicles. 6.8.2 Manoeuvring Area [S+] This is the part of the airport that is used for start, landing and taxiing. In most countries, this is the only area where you need a clearance before you are allowed to 6.8.3 Runway [S+] This is the area intended for take-off and landing. Note that inactive runways i.e. those that are not used with a certain runway configuration also are to be considered a runway for the purpose of clearance. All movement on runways need clearance whether it is active or not.
6.9
ICAO and Airport names [S+]
ICAO was founded in 1944 and is since 1947 a UN organization. ICAO stands for International Civil Aviation Organization. ICAO mission is to make flying safer. Its work is regulated by the Chicago convention. ICAO has introduced a 4 letter naming system for all airports worldwide. The first letter is the ICAO region. The second is the country, the third the FIR and the fourth the city or airport. There are of course exceptions to this rule; KJFK (John F Kennedy) is one. Example: EDDF: E=Northern Europe, D=Germany, D=International LFPG: L=Southern Europe, F=France, P=Paris, G=de Gaulle.
airport,
F=Frankfurt
42
AIRCRAFT
7.1
Introduction
All aircraft do not have the same performance. Weight, weather and winds can make the same airplane have different performance on different flights. As a controller, you should have knowledge about the performance of aircraft under normal circumstances in order to be able to plan traffic flow and give the pilots relevant instructions. At the end of this section, you will find a table which lists the performance of the most usual.
7.2
Wake Turbulence [S]
All aircraft generate turbulence called vortex wake. Large aircraft flying at slow speeds create the most severe wake turbulence. This turbulence can cause problems for following aircraft, which in severe cases can cause the pilot of the following aircraft to loose control. In addition to separation minimum above, the following spacing minima therefore needs to be taken into account. The wake turbulence categories are based on the certified maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of the aircraft. Aircraft Category Light Aircraft (L) Medium Aircraft (M) Heavy Aircraft (H) MTOW 7 000 kg 7 000 136 000 kg >136 000 kg
7.2.1 Separation due to vortex [C] This leads to the following minimum separation that needs to be maintained at all times on Arrival. Leading Aircraft Heavy Heavy Heavy Medium Following Aircraft Heavy Medium Light Light Separation in NM 4 5 6 5
Vortex separation is required when a lighter aircraft follows a heavier aircraft. No vortex separation is required between aircraft of same category, except between heavies. If parallel runways are being used and they are closer to each other than 760 meters, then they should be considered as one single runway so far as wake turbulence is concerned. Any aircraft performing a Touch and Go or a Stop and Go is considered a departing aircraft on the climb out phase. For departing aircraft, 2 minutes separation (3 minutes if the succeeding aircraft departs from an intersection) is applied when an aircraft in wake turbulence category LIGHT or MEDIUM
43
departs behind an aircraft in wake turbulence category HEAVY, or when a LIGHT category aircraft departs behind a MEDIUM category aircraft. Any Helicopter under your control must be kept clear of any light aircraft due to the Rotor Down-wash it produces when hovering and the vortices it produces in forward flight. If you have a heavy and a light aircraft both ready for departure, you should clear the light aircraft for take-off first in order to avoid wake delay. However this only applies if it does not create any undue delay to the heavy aircraft. If this is the case, then the rule applies in that the faster aircraft is released first. 7.2.2 Waiving wake turbulence Separation [C+] You may issue a take-off clearance to an aircraft that has waived wake turbulence separation, except, if it is a light or medium aircraft departing as follows:

Behind a heavy a/c and takeoff is started from an interception or along the runway in the direction of take-off Behind a heavy a/c that is taking off or making a low or missed approach in the opposite direction on the same runway Behind a heavy a/c that is making a low or missed approach in the same direction of the runway
7.3
Aircraft Approach Category [C]
A different way to differentiate categories is by their minimum Approach Speed. This is what the different Cat A, B, C, etc refers to on various Approach Charts. Aircraft Category A B C D E Approach Speed Up to 90 kt From 91 to 120 kt From 121 to 140 kt From 141 to 165 kt Above 165 kt
7.4
Aircraft classification [C]
The pilot of an aircraft must have detailed knowledge about the aircraft's performances. As ATCO it is hard to know all details about all aircrafts by heart. There are however, situations where you need to know some certain performances in order to issue correct clearance and instructions. Hence you need to know where to find the information. One way is asking the pilot if (s)he is able to comply with a certain instruction, but that takes extra time and you cannot ask all pilots all the time. There are several abbreviated listings of different aircraft and their performances on the Web. One of the most comprehensive and up to date is found on ICAOs homepage: http://www.icao.int/anb/ais/8643/index.cfm The list over performances should be seen as a guide and it deserves to be stressed that it is the pilot that has the last word when it comes to judging if (s)he is able to comply with a certain instruction.
44
7.5
Equipment suffix [C]
These suffixes denote what navigation and transponder equipment is available for the aircraft, as filed in the flight plan by the pilot. Be alert as to the equipment available on the aircraft and issue vectors accordingly. A list over the most common codes for equipment can be found at the end of this section.
7.6
Aircraft performance table

Mto Mlw w Lbs Lbs Rang Vr Vcruise e Ceilin g kia NM ktas s Mm o Mac h Vm o Kia s Vre Vsi Vso f Kia Kia Kia s s s
Vcruise econ ktas 430@FL310 430@FL310
Aircraft
347. 200 A300375. 600R 890 141. A319 095 162. A320-200 193 182. A321 980 507. A330 050 566. A340-200 590 Antonov 225 36.8 ATR-42 17 47.4 ATR-72 00 Avro RJ- 96.7 85 96 50.5 BAe ATP 50 BAe 146- 93.0 200 00 16.2 BAe J-31 04 24.0 BAe J-41 00 197. B727-222 000 115. B737-200 500 B737-300 124. A300-B4
295.40 2.200 FL400 145 474@FL310 0 308.64 4.050 FL400 145 474@FL310 0 134.48 2.650 FL390 467 0 138.89 3.672 FL390 153 487@FL280 0 162.03 2.300 FL390 448 5 390.22 4.800 FL450 145 .86M 5 399.00 7.350 FL410 145 475 0
345 155 150 120 345 155 150 120
450@FL370 .82
360 140
.82M 430
.90
140 137 108 170 145 135
36.156 542 47.068 950
FL250 102 265@FL170 243@FL250 .55 FL250 110 284@FL150 248@FL230 .55
250 105 102 84 250 110 115 94 121 227 120 130 93 92 125 100 85 93
84.821 1.600 FL350 135 412@FL350 389@FL350 .73 49.050 1.860 FL250 115 266@FL150 236@FL190 84.820 1.620 FL300 135 432@FL310 383@FL300 .74 15.212 690 23.300 626 FL250 110 261@FL200 230@FL250 FL260 115 291@FL200 260@FL250 .65
154.50 2.700 FL350 140 517@FL350 460@FL350 0 103.00 1.815 FL330 149 462@FL330 428@FL330 .84 0 114.00 2.270 FL330 146 459@FL339 .82
45
140 350 132 99 102 135
500 138. B737-400 500 115. B737-500 500 143. B737-600 500 153. B737-700 000 172. B737-800 500 833. B747-200 000 870. B747-400 000 240. B757-200 000 B767387. 200ER 000 B767407. 300ER 000 B777506. 200A 000 B777580. 200B 000 Cessna 182 Cessna 8.00 208 0 Cessna 5.20 310 0 Cessna 6.75 414-A 0 Cessna 35.3 Citation 00 X 408. Concorde 000 47.6 CRJ-100 00 72.5 CRJ-700 00 355. DC 8-71 000 90.7 DC 9-15 00 DC 9-30 121.
0 121.00 2.700 FL330 156 464@FL330 0 110.00 2.420 464@FL340 0 120.50 .79M@FL39 3.230 FL410 0 1 128.00 .79M@FL37 3.241 FL410 0 7 144.00 .79M@FL35 2.924 FL410 0 2 630.00 6.150 FL450 179 507@FL350 0 573.99 7.200 FL450 171 507@FL350 0 198.00 3.401 FL410 153 487@FL370 0 278.00 4.754 FL420 164 510@FL400 0 310.00 6.150 FL420 166 .80M 0 450.00 .87M@FL35 4.600 FL431 151 0 0 450.00 .87M@FL35 6.300 FL431 151 0 0 [email protected] FL143 T [email protected] 7.800 1.275 FL276 85 FT 5.200 1.000 FL250 215
.82 .82 .82 .82 .82 484@FL350 .92 496@FL350 .92 430 .80M .86 .85
139 172 128 126 130 139 375 158 365 158 206 146 136 145 120 138 154 138 150 120 140 150 120 160 54 50
471@FL350 .85 .83M@FL35 .87 0 .83M@FL35 .87 0
175 85 73 60 233 237 93 82 72 .92 350 162 .80 135 122 118
FL308 105 237 31.800 3.300 FL510 .88M
243.00 2.02M@FL6 3.250 FL630 175 0 00 .80M@FL31 38.000 1.620 FL410 144 .74M 0 67.000 1.702 FL410 464 442
258.00 4.830 FL420 164 479@FL390 0 81.700 1.670 FL350 467@FL350 430@FL350
352 143
110.00 1.670 FL350 140 490@FL250 431@FL350 .84
325 131
46
000 121. DC 9-51 000 572. DC 10-30 000 DHC6- 12.5 300s 00 DHC7- 45.0 150 00 DHC8- 36.3 200b 00 DHC8- 43.0 300A 00 Do 328- 30.8 100 42 Fokker 64.8 28 56 Fokker 43.9 50 80 Fokker 91.4 100 90 Learjet 18.3 35-A 00 L-1011- 466. 100 000 L-1329 40.9 Jetstar 21 618. MD-11 000 149. MD-82 500 160. MD-83 000 149. MD-87 500 MD-90- 156. 30 000 Pilatus 6.17 PC6A 3 Piper PA- 6.50 31 0 Saab 29.0 340B 00 Saab 50.2 2000 65 Shorts 26.4 360 53
0 110.00 2.150 FL350 145 490@FL250 440@FL350 .84 0 403.00 5.970 FL334 185 490@FL300 475@FL310 .88 0 920 FL210 182 231@FL230
325 132 356 153
42.000 1.242 FL230
90 75 94 72 90 77 .59 270 135 120 97 120 91 80 70 320 142 160 109 359 150 440 460@FL310 .87 439@FL350 .84 439@FL350 .84 439@FL350 .84 439@FL350 .84 115@FL100 365 165 145 125 340 340 340 340 131 152 105 151 227 114 115 88 120 98 80 196 110 97 81 52 96
33.900 1.450 FL250 103 265@FL250 237@FL250 .59 40.000 1.250 FL250 287@FL250
29.167 1.000 FL310 114 335@FL200 59.000 1.130 FL301 42.990 2.224 FL250 455@FL300 366@FL300
287@FL250 275@FL250 .50
88.000 1.550 FL370 140 432@FL350 404@FL350 .82 15.300 2.430 FL450 130 486@FL450 418@FL450 .83 368.00 4.212 FL420 160 478@FL420 0 2.200 FL330 488
430.00 6.840 FL450 155 511@FL310 0 130.00 2.050 FL350 499@FL270 0 139.50 2.502 FL350 499@FL270 0 128.00 2.980 FL350 499@FL270 0 142.00 .76M@FL35 2.398 FL370 146 0 0 5.864 394 FL250 218
1.295 FL273 28.500 935
147
FL250 115 285@FL250 252@FL250 .50
48.500 1.265 FL310 110 370@FL250 321@FL310 .62 26.100 636 FL190 102 [email protected] [email protected] FT FT
47
Table definitions: MTOW MLW Range Ceiling Vr Vcruise Mmo Vmo Vne Vref Vsi Vso Maximum Takeoff Weight Maximum Landing Weight Maximum Operating Distance Maximum Operating Altitude Takeoff Rotation Speed at MTOW (KIAS) Design Cruising Speed at Given Altitude (KTAS) Maximum Operating Spped (Redline in Mach) Maximum Operating Speed (Redline - Jet/Turboprop) (KIAS) Nevner Exceed Speed (Redline - Recip-Prop) (KIAS) Final Approach Speed at MLW in Landing Configuration (no wind) Stall Speed in MLW in Clean Configuration (Flaps Up) (KIAS) Stall Speed in Knots IAS at MLW in Landing Configuration (KIAS)
Vcruise Economy Speed and Altitude for Bets Fuel Economy and Long Range (KTAS)
7.7
Equipment suffix table
Code Equipment No DME Equipment on board /X No Transponder /U Transponder with Mode C DME Equipment Available /D No Transponder /A Transponder with Mode C TACAN ONLY (usually Military Aircraft) /M No Transponder /N Transponder with no Mode C /P Transponder with Mode C AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) /Y LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS with no Transponder /I LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS, Transponder with Mode C ADVANCED RNAV WITH TRANSPONDER AND MODE C (If an aircraft is unable to operate with a transponder and/or Mode C, it will revert to the appropriate code listed above under Area Navigation) Flight Management System (FMS) with en route, terminal, and approach capability. Equipment requirements are: /E 1. Dual FMS
48
2. A flight director and autopilot control system capable of following the lateral and vertical FMS flight path 3. At least dual inertial reference units (IRU's) 4. A database containing the waypoints and speed/altitude constraints for the route and/or procedure to be flown that is automatically loaded into the FMS flight plan 5. An Electronic map
/F /G /R /W
A single FMS with en route, terminal, and approach capability that meets the requirements of /E 1-4 above Global Positioning System (GPS)/Global navigation Satellite System (GNSS) equipped aircraft with en route, terminal, and GPS approach capability Required Navigational Performance. (Denotes capability to operate in RNP designated airspace and routes) Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM)
7.8
Automatic Altitude Reporting (MODE C)
All transponders are equipped with a MODE C on VATSIM - automatic altitude reporting capability. This system converts aircraft altitude in 100 foot increments to coded digital information which is transmitted together with MODE C framing pulses to the interrogating radar facility
49
NAVIGATION
8.1
Introduction
To be able to fly from point A to point B it is important for the flight crew to know where they are and where theyre headed. Before radar, air traffic control was dependent on pilot position reports via radio. Today, most of the time, we have radar, which makes it possible to closely track the position of aircraft. Good knowledge about navigation and navigation aids is important for air traffic controllers and therefore we will start with a basic review of this area.
8.2
Position Reference System [C]
Positions on the earth are often given as coordinates in a coordinate system consisting of two parts, latitude and longitude. Latitude is the coordinate giving the position in north-south direction and longitude is the coordinate giving the position in west-east direction. The earth is divided into 360 parallels of longitude or meridians. The reference or zero-meridian is located at a longitude equal to the position of Greenwich in the UK. The longitude is expressed as the number of longitudinal degrees east (E) or west (W) of the reference meridian. In north-south direction the earth is divided into 180 parallels of latitude. The reference parallel of latitude is the equator. The latitude is expressed as the number of latitudinal degrees north (N) or south (S) of the equator. To be able to define positions more accurately the smaller units minutes and seconds have been introduced. These units are based on the 1/60-system, which means one degree of latitude or longitude is equal to 60 minutes and one minute is equal to 60 seconds. Position coordinates: N590212 W0323955 N590212 is the latitude and means that the position is 59 degrees, 2 minutes and 12 seconds north of the equator. W0323955 is the longitude and means that the position is 32 degrees, 39 minutes and 55 seconds west of the zero meridian. One minute of latitude is equal to the distance of one nautical mile (nm), which is equal to 1852 meters. One minute of longitude is not equal to the same distance everywhere on earth because the circumference of the earth is varying with latitude.
8.3
Loxodrom and Great Circles [C+]
A Great circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere that has the same circumference as the sphere, and devides the sphere into two equal hemispheres. It is the largest circle that can be drawn on a given sphere. The Equator is one example of a great circle as are all meridians. In navigation, a loxodrome (or rhumb line) is a line crossing all meridians at the same angle, i.e. a path of constant bearing.
50
If you follow a given compass-bearing on Earth, (having taken into account magnetic deviation) you will be following a rhumb line, which spirals from one pole to the other, with the exception of 90 and 270 degrees, lines of constant latitude, e.g. the equator. Near the poles, they are close to being logarithmic spirals, so they wind round each pole an infinite number of times but reach the pole in a finite distance. The pole-to-pole length of a rhumb line is (assuming a perfect sphere) the length of the meridian divided by the cosine of the bearing away from true north.
8.4
Directions [S]
system.
All directions in aviation are expressed with the 360-degree The horizon is divided into 360 equal parts and one revolution equals 360 degrees. A direction of due north means a direction of 360, due east direction 090 and so on.
In aviation there are two (2) basic definitions of directions. Heading and track. Heading is defined as the direction where the aircraft nose points (the longitudinal axis of the aircraft). When adding the effect of wind the direction of the path of the aircraft over the ground will be slightly different then the aircraft heading and that is called track.
8.5
Variation [C]
All directions will be given relative to the North Pole. The magnetic North Pole is not located on the same position as the true North Pole and these results in two possible references of directions. If the direction is given with reference to magnetic north it is expressed in degrees magnetic, and if the direction is given with reference to true north it is expressed in degrees true. The heading indicator in the aircraft will show the direction relative to magnetic north and consequently all headings assigned to aircraft should be in degrees magnetic.
8.6
Speed [S]
In aviation speed is normally measured in knots, which are defined as nm/hour. 100 knots equals 185 km/h. There are different ways to measure speed. 8.6.1 Speed for the pilot [C] The conventional airspeed indicator depends on the effect of air being forced into a small tube mounted on the outside of the aircraft (pitot tube). This airspeed indication is affected by the density of the air, which changes with altitude and ambient air temperature. As the
51
aircraft climbs, the air becomes less dense, and the airspeed indicator shows a lower speed than the aircraft is actually moving through the air. There are other ways of measuring the speed, that arent affected by the temperature and air pressure, such as GPS. Pilots rely on indicated airspeed to control the aircraft, because it is a true representation of how the aircraft will behave in respect to stall speeds and other known aircraft characteristics. 8.6.2 Indicated Air Speed (IAS) [S+] IAS is the speed that the pilot can read in the cockpit and speed restrictions issued by air traffic control is normally given in IAS in the lower airspace (see Mach below). IAS is based on measurements of how many particles of air that hit the aircraft in a given period of time. The faster the aircraft flies and the higher the density of the air is, the more particles will hit the aircraft. An aircraft keeping the same groundspeed (see below) will get a lower IAS when the aircraft climbs. 8.6.3 True Air Speed (TAS) [S+] True airspeed is the speed at which the aircraft is moving through the air. It has no relation to the wind. In some aircraft, a true airspeed indicator is provided along with the conventional "indicated airspeed" gauge. Most pilots estimate their true airspeed prior to a flight, and calculate the actual true airspeed during the flight. This data is needed for flight planning purposes. It is used along with wind data to arrive at, you guessed it, ground speed. A thumb of rule, which can be used to obtain TAS is to inc rease IAS by 2% for every 1000 of increase in altitude. 8.6.4 Ground Speed (GS) [S] While true airspeed is the speed at which an aircraft moves through the air irrespective of the wind, ground speed is the speed the aircraft is moving over the ground. If an aircraft is flying at a TAS of 250 knots with a 30 knot tailwind the GS will be 280 knots. That said, just remember that the speed you see on your radar is ground speed, and the speed the pilot normally sees is indicated airspeed. Your speed will usually show a higher value than the pilot's, depending on his altitude, unless he has a strong headwind. 8.6.5 Mach (M) [S] In the upper airspace Mach is normally used to express speeds. Mach is a quotient of the local speed of sound and Mach 1.0 is equal to the speed of sound.
8.7
Wind [S]
The wind direction is given in degrees just like it is given for aircraft direction. The direction of wind is always given as the direction from where the wind comes. In a weather report for an airport (METAR) the wind direction and strength is given as for example 18003KT, where 180 is the direction (south) and 03 is the strength in knots.
52
8.8
Time [S+]
When giving time in aviation, it is important to define what time you refer to since an aircraft often flies trough many time zones. Hence time is always given in UTC (Universal Time Coordinated) in aviation. The big difference between UTC and other time format is that UTC doesnt change with DST (Daylight Saving Time or summertime). Adding the letter Z, which is pronounced Zulu, marks times given in UTC.

WET (Western European Time) = UTC during winter CET (Central European Time) = UTC+1 hour during winter WET = UTC+1 hour during DST CET = UTC+2 hours during DST
8.8.1 Date and reading time [S+] Dates can also be added in the format 211020Z, which means time 10:20 UTC on the 21:st. In radio communication time is often given with only the number of minutes, for example time 14:54 is expressed as time 54. Time 16:00 is expressed as on the hour and 11:30 can be expressed either time 30 or on the hour and a half.
8.9
Navigational aids [S]
Navigation aids are used by flight crew to navigate between different positions on the earth and may consist of transmitters on the ground, receivers in aircraft and most recently also satellites. The crew navigates between different navigation aids and points called VOR, NDB and intersections. With a joint name these are called waypoints. 8.9.1 Non Directional Beacon - NDB [S+] NDB is a radio beacon transmitting non-directional radio signals. The pilot can determine the direction or bearing to the beacon with an instrument called ADF indicator. NDBs have a maximum range of about 50-100 miles, depending on equipment. NDBs with three letters have a longer range then NDBs with two letters. 8.9.1.1 More on NDB [C+] The NDB operates between 200 and 1750 kHz, but in Europe most frequencies are between 255 and 455. The ADF receiver can be used when line-of-sight transmission becomes unreliable, or when there is no VOR equipment on the ground or in the aircraft. It is used as a means of identifying positions, receiving low and medium frequency voice communications, homing, tracking, and for navigation on instrument approach procedures. The low/medium frequency navigation stations used by ADF include Non-Directional Beacons, ILS radio beacon locators, and commercial broadcast stations. The ILS radio beacon is a beacon which is placed at the same position as the outer marker of an ILS system (or replaces the OM).
53
8.9.2 Very high freq. Omni-directional Radio range VOR [S+] A VOR is transmitting directional radio signals and is more accurate then a NDB. With the navigation instruments the pilot can intercept and fly with a specified direction towards or from the beacon. These directions are called radials. If you fly due south from a VOR, you fly on radial 180. If you are due south of the VOR and point the aircraft towards the VOR (north) you are still on radial 180, but flying on heading 360. If you fly towards the VOR it is common to say you are flying on a radial inbound it, and if you fly away from it you are flying on a radial outbound it. The maximum range of a VOR is about 100-200 miles. 8.9.2.1 More on VOR [C+] VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) operates between 108 and 117.950 MHz. The range of a VHF-signal can be calculated using the formula [1.25 x (height of the transmitter in feet) + 1.25 x (height of the receiver in NM)]. The signal is weakened by several factors such as terrain and different weather-phenomena. The VOR works on a "lighttower" principle. Imagine that it has a rotating light bundle, and a steady 360 degree light. The light bundle swings around one time per minute (1 RPM = 6 degrees/sec). If the light bundle hits the magnetic North, the steady light flashes once. Take a stopwatch and start timing when the steady light flashes, stop timing when the light bundle hits you. In practice, the steady 360 degree light is actually a steady 30 Hz signal on the VOR, and is modulated (pasted) on the VOR frequency. The rotating bundle is also a 30 Hz signal. The receiver will compare both signals and determine the difference in phase, and in this way the position relative to the VOR is determined. A VOR usually also includes a Morse Ident, and sometimes there is also a VOICE channel (ATIS) pasted on the VOR frequency. A VOR is often accompanied by a DME. The accuracy of a VOR is about 2 degrees. 8.9.3 Distance Measuring Equipment DME [S+] DME is another type of beacon with which the range between the aircraft and the transmitter can be measured and presented to the pilot. A DME does not make it possible to see the direction from the aircraft to the DME station, only the range. 8.9.3.1 More on DME [C+] Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) operates between 962 and 1213 MHz. The measuring is initiated from the aircraft. The interrogator sends out two pulses which are received by the DME station. After a 50 microsecond delay, the ground station sends a pulse back, which is 63 MHz higher or lower than the original frequency. The further the DME station is away, the longer the pulse needs to travel. By timing the time difference between sending and receiving the signal (minus the 50 microsecond delay) you can determine the distance. This is the direct distance from the aircraft to the ground station, and not the distance over the ground. If an aircraft fly at 10 km overhead a VOR/DME, the DME will read 5.5 nm! A lot of VOR frequencies are coupled with a DME frequency. Every VOR frequency has a fixed DME frequency. 8.9.4 Intersection / Fix [S+] An intersection or fix is not a ground-based navigation aid, but only a position on the surface of the earth defined with the position reference system. As an intersection is not a transmitter it cannot be flown to with conventional navigation instruments. To fly to an intersection the aircraft has to be RNAV (area navigation) equipped.
54
RNAV means that the aircraft will calculate its position and the direction to the next waypoint by means of different ground based navigation aids (VOR/DME) as well as by positions from GPS and INS/IRS. 8.9.5 Global Positioning System GPS [S+] GPS is a satellite positioning system developed by the United States Department of Defense (DOD) for use on land, sea and in the air. It will likely be the major component of the ICAO - designated GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite System. The full GPS constellation has 24 operational satellites to provide continuous, highly accurate three-dimensional position information globally. 8.9.5.1 More on GPS [C+] GPS is operating in 1,900 NM orbits, each satellite continuously transmits signals on 1227.6 and 1575.42 MHz. The GPS receiver automatically selects the signals from four or more satellites to calculate a three-dimensional position, velocity and time. Using the un-encrypted coarse acquisition navigational signal (C/A code) which will be available to all civil users, system accuracy will be at least 100 meters horizontally and 140 metres vertically, 95% of the time. Unlike ground based navigation systems, GPS provides global coverage with virtually no signal inaccuracies associated with propagation in the earth's atmosphere. Signal masking can occur with mountainous terrain, man-made structures and with poor antenna location on the aircraft. 8.9.6 Inerital Navigation System (INS) [C+] Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) are completely self-contained and independent of ground based navigation aids. After being supplied with initial position information, it is capable of updating with accurate displays of position, attitude, and heading. It can calculate the track and distance between two points, display cross error, provide ETAs, ground speed and wind information. It can also provide guidance and steering information for the pilot instruments. The system consists of the inertial platform, interior accelerometers and a computer. The platform, which senses the movement of the aircraft over the ground, contains two gyroscopes. These maintain their orientation in space while the accelerometers sense all direction changes and rate of movement. The information from the accelerometers and gyroscopes is sent to the computer, which corrects the track to allow for such factors as the rotation of the earth, the drift of the aircraft, speed, and rate of turn. The aircraft's attitude instruments may also be linked to the inertial platform. The accuracy of the INS is dependent on the accuracy of the initial position information programmed into the system. Therefore, system alignment before flight is very important. Accuracy is very high initially following alignment, and decays with time at the rate of about 1-2 NM per hour. Position updates can be accomplished in flight using ground based references with manual input or by automatic update using multiple DME or VOR inputs. 8.9.7 ATS Routes [S+] ATS routes are pre-determined routes connecting waypoints to each other, which the aircraft will follow. ATS routes are named by a letter followed by two or three numbers. If the route
55
is used in the upper airspace it is also given the prefix Upper. For example UN872 (Upper November 872). Some ATS routes are for aircrafts flying in one direction only. 8.9.7.1 More on ATS Routes [C+] ICAO states that: The designation of specific ATS routes within the network should be made so that the majority of recurring flight operations can identify them in flight plans with the least number of designators. For routes forming part of the basic ATS route network
A, B, G, R routes which form part of the regional networks of ATS routes and are not area navigation routes. L, M, N, P area navigation routes (RNAV) which form part of the regional networks of ATS routes.
For routes not forming part of the basic ATS route network
H, J, V, W for routes which are not area navigation Q, T, Y, Z for area navigation (RNAV) routes.
routes.
8.9.8 Flight Management System FMS [C] Flight management system (FMS) is the term used to describe an integrated system that uses navigation, atmospheric and fuel flow data from several sensors to provide a centralized control system for flight planning, and flight and fuel management. The system processes navigation data to calculate and update a best computed position based on the known system accuracy and reliability of the input sensors. This system may also be referred to as a multi-sensor RNAV. FMS controls differ widely between aircraft types and manufacturers, but the Typical FMS Control Unit figure, to the right, gives a typical arrangement. The heart of any FMS is the navigation computer unit. It contains the micro processor and navigation data base. A typical base contains a regional or worldwide library of navaids, waypoints, airports and airways. FMS sensor input is supplied from external DME, VOR, air data computer (ADC) and fuel flow sensors. Depending on the capabilities of the navigation sensors, most flight management systems are approved for en route IFR in most classes of RNAV airspace.
8.10 Navigational Aids Limitations [C+]

Navigational aids can be classified as almost anything, visual or otherwise, as long as it provides an aircraft with positional data. For our purposes in the VACC, the limitations we are concerned with is the useful range of VOR's, VORTAC's, VOR/DME, and NDB's. VOR's without DME are becoming a rarity, and most navaids, except for NDB's, have distance information available. Navaids are classified by their useful altitude and distance. This takes into consideration signal strength, their protection from navaids on the same frequency, and other factors. The classes of navaids are depicted on a low altitude chart. The symbology shows the type of navaid, and it can be assumed to be classified as at least "L"-class unless the notation (T) for TVOR appears in the communications box next to the navaid, where name, frequency, and
56
identifier appears. Look at a low altitude chart and try to find a TVOR. The navaids on high altitude charts can be assumed to be "H"-class unless a (L) or (T) appears in the communications box. The table below shows the useful range of navaids at various altitudes. Naturally, you do not need to commit this to memory, or even keep it for reference, but be aware of the limitations of navigational aids. You are not required to reference the following tables when assigning routes and altitudes, because you are always monitoring the flights on radar. However, the tables may explain why aircraft do not always receive the signal when you expect they should. It may also prevent you from embarrassment when clearing a high altitude aircraft over a TVOR, and wondering why the pilot is too lame to navigate . VOR/VORTAC/TACAN
Class T L H H H H Altitude 12,000 and below Below 18,000 Below 14,500 14,500 17,999 18,000 FL450 Above FL450 Distance 25 40 40 100 130 100
LF/MF Radio Beacon (NDB)

Class CL MH H HH Power (watts) Under 25 Under 50 50 1,999 2,000 or more Distance 15 25 50 75
8.11 Further reading

If you with to learn more on the topics covered above we list a number of external links which we believe could be of interest to members in general Time and date: http://www.timeanddate.com/ GPS - Positioning system: http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html http://www.gps.oma.be/ Speed: http://www.womanpilot.com/past%20issue%20pages/2000%20issues/ja n%20feb%202000/airspeed.htm https://ewhdbks.mugu.navy.mil/mach-as.htm Calculate between IAS, CAS, TAS: http://www.flightplan.za.net/trueAirspeed.php NDB:
57
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-directional_beacon VOR: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHF_omnidirectional_range DME: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_Measuring_Equipment Naviagtional Aids: http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Government_Role/navigation/PO L13.htm1
58
CONTROLLING
9.1
Introduction
We will end this theoretical manual with a description about what you need to know about call-signs, transponder, charts and things that are related to your radarscope. The more practical aspects will be found in the guide and this section is closely related to some of that material.
9.2
Radar Clients [S]
The radar client is the software that you will work with as a controller. At the time this manual is written there are three clients available; ASRC, VRC and Euroscope. It is not in the scope of this manual to describe them in detail, since both already have excellent manuals. The radar-part of the clients is maybe the most important and it gives you information about the traffics movement through the sky and on the ground. But there are numerous other functions built in to the software that will help you control and give information to the traffic. It is well spent time to read the manual of the client that you will be using closely.
9.3
Clearance [S]
All instructions regarding the movement of aircraft in air or on ground are called clearances. You can issue clearances both en-route and before the aircraft is airborne. A pilot who wants to fly in controlled air space (except for Class E) is required to get permission from a controller. To be able to give permission, you as a controller need to know what intention the pilot has. The pilot can send this information to the ATC in a so called flight plan. Aircraft flying VFR can ask for clearance without having sent a flight plan. The pilot must in that case send all relevant information via radio. This is very unusual in our on line environment. Clearances can vary in content and can contain restrictions of different sort. Before issuing a clearance, you need to ascertain that it doesn't lead to a conflict between two aircraft. A good strategy is to give as few restrictions as possible in the clearance. More about clearance will be found in the GUIDE.
9.4
Call sign [S]
All aircraft need to have a call sign in order to establish radio contact. There are difference forms of callsigns. SAS345, KLM574, DLH1771 are examples of large companies' call signs. DLH1171 isn't the name of a specific aircraft but rather the ICAO code of a company (Lufthansa) followed by a number that is specific for flight path. British Airways uses the acronym BAW, but this is read as Speed bird. There are tables over these acronyms; you don't have to know them by heart. SE-GTD and OH-SLT are examples of specific aircraft. SE stands for Sweden and OH stands for Finland. The two country letters are followed by three letters to designate the aircraft. Even though all aircrafts have specific call signs like the one above, they are almost only used when flying private and not for a company. Smaller aircraft that flies VFR are one example where the aircraft specific call sign is used. When writing call sign into the flight plan, the pilot can either use the full aircraft specific name (SEGTD, OHSLT) or the acronym for the flight-operator followed by the flightspecific numbers/letters (BAW554D, KLM574).
59
When using the call sign on radio, you are allowed to make some abbreviations after the first contact has been established and the quality of the radio transmission is good; When reading OHSLT you can omit the second letter or both the second and third letter, if the above criteria are met and theres no risk for confusion with other aircrafts in your airspace.

Oscar Hotel, Sierra, Lima, Tango Oscar, Sierra, Lima, Tango3 Oscar, Lima, Tango
9.5
Transponder [S]
On ordinary radar, you can see the position of the aircraft, but not their height. You also can't differentiate one blip from the other. This has been solved by installing one (or often more than one) transponder in the aircraft. This box transmits a signal which contains information on the height together with a four digit code.
As controller, you give the pilot this unique four digit transponder code. This is done at clearance, but the transponder code can also be changed en route. Two aircraft cannot have the same transponder code if they are in the same area. This is not a problem on line, but you should try to give every aircraft a unique transponder code. You will get an error message (CODE) is this isnt done, but you will still be able to see the c orrect call sign on your scope. Transponders can be set in different modes: 1. Stb (Standby) Means that the transponder doesnt give information about the code entered or the height. (Default mode on VATSIM when on ground) 2. Mode A Only the code, and not the height is transmitted. 3. Mode C Code and height is transmitted (Should be used on VATSIM when flying) 4. Mode S Used together with TCAS 7. Gives same information as mode C VATEUD have reserved a range of codes for each FIR in Europe. This has been done in order to minimize the risk of two planes being assigned the same code. The list can be found on on the main website The exception to unique code is VFR aircraft which sometimes are given the same transponder code (7000 in most European countries, 1200 in some). A transponder works with binary digits and cant use the digits 8 and 9. Hence a transponder code cant contain these two digits.
7
Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System (or TCAS) is an implementation of the Airborne Collision Avoidance System mandated by ICAO to be fitted to all aircraft over 5700 kg or authorised to carry more than 19 passengers, designed to reduce mid-air collisions.
60
9.5.1 More about transponders [S] Primary radar works best with large all-metal aircraft, but not so well on small, composite aircraft. Its range is also limited by terrain and rain or snow and also detects unwanted objects such as automobiles, hills and trees. Furthermore it cannot estimate the altitude of an aircraft. Secondary radar overcomes these limitations but it depends on a transponder in the aircraft to respond to interrogations from the ground station to make the plane more visible. An airborne Transponder transmits a reply signal on a frequency of 1,090 MHz in response to the SSR interrogation which is transmitted on a frequency of 1,030 MHz. Due to the technique that the transponder is built with, only the digits 0 to 7 can be used (8 and 9 cant be entered). This means that there are 8x8x8x8 = 4096 unique codes. Some codes are reserved for special use.
9.6
Understanding Charts [S+]
Charts are the maps of the skies. They contain information about airports, airways, airspace and much more. Hence, they are essential for both flying and controlling. All official vACCs are required to publish carts over the airspace they govern. These charts might be simplified, but should at least contain the essential information needed to control and fly in the area. Many countries have published the real charts for their airspace on Internet for easy reference. There are also companies like Jeppsen that are selling charts for profit. Regardless of how you find the charts you must be able to interpret them. An extensive guide is published for reference and can be found here: understanding charts A short description about some essential parts is given below. 9.6.1 Standard Instrument Departure SID [S] SID stands for Standard Instrument Departure. It is a pre defined route which has been named using a special system. SIE 1A is an example of a SID where SIE (SIEDLCE) is the navigation beacon where the SID ends. 1 is a version number. Next time the SID is updated it gets version number 2. Changes are quite rare and when done they are mostly minor adjustments. If you want a pilot to fly ARS 3C but the pilot only has charts for ARS 2C, then this is normally not a problem, but you have to make sure that no big changes has been made between the two versions. The ending letter of the SID is usually, but not always connected to a specific runway. For example, all SIDs ending with G at Arlanda depart from runway 19R. but in EKCH for example all "A" designators would be valid both for 04R and 04L. There are obvious advantages with the SID system. Most SID are quite complex, and to give the instructions to fly them step by step would indeed be time consuming. Since the autopilot usually is used to fly the SID, all aircraft flying the same SID will do it in the (close to) exact same way, making it predictable. Moreover, the SIDs and STARSs (see bellow) are designed in a way to minimizes potential conflict situations. 9.6.2 Standard Instrument Arrival STAR [S+] As the name implies, this is a standard procedure when arriving at an airport. It's like a route to the airport. This road has a name that has three parts. The first part is the navigational point where the route starts, the second is the version number, and the third is usually but again not always coupled to a certain runway(s). An example is OSKOR 1J. The point at which the STAR ends is called Initial Approach Fix (IAF). in some cases the STARs continue and end at the Final Approach Fix ( FAF), and that means that you as controller don't need to vector the aircraft unless there is other traffic in the way. The only thing you
61
have to do is to instruct the pilot how to descend the aircraft. This simplifies the arrival considerably for both pilots and controllers. In Zurich though, (as an example) the situation is different, as here it is the first letter of the IAF where the STAR ends. RILAX1A for instance ands at AMIKI and BERSUG1G ends at GIPOL. and neither AMIKI not GIPOL are linked to any runway. There are exceptions of course, where the STARs don't end at the final, but at a navigational point some distance away from the runway. You as a controller must give vectors the last part to the runway. If you for some reason dont give vectors, the pilot must enter holding at the STAR's ending point (clearance limit). Make sure to avoid this. 9.6.3 Transition [C] There is a defined transition point at which an airway and a SID or STAR intersect. Some STARs and SIDs have more then one transition that are best thought of as branch routes feeding the main procedure 9.6.4 Routes [S+] ATS routes are pre-determined routes connecting waypoints to each other, which the aircraft will follow. ATS routes are named by a character followed by two or three numbers. If the route is used in the upper airspa ce it is also given the prefix Upper. For example UN872 (Upper November 872). Some ATS routes are for aircrafts flying in one direction only. 9.6.5 Approach [S+] There is much information on the charts regarding the approach. There will be some kind of navigational aiding system in use if the approach isnt visual. When talking about approach aids, they are often divided into two categories: precision and non-precision. A non-precision approach only gives you guidance in one axis; mostly horizontally but on rare ocations can also be vertically, while a precision approach gives you guidance in both the horizontal and vertical axis. 9.6.6 Precision approaches [S+] The most usual type of precision approaches is an ILS approach, and that is the only precision approach covered in this manual. An ILS guides a pilot on the approach by indicating the vertical and horizontal deviation from the correct approach path. Information about how the ILS is constructed, frequencies, glide slope etc can be found on the chart. Please note that not all airports are equipped with ILS. Other types of approaches must then be used. See below. 9.6.7 Non-precision approaches [C] The most usual types of non-precision approaches are VOR, VOR/DME and NDB approaches. The VOR approach is performed by flying towards a VOR beacon. The VOR is in this case located at the airport. A VOR/DME approach is also an approach into a VOR, but the pilot can use the distance to the airport given to him from the DME. A NDB approach is done by flying to a NDB beacon which is located on the runway extension and then flying on a certain heading which directs the pilot to the runway. We have
62
only covered the non precision approaches briefly here, but it is important to know that they exist since not all airports are equipped with ILS. All information about how to perform the non-precision approach is found on the speciphic charts for the airport. 9.6.8 Visual approach [S+] A visual approach is an approach by an IFR flight when either part or all of an instrument approach procedure is not completed and the approach is executed in visual reference to terrain. 9.6.9 Minima [C] At the approach, it is required that the pilot has visual contact with the runway or runway lights at a certain height specified at the chart, to be able to continue the approach and eventually land. The reason for this is that the pilot needs visual reference in order to make a safe landing. Depending on type of approach and approach aids used, the lowest height a pilot can descend to will vary. This height is called the decision height (or decision altitude). At this height the pilot must have visual contact with the runway or runway lights. If not, a missed approach must be executed. Since the different approach aids leads the aircraft to the runway with varying precision, the different approach types will have different minimas. For example, a NDB approach has relatively high minima, approximately a height of 400- 500 ft, while a typical ILS approach has minima of 200 ft. A VOR approach has normally a minima of 300-400 ft. Note that height is ft over ground and altitude is ft over sea level. Decision height/altitude (DH/DA) is used for precision approaches and Minimum Descent Height/Altitude (MDH/MDA) is used for non-precision approaches. 9.6.10 Runway Visual Range (RVR) [C] RVR is the Runway Visual Range. The Pilot may commence an instrument approach regardless of the reported RVR/Visibility but the approach shall not be continued beyond the outer marker, or equivalent position, if the reported RVR/visibility is less than the applicable minima. If, after passing the outer marker or equivalent position in accordance with the above, the reported RVR/visibility falls below the applicable minimum, the approach may be continued to DA/H or MDA/H. The approach may be continued below DA/H or MDA/H and the landing may be completed provided that the required visual reference is established at the DA/H or MDA/H and is maintained. RVR is measuredonly if the visibility is below 1500 m. RVR indicates the visibility of the runway lights, and will thus often give a larger distance than actual meteorological visibility. 9.6.11 Missed approach Point (MAP) [C] For non precision approaches, a Missed Approach Point (MAP) is indicated. MAP is the point where the pilot at latest must increase thrusters (i.e. a go-around) if he hasn't a visual on the runway. The MAP can be a DME distance, a timed distance or a navigational aid. 9.6.12 ILS categories [C] The reason for going back to ILS approach is that we have now covered RVR and visibility, which is needed to understand the different ILS categories.
63
The different ILS categories have different precision, and there are different visibility requirements when using them. The categories are named CAT I, CAT II, CAT III a, CAT III b and CAT III c. The category for each runway is given on the airport charts. During normal ILS CAT I, minimum RVR is 550 m. If RVR is below 550 meter, the visibility is too low, and an approach can not be initiated unless the airfield is equipped with a higher precision ILS. If there isn't a higher precision ILS, the pilot can either wait or see if the weather improves, or land on an alternative airfield where the visibility is better. ILS Classification is used to determine the accuracy of the landing system. Category one (CAT I) is the least accurate, and CAT III is the best. This means you can fly the approach to lower limits (decision heights) on a CAT III ILS than on a CAT I ILS. When you reach the appropriate limit you need to see the runway, otherwise you have to go around and fly the missed approach procedure. We are only talking about the ground facilities here. In real life there are more factors which can change your lowest limit. 1. Pilot qualification 2. Airplane qualification 3. Ground facility qualification The one which has the highest limit is the limiting factor for an approach. Standard limits are:
CAT I Limit Visibility/RVR 200 ft * 550 m CAT II 100 ft 300 m CAT III-A 50 ft 100 m CAT III-B 0 ft 50 m CAT III-C 0 ft 0m
The visibility is the limiting factor in an approach. If the Cloud base is at 50 ft, but the visibility is 600 meters, you may fly and land with a CAT I ILS. The chances that you can see the runway at 200 ft are very limited, but maybe the approach lights are very bright. So, if a pilot is not qualified for CAT II, the visibility is 400 meters, the ILS (ground) is CAT III-B, the airplane is CAT III-A, the limiting factor will be the pilot, so CAT I is your lowest limit. If the pilot is CAT III-B qualified, the airplane as well, visibility is 100 meters, but the ILS (Ground) is CAT II Only, CAT II is your limit. If the pilot is CAT II qualified, the airplane CAT III-A, visibility is 10 km, but the ILS (Ground) is CAT II Only, you have no problems, because the weather is perfect!
9.7
Flight plan and Route [S]
The main reason for filing a flight plan and route is the pilot is informing the ATC units along the way his/her requests to complete the journey; this will include the speed, cruise level waypoint and airways to be flown. And one other major reason in non-Radar equipped regions (these are becoming much less in the real world and non existent in the simulated environment) if you haven't arrived at your destination in the allowed time limit, the emergency services will have a good idea where to look for you. Flying isn't as easy as jumping into your car and going from point A to B. The Basic format for a f/p route is; Waypoint RouteDesignator Waypoint DCT Waypoint RouteDesignator.... etc.
64
In some circumstances were a Waypoint doesn't cross from a designated route the letters "DCT" meaning direct are used (there are no waypoints in the world with this name or code). Some countries do not allow deviation from designated routes, or if allowed for short distances only. 9.7.1 Example of route [S+] A simple Flight Plan between LTBA (Atatrk) and LGAV (Venizelos) might look like this: BIG VG8 AMANI UG8 KEPIR BIG is the first navigational aid and depending on the pilot's and ATC's choice this can be a vector or SID departure (i.e.BIG1S). Remember that a pilot has the choice of refusing a SID/STAR and may request vectors. Airway VG8 goes from BIG to AMANI and from here the route will continue on UG8 AMANI to LSV to OLIDA to KEPIR. The complete list of waypoints does not have to be specified as shown in the route above, but if included this will also be acceptable, but will usually take very long to fill and read and is not good practice. 9.7.2 Speed and cruising level [S+] You will also find information about speed and cruising level in the flight plan that the pilot sends. This information can be given in different formats as specified in the table below.
Cruising Speeds Km/h Knots Mach Cruising Level Flight Level Altitude Standard Metric Level in tens of meters Metric Altitude in tens of meters VFR (unspecified) Fxxx Axxx Sxxxx Mxxxx VFR Kxxxx Nxxxx Mxxx e.g. K0830 N0456 M075 e.g. F320 A045 S1100 M0120 VFR
9.7.3 Changes in speed and cruising level [C+] Speed and Level change format is: RouteDesignator Waypoint/SpeedLevel... either if a speed or a cruise change is requested both are supplied. Cruise Climb format is: RouteDesignator C/Waypoint/SpeedLevelLevel... Begins with the letter "C" and waypoint, the speed is the intended cruise speed to be maintained during the cruise climb and the layer of the two levels during the climb. If the second level is specified by the letters "PLUS" this indicates the level above which the cruise climb is planed for. The speed and level formats should be quite obvious depending in what part of the world you are e.g. Km/h and metric cruise levels are used in Russian Federation Countries. A route from LTBA (Atatrk) to EGLL ( Heathrow) might look like this:
65
N0440F300 FENER A16 VADEN UL610 BATTY UL608 LOGAN If a climb was requested, the route may appear like this: FENER A16 VADEN UL610 ABETI/M075F340 UL610 BATTY UL608 LOGAN If the waypoint where a speed/level change is required the following airway designator will be supplied, even if on the same route designator UL610 in this case. A long haul route from LTBA(Atatrk) to KORD(Chicago) might be similar to this: N460F280 FENER A16 VADEN UL610 C/TIMOT/N0455F300F320 UL610 BATTY UL608 C/BUB/M080F340PLUS UA24 NIK UL610 LAM/M080F360 UB29 CPT UG1 STU UN546 DEVOL UN544 DOGAL/M081F360 54N020W/M081F370 55N030W 55N040W/M081F390 54N050W CARPE REDBY YNA YRI YXI ECK J94 FNT PMM4 9.7.4 RVSM Tansitions [C+] Since the introduction of RVSM (Reduced Vertical Separation Minima) in Europe, the pilot flying in and out of RVSM airspace will require a cruise level change to comply with correct Flight Levels for the airspace in which they are operating. A Route from OEJN(Jeddah) a non-RVSM airspace to LTBA(Atatrk) a RVSM approve airspace, there will be a need for a transition between the two: N0460F310 EPLOM A424 PMA B544 TUSYR/M080F340 VB36 GAZ DCT TOROS VW75 BAG UL614 YAA In the above route the initial cruise level is FL310, this is the correct level for non-RVSM airspace at TUSYR the entry/exit point into RVSM, the level requested is FL340, also correct for RVSM airspace. The speed and level change format is exactly the same as for step climb. 9.7.5 A Real Flight Plan [ref] A real world ICAO coded flight plan contains much more information than what we are usually accustomed to in the simulated environment, here's an example. CODED ICAO FLIGHT PLAN (FPL-N100A-IG -GLF4/M-SXWHIGRY/S -KEWR2315 -N0465F370 DCT MERIT DCT HFD J42 BOS DCT VITOL/M080F410 N27A NANSO/N0459F410 N27A RAFIN/M080F410 DCT 45N050W 47N040W 49N030W 49N020W DCT BEDRA/M080F410 UN491 TAKAS/N0459F410 UN491 VMP UL851 MELKO UM606 BLM DCT -LSZH0652 LSGG -EET/KZBW0003 KZNY0040 CZQM0041 CZQX0141 EGGX0342 EISN0457 EGTT0531 LFRR0534 LFFF0606 LFEE0631 EDFF0645 LSAZ0646 RAFIN0156 45N050W0204 47N040W0253 49N030W0342 49N020W0432 REG/N100A SEL/GQEK DOF/020214 RMK/TCAS EQUIPPED AGCS EQUIPPED)
66
KZNYZQZX KZBWZQZX EBBDZMFP LFPYZMFP
CZQMZQZX
CZQXZQZX
EGGXZOZX
This can be decoded as (FPL-N100A(Aircraft Call Sign or Flight Number)-I(FR)G(eneral flight)

GLF4(Gulfstream 4)/M(edium Wake Category)-Equipment/S (transponder equipment do not confuse with equipment suffix) Departure Airport and Time in Zulu Route N0465F370 (KTAS465 initial speed and FL370).... at VITOL/M080F410 a climb to FL410.. etc Arrival Airport (Zurich) and duration of Flight 6hours and 52minutes Alternate Airport (Geneva) Estimated enroute time for crossing FIR regions... EGTT0531 London FIR in 5hours and 31minutes and other info the pilot wants you to know.
9.8
Separation [S]
As mentioned before, this is your most important task. How much should you separate? What should be done in order to avoid accidents, or as it is called in aviation, conflicts? Since this is such an important task it will be covered here and in the GUIDE. 1. Have a clear strategy what you want the pilot to do. Order and contrary orders leads to confusion and frustration. 2. Consider what implications your instructions have. It's not a good idea to give a pilot clearance to land if you at the moment before gave another pilot instruction to line up on the same runway. 3. Talk clearly and not too fast. It may sound cool talking fast but it often leads to misunderstanding which makes it slower. 4. Use standard phraseology. This reduces the risk of misunderstanding and confusion. 5. Listen to the readback carefully as it was the first time the instruction was given. Mistakes happen easily. 6. Act immediately if a conflict can occur. Don't wait until the conflict is developing. An aircraft doesn't turn immediately when given the instruction, the pilot needs to hear the instruction, act on it and then the aircraft starts turning. 7. Don't take on more than you can manage. Take a position which you feel you manage and ask for help if you need it and there is someone available. That was the software which always is the most important. 9.8.1 Vertical separation [S] Vertical separation should at least be:

RVSM: 1000 ft Non-RVSM: 2000ft
You are allowed to climb or descend an aircraft to a level previously occupied by another aircraft provided that vertical separation is maintained. This is done by observing the transponder echo in mode C. To make sure vertical separation is maintained, it has been decided that aircraft eastbound use odd flight levels and aircraft westbound use even flight levels. This, so called semi-circle-rule applies when no other rules override it.
67
Some airways/routes have specific flight levels assigned to them that contradict the semicircle-rule. There are areas where the rule isnt applicable due to local restrictions etc. Please refer to your local vACC and charts for this local information.
9.8.2 Horizontal separation [S] There are several ways of maintaining horizontal separation, but as long as aircrafts are in radar covered area and use a transponder that transmits pressure altitude (mode C (Charlie)) the following rules apply. There are other conditions not covered here that applies for example when crossing oceans. The basic rule is that there should be at least 5 nm horizontal separation in all directions. You can therefore imagine a circle around all aircraft with 2.5 nm radius to reach the 5 nm requirement. There are situations when the 5 nm separation can be overruled. One situation is when two aircraft are on the final for landing. In this case 3 nm separation is sufficient. (not regarding wake turbulence separation) Other rules may apply on national level. It is however not recommended to use this small separation even in this situation. Depending on the airspace class you are in most instances required to separate IFR traffic from all other traffic in controlled airspace, so it's often your responsibility to separate IFR from VFR and vice versa. 9.8.3 Separation between departing traffic [S+] It is often difficult to know the speed and vertical climb rate of a departing aircraft. It depends of course on the type of aircraft, but also on current weight and weather. You should avoid giving departing aircraft speed restrictions. Instead, use climb rate and vectoring as means of separation during climb. A rule of thumb is to always separate at least traffic by one minute for departing aircraft, in some cases even more. This depends on the performance of the aircraft. If you cannot separate using radar, use the below table as reference.
Minimum Separation 1 Minute 2 Minutes 3 Minutes Condition The first aircraft turns more than 45 compared to following traffic headings. The first aircraft's speed is 40 KTs higher than following traffic. The heading difference is less than 40 and the first aircraft' is similar or slower than the following aircraft.
68
9.8.4 Wake turbulence spacing minima [C] All aircraft generate turbulence called vortex wake. Large aircraft flying at slow speeds create the most severe wake turbulence. This turbulence can cause problems for following aircraft, which in severe cases can cause the pilot of the following aircraft to loose control. In addition to separation minimum above, another spacing minimum therefore needs to be taken into account. The wake turbulence categories are based on the maximum take-off mass of the aircraft 9.8.5 Speed and height [S+] Speed can be used for separation, but it should be used with restriction. The only exception is when separating traffic inbound for arrival. Climbing traffic and en route traffic should instead be separated using vectors and height. Using speed for separation for inbound traffic is however important since all inbound aircraft sooner or later will have the same height at the same place, but not at the same time. To descend and at the same time reduce speed can be difficult, especially for turbo jets. Therefore, it is essential to inform the pilot which of the two instructions has priority. 9.8.6 Minimum Speed [C] An aircraft needs to maintain a certain speed not to fall to the ground. The minimum speed is mainly dependent on the weight of the aircraft. There are also other factors, so it is not always possible for a pilot to slow down or speed up to the instructed speed. It is the pilot's responsibility to inform you of this. In that case, you must separate him from other aircraft by other means. In aircraft performance tables, there are several speed restrictions given, but only two are of interest for the controller. The first is minimum clean which is the lowest speed an aircraft can maintain without using flaps or spoilers. The second is minimum approach speed which is the lowest speed an aircraft can maintain using both flaps and spoiler. Avoid giving a pilot, who is flying using his flaps, a speed instruction which forces him to again retract his flaps. Apart from the specific aircraft's speed restrictions; there are speed restrictions common for all aircrafts. By following these, you need not study the specific aircraft's specifications: Aircraft at FL280 FL100: Do not give a speed restriction below 250 knots or corresponding Mach. Aircraft below FL100: Turbo jet: not slower than 210 knots, except when within 20 nm from runway, in that case not slower than 170 knots. Turbo prop: not slower than 200 knots, except when within 20 nm from runway, in that case not slower than 150 knots. Departing traffic (if speed restrictions really are necessary): Turbo jet: not slower than 230 knots. Turbo prop: not slower than 150 knots. Helicopter: not slower than 60 knots.
69
9.9
ATIS [S]
ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information System) is in real life a recorded message that is transmitted on a specific radio frequency. All major airports have ATIS and all pilots approaching the airport are required to monitor the ATIS. What information that is put into the ATIS depends on which position you man, but please note that an ATIS must never be more than 4 rows with a suggested maximum at 3 rows. This is a VATSIM requirement. Information that should be included regardless of what position you man:

Voice channel (Note that this is now automatic for users of VRC or ASRC 1.3) The name of your position The ATIS version. You start with ALPHA, and every time you change anything you use next letter in the alphabet. When you reach ZULU you start over with ALPHA. When pilot calls you for the first time he should inform you which ATIS version he has received. This way you know he has the latest information. Date and time (more about this below) Active runways used. Always specify landing (arrival) first. (the exception being a DEP controller who does not need to include this information.
70

Vateud Atc Manuall

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vateud Atc Manuall

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vateud Atc Manuall

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2010

VATSIM Europe Division

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

The Role and Responsibility of an Air Traffic Controller

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC THE BASICS

The responsibility and role of a ATCO [S]

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

Controller functions [S]

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

The VATSIM community [S]

ATC Pilot Administration

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

About VATSIM [S]

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

METAR Aviation Routine Weather Report [S/S+ 1]

Either routine (METAR) or non-routine (SPECI). En Route

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

Facilities use either a M or S which follows the time of the report.

DATE and TIME

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

V: RVR varies U: RVR is going Up D: RVR is going Down

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

02/M04 Temperature two dew point minus four

Q0987 Q-N-H niner eight seven

Becoming (BECMG) Temporary (TEMPO) No Significant Change (stable) (NOSIG)

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

The first two can be given with a time reference.

DD: DEPTH OF DEPOSIT

EE: BRAKING CONDITIONS

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions [C]

At or above FL100: 8 km Below FL100: 5 km Clear of clouds

Above 3000ft MSL or 1000ft AGL whichever is higher

5 km Horizontal distance minimum: 1500m Vertical distance minimum: 300m

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ALTITUDE AND FLIGHT LEVEL

In standard atmosphere as defined by ICAO In standard atmosphere as defined by ICAO

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

Mean Sea Level (MSL) [S+]

Flight Level (FL) [S+]

Transition Level, Altitude and Layer [S+]

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

Minimum usable flight levels [C]

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

4.10 Minimal altitudes MOCA, MRVA and MSA [C+]

4.11 Minimum En route altitudes (MEA) [C+]

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision

ATC Manual by VATSIM European Devision