World Geography Notes

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READY RECKONER WORLD GEOGRAPHY
INDEX
R
E 1. Origin and Evolution of the Earth .......................................................... 2-3
2. Earth and its Associated Aspects .......................................................... 4-7

A 3. Rocks ....................................................................................................... 8
D 4. Geomorphology, Volcanoes and Earth Quake ..................................... 9-18
Y 5. Landforms......................................................................................... 19-23
6. Soils ....................................................................................................... 24
7. Oceanography .................................................................................. 25-28
R 8. Climatology ....................................................................................... 29-39
E 9. World Climate ................................................................................... 40-44
C
K
O
N
E
R
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READY RECKONER OF WORLD GEOGRAPHY |2|
Origin and Evolution of Earth Solar System:
 Our solar system consists of the sun (the star), 8

Origin of Universe:
planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller bodies like
Big Bang Theory/Expanding Universe Hypothesis: asteroids and comets and huge quantity of dust-grains
By Edwin Hubble. and gases.
 Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are called as the
 All the matter was a tiny ball of unimaginably small
Inner planets/Terrestrial planets, as they lie between
volume, with infinite temperature and infinite
the sun and the belt of asteroids the other four
density.
planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, are
 At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently
called as the outer planets/ Jovian planets.
with huge expansion.
 Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature  Sun–The solar atmosphere consists of
dropped to 4,500 K (Kelvin) and gave rise to atomic the photosphere, chromosphere, and the corona.
matter. The universe became transparent.
 Photosphere is the bright outer layer of the Sun
Star Formation: that emits most of the radiation.
 Due to uneven distribution of matter and energy in  Just above the photosphere is the Chromosphere.
the early universe led to initial density differences in It is relatively a thin layer of burning gases.
gravitational forces and it caused the matter to get  Corona is a distinctive atmosphere of plasma that
drawn together bases for development of galaxies. surrounds the Sun and other celestial bodies.
 A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen  A dark patch on the surface of the Sun is known
gas in the form of a very large cloud called Nebula as Sunspot.
(Nebula is localised clumps of gas).  Solar Wind is a stream of energized, charged
particles, primarily electrons and protons, flowing
That led to formation of gaseous bodies there by outward from the Sun.
formation of stars.  Solar flares are a magnetic storm on the Sun
Formation of Planets: which appears to be a very bright spot and is a
gaseous surface eruption.
Stages in the Development of Planets:
 The stars are localized lumps of gas within a nebula,  Mercury– smallest, closest, 36 million miles, 88 days
gravitational force within the lumps lead to formation revolution.
of a core to the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of  Venus– twin planet of earth.
gas and dust developed around the gas core.  Earth – Discussed in detail in later part. Satellite moon
 Gas cloud -> condenses->matter around the core (revolves eastward once in 27 days).
develops into small->round objects by the process of  Mars – dark patches, it possesses an atmosphere of
cohesion->planetesimals. mostly carbon dioxide. Its red colour comes from iron
 These large number of small planetesimals accrete to oxide (rust) in its soil.
form a fewer large bodies in the form of planets.  Jupiter – Largest outer planet; composed of
hydrogen, helium and methane. It has circular light
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and dark band with outer rings, 12 satellites, very cold plunge through the atmosphere and lands on the
(–130℃). Planet with highest number of moons. surface, it's known as a meteorite.
 Saturn–3 rings, 9 satellites, second largest, revolution
Geological Time Scale:
takes 29.5 years. It is composed mostly of hydrogen,
and helium.
 Uranus – bluish-green, 50 times large and 15 times
heavy, 5 satellites, orbits east to west.
 Neptune – 2 satellites, colder, Uranus and Neptune
are called the twins of the outer solar system.
 Pluto – planetoid, orbits in 247 years.
 The Kuiper Belt is a great ring of debris similar to the

asteroid belt, but consisting mainly of objects
composed Primarily of Ice.
 Celestial Bodies: Any natural body outside of the

Earth's atmosphere.
 Asteroids: Small rocky body (Planet Debris) orbiting
the sun. Large numbers of these, ranging enormously
in size, are found between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter.
 Comets: A celestial object consisting of a nucleus of
ice and dust and, when near the sun, a ‘tail’ of gas and
dust particles pointing away from the sun.
 Meteors/Meteoroids: A meteor is an asteroid or
other object that burns and vaporizes upon entry into
the Earth's atmosphere; meteors are commonly
known as "shooting stars." If a meteor survives the
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Interior of the Earth and  The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere got dissolved in
rainwater and the temperature further decreased
Associated Factors
causing more condensation and more rain.
Evolution of Earth  The rainwater falling onto the surface got collected in
Evolution of Lithosphere: the depressions to give rise to oceans.
 The earth was mostly in a volatile state during its  The earth’s oceans were formed within 500 million
primordial stage. years from the formation of the earth.
 Due to gradual increase in density the temperature  However, around 2,500-3,000 million years before
inside has increased. the present, the process of photosynthesis got
 As a result the material inside started getting evolved. Life was confined to the oceans for a long
separated depending on their densities. time.
 This allowed heavier materials (like iron) to sink  Oceans began to have the contribution of oxygen
towards the centre of the Earth and the lighter ones through the process of photosynthesis. Eventually,
to move towards the surface. With passage of time it oceans were saturated with oxygen, and 2,000 million
cooled further and solidified and condensed into a years ago, oxygen began to flood the atmosphere.
smaller size.
 This later led to the development of the outer surface Structure of Earth:
in the form of a crust.  The structure of the earth’s interior is made up of
several concentric layers. Broadly three layers can be
Evolution of Atmosphere: identified—Crust, Mantle and the Core.
 There are three stages in the evolution of the present
atmosphere.
 First stage, is marked by the loss of primordial
atmosphere.
 Second stage, the hot interior of the earth
contributed to the evolution of the atmosphere.
 Finally, the composition of the atmosphere was
modified by the living world through the process of
photosynthesis.
 The early atmosphere largely contained water vapour,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and
very little of free oxygen.
 The process through which the gases were outpoured
from the interior is called degassing. Crust:
 Continuous volcanic eruptions contributed water  Crust is the outer thin layer with a total thickness
vapor and gases to the atmosphere. normally between 30-50 km. The thickness of the
crust varies under the oceanic -thinner (5-30 Km) and
Evolution of Hydrosphere: continental areas- thick (50-70 Km).
 As the earth cooled, the water vapour released
started getting condensed.
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 The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major 4. Iron 5.00

mountain systems. 5. Calcium 3.63
 It forms 5-10 per cent of the earth’s volume. 6. Sodium 2.83
7. Potassium 2.59
 Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity forms the
8. Magnesium 2.09
boundary between crust and asthenosphere. 9. Others 1.41
 The continents are composed of sial (silicon
&aluminium) while the oceans are composed of sima Chemical Composition of the Earth:
(silicon & magnesium).
Mantle:
 The mantle extends to a depth of 2,900 km. The crust
and the uppermost part of the mantle are
called lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10-200
km.
 The lower mantle extends beyond the as
thenosphere. It is in solid state.
 The density of mantle varies between 2.9 and 3.3.
 It is composed of solid rock and magma.
 The upper portion of the mantle is called
Sources of information about earth interior,
Asthenosphere. It is considered to be extending up to
400 km. It is the main source of magma and is more
1. Direct sources- surface rock obtained by mining and
fluidic in nature. volcanic eruptions.
 It forms 83 per cent of the earth’s volume. 2. Indirect sources-
 Analysis of properties of matter like temperature,
Core:
pressure and density of material.
 Lies between 2900 km and 6400 km below the earth’s  Meteors these solid bodies structure and material is
surface. similar to earth.
 Accounts for 16 per cent of the earth’s volume.  Gravity anomaly which gives us the information
 Core has the heaviest mineral materials of highest about distribution of mass of material in the crust of
density. earth.
 It is composed of nickel and iron [Nife].  Magnetic surveys gives information about magnetic
 The outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid. material distribution in crustal portion.
 Seismic activity important source about interiors of
 Gutenberg Discontinuity lies between the mantle and
earth.
the outer core.
Composition of Earth Crust:

Sl.
Elements By Weight(%)
No.
1. Oxygen 46.60
2. Silicon 27.72
3. Aluminium 8.13

Motions of Earth: length also called as great circle  All longitudes are
Rotation of Earth:  Equator, Tropic of Cancer 23.5° equal in length
N, Tropic of Capricorn 23.5° S,  Prime meridian 0° and
 Earth rotates along its axis from west to east.
Arctic circle 66.5° N, Antarctic International Date
 It takes approximately 24 hrs to complete on rotation. circle 66.5° S, North Pole 90° N Line 180° E or 180° W
 Days and nights occur due to rotation of the earth. and South Pole 90° S are are important
 The circle that divides the day from night on the globe important latitudes longitudes
is called the circle of illumination.  They help in determining the  Used to determine
 Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth’s rotational axis intensity of sunlight received time and date at a
at a point location.
makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal i.e. it makes
 They divide earth into torrid,  Distance between two
an angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane. Orbital plane temperate and frigid zones longitude decreases as
is the plane of earth’s orbit around the Sun.  Distance between latitudes we move towards
 Rotation Movement of earth on its axis – 24 hours – remains same. pole.
Earth day. Both are used to determine the location of a point on earth. The
location is identified with Co-ordinates
Revolution of Earth:
 The motion of the earth around the sun in its orbit is Seasons
called revolution. It takes 365¼ days (one year) to
revolve around the sun. Six hours saved every year
are added to make one day (24 hours) over a span of
four years. This surplus day is added to the month of
February. Thus every fourth year, February is of 29
days instead of 28 days. Such a year with 366 days is
called a leap year.
 Revolution leads to change in Seasons.
Latitudes and longitudes:

Summer Solistice:
 On 21stJune, the Northern hemisphere is tilted
towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall directly on
the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive
more heat.
 The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays
of the sun are slanting.
 The north pole is inclined towards the sun and the
places beyond the Arctic Circle experience continuous
Latitude Longitude
daylight for about six months.
 The angular distance of a place  The angular distance
north or south of the earth's of a place east or west  Since a large portion of the northern hemisphere is
equator of the Greenwich getting light from the sun, it is summer in the regions
 Equator = 0° Latitude meridian, north of the equator. The longest day and the
 Latitudes are named south and  Prime meridian = shortest night at these places occur on 21st June.
north of equator longitude  At this time in the southern hemisphere all these
 Their length decreases from  Longitudes are named
conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The
equator to poles east or west of prime
meridian
nights are longer than the days. This position of the
 Equator has the maximum
earth is called the summer solstice.

Winter Solistice: • Places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain
 On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives time (EAST-GAIN-ADD), whereas places west of
direct rays of the sun as the south pole tilts towards Greenwich see the sun later and lose time(WEST-
it. As the sun’s rays fall vertically at the Tropic of LOSE-SUBSTRACT).
Capricorn (23½° s), a larger portion of the southern
hemisphere gets light. International Date Line
 Therefore, it is summer in the southern hemisphere
with longer days and shorter nights. The reverse
happens in the northern hemisphere and it
experiences winter. This position of the earth is called
the winter solstice.
Equinox:
 On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of
the sun fall on the equator. At this position, neither of  The International Date Line serves as the "line of
the poles is tilted towards the sun; so, the whole demarcation" between two consecutive calendar
earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is dates. It passes through the mid-Pacific Ocean and
called an equinox. roughly follows a 180 degrees at the Bering Strait, Fiji,
 On 23rd September, it is autumn season [season Tonga and other islands longitude, north-south line
after summer and before the beginning of winter] in on the Earth. It is located halfway round the world
the northern hemisphere and spring season [season from the prime meridian.
after winter and before the beginning of summer] in  International Date Line is where the date changes by
the southern hemisphere. exactly one day when it is crossed. A traveler crossing
 The opposite is the case on 21st March, when it is the date line from east to west loses a day and while
spring in the northern hemisphere and autumn in the crossing the dateline from west to east he gains a
southern hemisphere. day.
 Rotation Days and Nights.
Indian Standard Time:
 Revolution  Seasons.
The standard meridian of India is the 82.5º east
Greenwich Meridian Time:
longitude which passes through Allahabad. This is five and
 Equator is centrally placed between the poles, any
a half hours ahead of 0º meridian (Greenwich).
meridian could be taken to begin the numbering of
longitude. Day Light Saving:
 It was decided in 1884, by international agreement,  Many parts of North America and Europe follow what
to choose as the zero meridian the one which passes is called Daylight Saving Time (DST).
through the Royal Astronomical Observatory at  It’s a practice by which all the clocks in these places
Greenwich, near London. are moved forward by an hour during the summer
• This is the Prime Meridian (0°) from which all other months and brought back during the winter to utilise
meridians radiate eastwards and westwards up to the long-lasting sunlight in summer and save energy.
180°.  India follows a single time zone of 82.5°E, Northeast
• They help to determine local time. region are demanding for a separate time zone as the
• One revolution of 360° earth takes 24hours, therefore sun rises as early as four in the morning and in winter
in 1hour it traverse 15° or in 4 mins 1° it sets by four in the evening.

Rocks lithification.
 Cover 75 per cent of the earth’s crust
They are aggregates or a physical mixture of one or more but volumetrically occupy only 5
minerals. Feldspar and quartz are the most common percent.
minerals found in all type of rocks.  These rocks consist of layers in which
fossils of plants and animals are
The Rock Cycle present.
 Different varieties of sandstone are
spread over Madhya Pradesh, eastern
Rajasthan, parts of Himalayas, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.
Depending upon the mode of formation,
they are classified into
1. Mechanically formed — sandstone,
conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess
etc.
2. Organically formed — coal, some
dolomites, and some limestones, form
from the accumulation of plant or
animal debris.
3. Chemically formed — such as rock
salt, iron ore, chert, flint, some
Classification of Rocks: dolomites, and some limestones.
 Igneous rocks  Form under the action of pressure,
 Sedimentary rocks volume and temperature (PVT)
 Metamorphic rocks changes.
 Metamorphism occurs when rocks
Types of are forced down to lower levels by
Features of the rocks tectonic or recrystallisation and
rocks
reorganization of materials.
 These are primarily formed out of magma
and lava and are known as primary rocks.
 In the process of metamorphism in
 Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, etc., some rocks grains or minerals get
3.Metamor arranged in layers or lines called as
are some of the examples of igneous
rocks. phic rocks foliation or lineation.
 Igneous rocks are crystalline in structure.
Some Examples of Metamorphism:
 Extrusive rocks: These are formed by Pr essure
1.Igneous rapid cooling of the lava thrown out Granite   Gneiss
Pr essure
rocks during volcanic eruptions. Ex: Basalt - The Clay , Shale   Schist
Deccan traps. Heat
Sandstone   Quartzite
 Intrusive rocks: Sometimes, the molten Heat Heat
matter is not able to reach the surface Clay, Shale   Slate   Phyllite
Heat
and instead cools down very slowly at Coal   Anthracite, Graphite
great depths. Slow cooling allows big- Heat
Limestone   Marble
sized crystals (large grains) to be formed.
Granite is a typical example.
Note:
 Formed as a result of denudation
2.Sediment (weathering and erosion). Most Abundant- Igneous > Metamorphic > Sedimentary
ary rocks  These deposits through compaction Rocks.
turn into rocks. This process is called
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Geomorphology and primordial heat from early earth are the main
force behind these movements.
 Geomorphology is the study of the physical features  This energy due to geothermal gradients and heat
of the surface of the earth and their relation to its flow from within induces diastrophism (slow
geological structures. movements) and volcanism (sudden movements) in
 Geomorphic Process - The formation and the lithosphere, thereby causing PVT (pressure,
deformation of landforms on the surface of the earth volume and temperature) changes.
are a continuous process which is due to the
continuous influence of external and internal forces. Diastrophism/ Slow Movements:
 Diastrophic forces refer to forces generated by the
Earth Movements and Landforms: movement of the solid material of the earth’s crust.
Earth is undergoing deformations due to,  All processes like plate tectonics, orogenisis,
1. The heat generated by the radioactive elements in epirogenisis, earth quake etc., that move, elevate or
earth’s interior. build up portions of the earth’s crust come under
diastrophism.
2. Movement of the crustal plates due to Tectogenesis.
3. Forces generated by rotation of the earth. Epirogenic Or Continent Forming Movements:
4. Climatic factors like winds, precipitation, pressure

 Epirogenic movement is vertical movement of the
belts etc.
earth along the radius of earth crust.
 It is continental building process which involves uplift
or warping/subsidence of large parts of the earth’s
crust.
Uplift:
 Due to vertical movement of the earth some earth
crust emerges there by leading to elevations
/upliftment.
 Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves
Based on the above diagram we can see earth and fossiliferous beds above sea level are evidences
movements can be majorly classified into, of uplift.
1. Endogenetic Movement Ex: The Sierra Nevada in North America, Black Forest
2. Exogenetic Movement Mountains in Germany are examples of uplift
mountains. Raised beaches along the Kathiawar,
1. Endogenetic Movements: Nellore, and Thirunelveli coasts.
 Movements inside the earth’s crust or interaction of Subsidence:
matter and temperature generates these forces.  Due to vertical movement of the earth some earth
crust submerges there by leading subsidence.
The earth movements are mainly of two
types: Diastrophism/ slow and the sudden movements. Ex: 1. Mammoth cave system in Kentucky, Karst
topography in southern china, Andes of South
 The energy emanating within the earth
America.
by radioactivity, rotational and tidal forces, friction
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2. Presence of peat and lignite beds below the sea Note: Earthquake and volcanoes are covered in detail
level in Thirunelveliand the Sunderbans is an later chapters.
example of subsidence.
Theories of Endogenetic Forces:
3. The Andamans and Nicobars have been isolated Continental Drift Theory:
from the Arakan coast by submergence of the  This theory was suggested by Alfred Wegener in
intervening land. 1920’s.
 According to Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory,
there existed one biglandmass which he called
Pangaea which was covered by one big ocean called
Panthalassa.
 A sea called Tethys divided the Pangaea into two
huge landmasses: Laurentia (Laurasia) to the north
and Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.
 Drift started around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic
Orogenic or the Mountain-Building Movements: Era), and the continents began to break up and drift
 Orogenic movements are horizontal movements away from one another.
which involves mountain building through severe
Force for Continental Drift:
folding and faulting, act tangentially to the earth
The drift was in two directions,
surface.
1. Equator wards due to the interaction of forces of
 These horizontal movements can be through forces of
gravity, pole-fleeing force and buoyancy
compression and forces of tension.
2. Westwards due to tidal currents because of the
1. Forces of Compression: earth’s motion. Tidal force is due to the attraction of
 Are the forces which push rock strata against a hard the moon and the sun that develops tides in oceanic
plane from one side or from both sides. These waters.
compressional forces lead to the bending of rock
Evidence in support of Continental Drift:
layers and thus lead to the formation of Fold
Mountains.  South America and Africa seem to fit in with each
other, especially, the bulge of Brazil fits into the Gulf
Ex: Himalayas, the Rockies (N. America), the Andes (S.
of Guinea.
America), the Alps (Europe) etc.
 Greenland seems to fit in well with Ellesmere and
2. Forces of tension: Baffin islands.
 Work horizontally, but in opposite directions. Under  The west coast of India, Madagascar and Africa seem
intense tensional forces, the rock stratum gets broken to have been joined.
or fractured which results in the formation of cracks  North and South America on one side and Africa and
and fractures in the crust. The displacement of rock Europe on the other fit along the mid-Atlantic ridge.
upward or downward from their original position  The Caledonian and Hercynian mountains of Europe
along such a fracture is termed as faulting. Faulting and the Appalachians of USA seem to be one
results in rift valleys and block mountains. continuous series.
Ex: Vindhya and Satpura Mountains, rift valleys of
Nile, Narmada and Tapi etc. Criticism:
 Coastlines are a temporary feature and are liable to
change.

 Continental Drift Theory shifts India’s position too Plate Tectonic Theory:
much to the south, distorting its relation with the  In 1967, McKenzie and Parker suggested the theory of
Mediterranean Sea and the Alps. plate tectonics.
 The mountains do not always exhibit geological  According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth’s
affinity. lithosphere is broken into distinct plates which are
floating on asthenosphere (upper mantle). Plates
Convectional Theory: move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid
 Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of units.
convection currents in the mantle.  The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle
 These currents are generated due to radioactive with its thickness range varying between 5-100 km in
elements causing thermal differences in mantle. oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental
 According to this theory, the intense heat generated areas.
by radioactive substances in the mantle seeks a path  Lithospheric plates (crustal plates, tectonic plates)
to escape, and gives rise to the formation of vary from minor plates to major plates, continental
plates (Arabian plate) to oceanic plates (Pacific plate),
convention currents in the mantle.
sometime a combination of both continental and
 Wherever rising limbs of these currents
oceanic plates (Indo-Australian plate).
meet, oceanic ridges are formed on the sea floor and
wherever the falling limbs meet, trenches are Rates of Plate Movement
formed.
 The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5
Sea Floor Spreading: cm/yr.), and the East Pacific Rise in the South Pacific
[about 3,400 km west of Chile], has the fastest rate
 The idea that the seafloor itself moves as it expands (more than 15 cm/yr.).
from a central axis was proposed by Harry Hess.  Indian plate’s movement during its journey from
 Continued with convectional theory ie., intense heat south to equator was one of the fastest plate
tries to escape leads to convectional current meeting movements.
of rising limbs causes ridges and falling limbs
Types of Plate Boundaries:
trenches.
 Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-
ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed
through volcanic activity and then gradually moves
away from the ridge.
 Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in
the theory of plate tectonics.
 When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes
fractures to occur in the lithosphere, basaltic magma
rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to
form new sea floor.
 Older rocks will be found farther away from the
spreading zone while younger rocks will be found
nearer to the spreading zone.

Boundary asthenosphere leading to generation of new magma.

Features of the interaction
interaction The resulting body of many volcanoes and volcanic
 In plate tectonics, a divergent rocks is called an island volcanic arc.
boundary or divergent plate
boundary (also known as a
Examples of such arcs are Japan, the Philippines, the
constructive boundary or an Tonga Islands, the Aleutian Islands, and the West
extensional boundary) is a Indies Islands etc.
1.Divergence forming
linear feature that exists
Divergent Edge or the 2. Ocean-Continental Convergent Boundary:
between two tectonic plates
Constructive Edge When an oceanic plate collides with a continental
that are moving away from
each other. Interaction of this
plate, the oceanic plate is always pulled under and
type leads to formation of subducted because it is denser than the continental
mid-oceanic trenches and rift plate. When the oceanic plate is subducted under the
valleys. continental plate, it leads to the generation of new
 Earthquakes are common magma, which upwells and forms volcanoes on the
along divergent edges. non-subducting plate, or the continental plate. The
 In this kind of interaction, two resulting body of such an interaction leads to the
lithospheric plates collide formation of continental volcanic arcs.
against each other.
The zone of collision may The most visible example is Andes Mountains off the
undergo crumpling and west coast of the U.S.
folding and folded mountains
3. Continent-Continent convergent Boundary
may emerge.
2.Convergence When the continent and continent converge, the
forming Convergent  This is an orogenic collision.
Himalayan Boundary Fault is crust at both the sides is too light and buoyant to be
Edge or Destructive
one such example. subducted, so neither plate is subducted in continent-
Edge
 When one of the plates is an continent convergent boundary. Both continental
oceanic plate, it gets masses press against the other, and both become
embedded in the softer compressed and ultimately fused into a single block
asthenosphere of the with a folded mountain belt forming between them.
continental plate and as a Example: Himalayas.
result, trenches are formed.
 Formed when two plates Volcanoes
move past each other.  Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock
 In this kind of interaction, two (magma) onto or toward the earth’s surface.
plates grind against each  A volcano is formed when the molten magma in the
3. Transform fault other and there is no creation
earth’s interior escapes through the crust by vents
or destruction of landform but
and fissures in the crust, accompanied by steam,
only deformation of the
existing landform. gases (hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen
Example: San Andreas Fault (USA). chloride, carbon dioxide) and pyroclastic material.
Pyroclastic-adjective of or denoting rock fragments or

Convergent boundaries are of 3 types,
ash erupted by a volcano, especially as a hot, dense,
1. Ocean-Ocean Convergent Plate Boundary
When two oceanic plates meet and collide against destructive flow.
each other, the denser of the two plates is pulled
under the other and is subducted. It descends into the

Classification of Volcanoes: Types of igneous intrusions,
1. Laccolith- igneous mound with a dome shaped upper

surface.
2. Lopolith- saucer shaped
3. Phacolith-lens shaped mass of igneous rock
4. Batholith- huge mass of igneous rock
Extrusive Landforms:
hot magma from inside the Earth flows out (extrudes)
onto the surface as lava or explodes violently into the
atmosphere to fall back as pyroclastics. This is as opposed
Types of Lava: to intrusive rock formation, in which magma does not
reach the earth surface.
1. Acidic – light coloured, highly viscous, flow slowly,
steep-sided, lead to explosion throwing out pyroclasts Various extrusive landforms are,
or bombs, forming spine or plug at craters.  Lava Plains and Basalt Plateaux fluid – Snake basin,
2. Basic– hottest, highly fluid, rich in iron and USA; Deccan; Iceland
magnesium, lack silica, dark colour, highly fluid, flow  Lava domes or shield volcanoes – volcanic cones –
quietly, forms thin sheets and spread over large area Mauna Loa and Kilauea.
forming shield or dome.  Ash and cinder cones – less fluid – large crater and
steep slope – small volcano in groups – Mt. Nauvoo
Volcanoes are also classified as Intrusive and (Naples) and Mt. Paricutin (Mexico) Lava tongues and
Extrusive landforms. lava dammed lakes – confined in valleys Lava bridges .
 Lava tunnels
 Volcanic dust – fine particles.
 Dust and Ash – black snow.
Composite Cones are most commonly called as

Stratocones with main conduit and subsidiary dykes and
pipes.
Intrusive Landforms:
Sometimes, the molten matter is not able to reach the
surface and instead cools down very slowly at great
depths. Slow cooling allows big-sized crystals (large
grains) to be formed. Granite is a typical example. These
rocks appear on the surface only after being uplifted and
denuded.  Mt. Etna (Sicily, Italy) best example of parasitic cone.
 Molten magma intrusion horizontally along the bed of  Interesting composite volcano-Mt. Stromboli
sedimentary planes is called Sills. (Lighthouse of Mediterranean).
 Molten magma intrusion vertically along the walls of
igneous rocks are called as Dykes.

Distribution of Volcanoes:  Wave Velocity - 5 to 8 km per second through the

 Circum-Pacific ring of fire or Pacific ring of fire outer part of the crust but travel faster with depth.
includes2/3rd of world volcanoes. Although there are  Isoseismic Line - A line connecting all points on the
a few active volcanoes found along the Atlantic, surface of the earth where the intensity is the same.
Mediterranean costs.  Earth quake magnitude is measured by Richter scale,
intensity is measured by Mercalli.
Causes:
1. Compressional or tensional stresses built up at the
margins of the huge moving lithospheric plates.
2. Sudden release of stress along a fault, or fracture in
the earth’s crust.
3. Constant change in volume and density of rocks due
to intense temperature and pressure in the earth’s
interior.
Geyser and Hot Springs: 4. Human induced earth quake
 Geyser – fountain of hot water and superheated
steam from earth beneath in which water is heated Earthquake Waves:
beyond boiling point with explosion.  Seismic waves are produced when some form of
 World major geyser are concentrated in Iceland, energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released,
Rotorua (N. Island, New Zealand), Yellowstone due to slipping of land, these waves will travel in all
National Park (USA) – Old Faithful world’s best known directions.
geyser. Types of Seismic Waves
 Hot Springs or thermal springs – water rises to the  Earthquake waves are of two types — Body waves
surface without any explosion and consist of dissolved and Surface waves.
minerals. Ex: Hawaii and Japan.
Earthquakes
 An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the
earth’s surface, caused by the sudden movement of a
part of the earth’s crust resulting in release of energy
that creates seismic waves.  Body waves are generated due to the release of
 It occurs when the surplus accumulated stress in rocks energy at the focus and move in all directions
in the earth’s interior is relieved through the weak travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the
zones over the earth’s surface in form of kinetic name body waves.
energy of wave motion causing vibrations (at times  Body waves interact with the surface rocks and
devastating) on the earth’s surface. generate new set of waves called surface waves,
 Focus - The place of origin of an earthquake inside the these waves move along the surface and are also
earth. more destructive (Rayleigh) than body waves
 Epicentre - Point on the earth’s surface vertically
above the focus. Maximum damage is caused at the
epicentre.

Body Waves:  Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to

There are two types of body waves - the Rayleigh wave.
1. Primary waves or P waves (longitudinal) Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics:
 Also called as the longitudinal or compressional  As per Plate tectonics earthquakes are a consequence
waves. of inter-plate interaction, along the convergent
 Analogous to sound waves. boundary. Compressive forces crush and cause
 Particles of the medium vibrate along the direction of earthquakes, while along divergent boundary tensile
propagation of the wave. forces stretch and snap the earth creating
 P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the earthquakes.
surface.  Earthquakes can also be due to plate motions and the
 These waves are of high frequency. friction of lithospheric plates while they drift along
 They can travel in all mediums. asthenosphere.
 Velocity of P waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases.  Divergent boundaries and convergent boundaries
 Their velocity depends on shear strength or elasticity between two continental plates will only have
of the material. shallow focus earthquake.
 Intermediate and deep focus earthquakes are almost
2. Secondary waves or S waves (transverse)(least
entirely limited to ocean floor subduction.
destructive).
Propagation of Earthquake Waves in Earth’s Interiors:
 Also called as transverse or distortional waves.
 Analogous to water ripples or light waves.  The velocity of waves changes as they travel through
 S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. materials with different elasticity. The more elastic
 A secondary wave cannot pass through liquids or the material is the higher is the velocity. Their
gases. direction also changes as they reflect or refract when
 These waves are of high frequency waves. coming across materials with different densities.
 Travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear  P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave.
strength) through the solid part of the Earth’s crust, As a result, it creates density differences in the
mantle. material leading to stretching and squeezing of the
material.
Surface Waves:  The direction of vibrations of S-waves is
perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical
1. L waves:
plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the
 Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves material through which they pass.
produce entirely horizontal motion. They are much
slower than body waves but are faster than Rayleigh. Emergence of Shadow Zone:
2. Rayleigh waves: The seismic shadows are the effect of seismic waves
striking the core-mantle boundary. P and S waves radiate
 These waves follow an elliptical motion. spherically away from an earthquake's hypocenter (or
 A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a focus) in all directions and return to the surface by many
wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, paths. S waves, however, don't reappear beyond an
it moves the ground up and down and side-to-side in angular distance of ~103° (as they are don’t pass through
the same direction that the wave is moving.

liquid material) and P waves don't arrive between ~103° Chemical Weathering:
and 140° due to refraction at the mantle-core boundary.  Extremely slow and gradual decomposition of rocks
due to exposure to air and water
 Regolith - mineral remains of decomposed rocks.

 When a soil cover on the rock exists, chemical
weathering of the rock enhances because the soil
absorbs rain water and keeps the underlying rock in
contact with this moisture.
Types of Chemical Weathering:

1. Solution
 Many minerals are dissolved by water especially with
Distribution of Earthquakes: rain water which contains enough carbon dioxide to
make it a weak acid.
 Coincides with volcanoes distribution
Ex: in limestone region, rocks made of calcium carbonate
Exogenic Movements: get dissolved in rain water, widening joints resulting
in crumbling of rocks.
 Exogenic processes are a direct result of stress
induced in earth materials due to various forces that 2. Oxidation:
come into existence due to sun’s heat.  Weathering by reaction of oxygen in presence of air
 Earth materials become subjected to molecular and water with minerals present in the rock.
stresses caused due to temperature changes.
 Ex: rocks contain certain amount of iron, which in
 Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of contact with air changes into iron oxide leading to
bonds between grains. rust.
 Temperature and precipitation are the two important
climatic elements that control various processes by 3. Decomposition by Organic Acids
inducing stress in earth materials.  Soils consist of certain bacteria which thrive on the
 Denudation- the process of wearing away the earth rock surface, they produce acids when dissolved in
that causes general lowering and levelling out of the water.
surface. Ex: Microorganisms, mosses or lichens.
Denudation Involves 4 Processes: Physical Weathering:

 Also known as Mechanical Weathering, it is physical
1. Weathering- gradual disintegration of rocks by
disintegration of rocks.
atmospheric or weather forces.
2. Erosion – active wearing of earth surface by agents
Types of Physical Weathering,
like water, wind, ice etc.
1. Temperature Changes
3. Transportation- removal of eroded debris to new
positions.  Mainly in dry desert areas, hot at day and cold by
4. Deposition – dumping of debris in certain parts of night, Leads to expansion and contraction of rock
earth. setting up stresses in the rock. Finally leading to its
 Warm wet climate promotes rapid chemical disintegration.
weathering while dry climate provide good conditions
for physical weathering.
2. Repeated Wetting and Drying  Slumping is permeable layer overlie over

 Stresses are naturally greatest near the surface and impermeable clay, which acts as a slippery surface.
where there are sharp angles in the rock, finally it
leads to peeling off of rock’s outer layer called as Ground Water:
exfoliation.  Hydrological cycle is process of circulation of water
between land, sea and atmosphere.
 Exfoliation also takes place by repeated wetting and  Ground water plays major role in weathering and
drying of rocks surface as during wetting its outer mass movement.
layer absorbs moisture and expand; when they dry Volume of ground water depends on climate,
this moisture evaporates and they quickly shrinks,  Dry climate – precipitation is evaporated quickly and
finally leading to peeling of outer layer of the rock. little moisture percolate into ground.
 Humid areas – most water runs off and sinks into
3. Frost
ground.
 At high altitudes and cold climates where during day
 Porous Rocks – sandstone – many pore spaces exists
cracks and joints inside rock fill with water and during
(water is absorbed and stored)
night they get frozen. With repeated freeze /thaw
 Permeable or pervious rocks - allow water to pass
cycles, rock breaks into pieces.
through them.
4. Biotic Factors  Impermeable – Clay is highly porous as made of many
 Vegetation grows into crevices of rock cracks or in fine particles but spaces are very smalland particle
courtyards as plant grows roots penetrate weaken the cannot move.
rock.
Water Table:
Mass Movement:  Water moves down by gravity and reach impermeable
 Movement of weathered material down the slope layer through which it cannot pass. If no outlet is
due to gravitational forces there, water accumulates above impermeable rocks
 Movement can be slow or sudden, depending on the and saturates the rocks. Water store in the permeable
slope gradient, weight of debris and lubricating rock is known as aquifer. Surface of saturated area is
moisture supplied by rainwater. called water table.
 Water table is far below surface in hill tops but close
Types of mass movements are, to surface in valleys and flat low lying areas causing
1. Soil creep water logging.
 Slow and gradual process continuous movement of
downhill slopes. Springs
 Common in damp soils where water act as lubricant.  A spring is a point at which water flows from an
aquifer to the Earth's surface. It is a component of the
2. Soil Flow: hydrosphere.
 Soil is saturated with water and individual particles
are suspended in water, they start moving like a  Minerals become dissolved in the water as it moves
liquid. through the underground rocks. This is why spring
water is often bottled and sold as mineral water.
3. Landslides (Slumping and Sliding):
 Occur on steep slopes, slope undercut by river or sea Wells
or by lubricating action of rain water.  Hole is bored until it reaches water table of
permanent depth with continuous flow of water.

 Aquifer is saturated to the brim of the basin. Water is when fringing protruding headland but absent when
trapped in the aquifer under pressure and when well facing mouth of stream.
is bored, pressure of water downwards forces the 2. Patch Reef: Patch Reefs are isolated outcroppings
water up the bore hole to gush as fountain. After (patches) of coral that are in close proximity to each other
sometime pressure decreases and pumping is not but are physically separated by sand rings.
required. 3. Barrier Reefs: Separated by wider and deeper channel
 This water is unsuitable for agriculture as it is hot and – partially submerged has narrow gaps at several places
contains lots of mineral salts. to allow water. Great Barrier Reef off the coast of
Queensland.
Islands and Coral Reefs 4. Atolls: Circular and enclose shallow lagoon without any
• Land surrounded by water on all sides, may occur land in centre.
individually or in group called as islands.
Coral Reefs:
• Coral Polyps – calcareous algae, shell forming
creatures and lime secreting plants live in large
colonies. When polyp die, skeleton are cemented into
coralline limestone.
• Non reef building species – precious coral of Pacific
Ocean & Red coral of Mediterranean Sea.
• Conditions for coral formation-
1. Survive best in warmer tropical seas.
2. Water temperature must not be below 68℉.
3. Not flourish in cold currents due to upwelling of cold
waters from depth that cools the warm water surface.
4. Depth of water should not exceed 30 fathoms or 180
feet as beyond it sunlight is too faint.
5. Shallow water of less than 100 feet is ideal.
6. Water should be saltish and free from sediments -
corals are best developed on seaward side of reef –
abundant supply of clear oxygenated water.
Types of Coral Reefs:
1.Fringing Reefs: Lies close to coast and extend outwards

from mainland separated by shallow lagoon – widest

Landforms
Landforms Created by Running Water:
Course of a River
 Predominant action is vertical
corrosion (corrosion- it is the gradual
destruction of materials by chemical
and/or electrochemical reaction with
their environment).
 Gorges and canyons are formed
during this stage (A canyon or gorge
is a deep cleft between escarpments
or cliffs resulting from weathering
and the erosive activity of a river).
 River capture- river capture is natural
The young diversion of the headwaters of one
stage stream into the channel of another,
typically resulting from rapid head
ward erosion by the latter stream).
 Rapids, cataracts and waterfalls-
Rapids are stream sections with
extremely strong currents, numerous
obstacles, and steps in their
streambeds. A waterfall is a vertical
drop in a streambed. Both are sites of
vigorous erosion. Rapids often form
where resistant bedrock confines a
stream to a narrow channel, and
forces an increase in water velocity.
Middle or  Meanders -a winding curve or bend
valley of a river. Landforms of Glaciations:
course  River cliffs and slip-off slopes. Glaciers
 A glacier is a large, perennial accumulation of
 Flood plains- An area of low-lying crystalline ice, snow, rock, sediment, and often liquid
ground adjacent to a river, formed water that originates on land and moves down slope
mainly of river sediments and subject under the influence of its own weight and gravity.
to flooding.  Only two major ice caps are present today- Antarctica
 Ox-bow lakes- it is a U-shaped lake and Greenland
Lower or that forms when a wide meander  At the foot of the mountain glacier, several glaciers
plain from the main stem of a river is cut may converge to form an extensive ice-mass called
course off, creating a free-standing body of piedmont glacier
water.
 Delta- a triangular tract of sediment Landforms of Glaciations:
deposited at the mouth of a river, 1. Corrie, cirque It is a depression where snow accumulates
typically where it diverges into When two corries cut back on each other,
2. Aretes and
several outlets. knife-edged ridges are formed called
pyramidal peaks
arêtes
At the head of a glacier when snow begins
3. Bergschrund
to leave the corrie, a deep vertical crack
www.laex.in Landforms www.civilsprep.com

opens up called bergschrund Esker is a long, winding ridge of stratified

6. Eskers
A U-shaped valley is a geological sand and gravel.
formation characterized by high and steep It is a plain formed of glacial sediments
7. Outwash
sides and a rounded or flat valley bottom. deposited by melt water outwash at the
plains
U-shaped valleys are located all over the terminus of a glacier.
4. U-shaped world, particularly in areas with high
glacial trough mountains, as this is where glaciers were
able to form. Some examples of U-shaped
valleys include Zezere Valley in Portugal,
Leh Valley in India, and Nant Francon
Valley in Wales.
Hanging valleys- it is a characteristic U-
shape valley above their respective main
valleys, and have a steep wall at the point
where the two valleys meet.
These valleys are found in regions of high Arid or Desert Landforms:
5.Hanging valleys altitude, particularly in mountainous
regions. The valleys are natural crevices  Almost all deserts lie between 15 to 30 degree north
through which rivers flow, and at the cliff and south of the equator.
meeting point where the two valleys meet  They lie in trade wind belt on the western part of the
the rivers dramatically drop to form continents where trade winds are off-shore. They are
waterfalls. bathed by cold currents. These currents are devoid of
Moraines are formed from debris
any moisture.
previously carried along by a glacier.
Lateral moraines are formed at the side of
6. Moraines Distinct Desert Types:
the ice flow and terminal moraines at the
foot, marking the maximum advance of It is a type of desert landscape consisting of
the glacier. 1. Hamada or high, largely barren, hard rocky plateaus,
rocky desert where most of the sand has been removed
by deflation.
Desert surface covered with closely packed,
2. Reg or stony
interlocking angular or rounded rock
desert
fragments of pebble and cobble size.
An erg desert is a broad, flat area of desert
3. Erg or sandy
covered with wind-swept sand with little or
desert
no vegetative cover.
Badlands are a type of dry terrain where
softer sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils
4. Badlands
have been extensively eroded by wind and
water.
Found on plateaus and mountain ranges.
5. Mountain
Steep slopes, sharp and irregular peaks
Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands: deserts
are common.
1.Roche It is glaciated bedrock surface, usually in the
Landforms of Wind Erosion in Deserts:
mountains form of rounded knobs.
A mushroom rock, also called rock
Craig is a rocky hill or mountain, generally 1. Rock
2. Craig and tail pedestal, is a naturally occurring rock
isolated from other high ground. pedestals or
Boulder clay containing many large stones
whose shape, as its name implies,
3. Boulder clay mushroom
and boulders, formed by deposition from resembles a mushroom, by erosion and
or glacial till rocks or gour
melting glaciers and ice sheets. weathering.
An erratic is a piece of rock that has been A Zeugen is formed in desert area where
4. Erratic eroded and transported by a glacier to a 2. Zeugen alternating horizontal layers of hard and
different area. soft rocks occur.
Drumlins are elongated, teardrop-shaped a sharp irregular ridge of sand lying in the
5. Drumlins hills of rock, sand, and gravel that formed 3. Yardangs direction of the prevailing wind in exposed
under moving glacierice. desert regions, formed by the wind erosion

of adjacent material which is less resistant.

A mesa is an isolated, flat-topped hill or
mountain with steep sides that is smaller in
4. Mesas and
area than a plateau. A butte is also a flat-
buttes.
topped hill with steep sides, though smaller
in area than a mesa.
An inselberg or monadnock is an isolated
rock hill, knob, ridge, or small mountain
5. Inselberg
that rises abruptly from a gently sloping or
virtually level surrounding plain.
a stone shaped by the erosive action of
6. Ventifacts
wind-blown sand.
Dune deflation hollows are where wind has
removed sand down to a level where a layer
7. Deflation
of particles too heavy for the wind to move
hollows
stabilizes the sand and prevents the surface
being lowered further.
Landforms of Wind Deposition in Deserts:

According to the shape of a sand dune, there
are varieties of sand dune forms like Barchans,
1. Sand Seifs etc. The crescent-shaped dunes are
dunes called as Barchans and they are the most
common one. Seif is similar to Barchans but
has only one wing or point. Limestone and Chalk Landform:
The surface covered by deposits of wind-
 Limestone and chalk are sedimentary rocks of organic
transported silt that has settled out from dust
2. Loess origin derived from the accumulation of corals and
storms over many thousands of years. These
depositions are called as Loess. shells in the sea. In its pure state, limestone is made
up of calcite or calcium carbonate, but where magne-
sium is also present it is termed dolomite.
 Chalk is a very pure form of limestone, white, and
rather soft.
 Limestone is soluble in rain-water, which, with carbon
dioxide from the air, forms a weak acid. A region with
a large stretch of limestone therefore possesses a
very distinct type of topography. It is then termed a
karst region.
Karst Region Characteristics:

Karst regions have a bleak landscape. There is general
absence of surface drainage as most of the surface water
has gone underground. For the greater part of their
course, they cut their way along the joints and fissures of
the rock wearing out a system of underground channels.
A limestone pavement is a flat expanse of
1. Limestone exposed limestone formed by a
pavement combination of chemical weathering and
erosion.
Pavements are made up of two separate
2. Grikes and
but integral parts known as clints and
clints
grykes. Clints are the blocks of limestone

that constitute the paving. Grykes are the

fissures that isolate the individual clints. Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms by
They are small depressions carved out by the processes of weathering and erosion.
3. Swallow solution where rain water sinks into the Cliffs are usually formed by rock that is
holes limestone at the zone of weakness. It is resistant to weathering and erosion.
2. Cliffs and
also known as sinkholes. wave cut Wave-cut platforms form when destructive
These are created where the roof of a large platforms waves hit against the cliff face, causing an
4. Limestone underground cavern collapses, to create a undercut between the high and low water
gorges steep sided gorge with a river running in marks, mainly as a result of abrasion,
the bottom. corrosion and hydraulic action, creating a
When water flows down a swallow hole it wave-cut notch.
5. Resurgenc
flows underground along bedding planes
e
and down joints. Caves occur when waves force their way
a closed karst depression, a terrain form into cracks in the cliff face. The water
usually of elongated or compound contains sand and other materials that grind
6. Uvala
structure and of larger size than that of away at the rock until the cracks become a
sinkholes. cave.
It is an elongated basin having a flat floor
7. Polje If the cave is formed in a headland, it may
and steep walls. eventually break through to the other side
A stalactite is a type of formation that 3. Cave,
8. Stalacites forming an arch.
hangs from the ceiling of caves. arch, stack
A stalagmite is a type of rock formation and stump The arch will gradually become bigger until
9. Stalagmite it can no longer support the top of the arch.
that rises from the floor of a cave due to
s When the arch collapses, it leaves the
the accumulation of material deposited on
the floor from ceiling drippings. headland on one side and a stack.
The stack will be attacked at the base in the
same way that a wave-cut notch is formed.
This weakens the structure and it will
eventually collapse to form a stump.
Geous is an inlet, a gully or a narrow and
deep cleft in the face of a cliff.
4. Geous Gloupsa blow hole, where a chimney has
and gloups developed behind the cliff face, often above
a cave, and spray is blasted out during high
seas.
Coastal Features of Deposition:
A beach is a landform alongside a body of
1. Beaches water which consists of loose particles of
rock, sand etc
Coastal Landforms: A spit is an extended stretch of beach
Coastal landforms, any relief features present along the material that projects out to sea and is
coast. joined to the mainland at one end.
2. Bars and
spits When the ridge of shingle beach which is
Coastal features of Erosion: armoured with pebbles is formed across the
Cape is a piece or point of land, extending mouth of a river or the entrance to a bay it
beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake. is called as bar
1. Capes and With the force of on-shore winds, a large
bays Bay is a body of water (especially the sea) 3. Marine
more or less three-quarters surrounded by amount of coastal sand is driven landwards
dunes and
land. forming extensive marine dunes that stretch
dunes belt
into dune belts

coasts continental fold region is submerged but its

terrain basically preserves its
correspondence to the tectonic structures.
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal
4. Estuarine body of brackish water with one or more
coasts rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a
free connection to the open sea.
Coastlines of Emergence:
The uplift of the continental shelf produces
1. Uplifted smooth, gently sloping coastallowland. The
lowland coast offshore waters are shallow with lagoons,
salt-marshes and mud-flats
Faulting and earth movement may thrust
up coastal plateau so that the whole region
2. Emergent
is raised with consequent emergent
upland coast
features. A raised beach is the most
significant example.
Types of Coasts:
Submergent Coasts are those that have
1. Coastlines of been flooded by ocean waters because of a
submergence relative rise in the elevation of sea level at
that location.
Emergent coasts are a result of local
tectonic uplift of the land surface or a fall in
the elevation of sea level because of a
reduction in the water volume of ocean
2. Coastlines basins. Quite often, emergent coasts have
ofemergence rocky coastlines with cliffs and nearly flat
platforms that extend inland where older
coastal plains have been tectonically raised
and are now elevated above the modern
land and water interface.
Coastlines of Submergence:
Ria is a coastal formation that was once a
1. Ria coasts river valley. It is found along an un-glaciated
land.
Fiords are submerged U-shaped glacial
2. Fiord coasts troughs. They mark the paths of glaciers
that plunged down from the highlands.
3. Dalamation It a type of coastline formed when a

Soil  Very cold climates solid mineral fragments are

moved upwards by frost action.
Soil Formation:
4. Transformation: Involves the change of soil
 Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, constituent without any physical displacement.
liquids, and organisms that together support life. Chemical and physical weathering and the
 It is usually formed from weathered rock or regolith decomposition of organic matter are included here.
changed by chemical, physical and biological process. 5. Organisms: Organism, both plant and animal, play an
important role in the development and composition
of soil. Organisms add organic matter, aid
decomposition, weathering and nutrient cycling.
Factors Controlling Soil Formation:

Soils Main Constituents:
 Mineral Material – It includes all minerals inherited
from the parent material as well as those formed by
recombination from substances in the soil solution.
 Organic Matter – It is derived mostly from decaying
plant material broken down and decomposed by the
actions of animals and microorganisms living in the
soil. (Note: The end product of breakdown of dead
organic material is called humus).
 Air and Water: They fill the voids in soil. Hence have
reciprocal relationship since both compete for the 1. Parent Material:
same pore spaces.  In most of the cases, the parent material determines
Soil formation Process: the colouration, mineral composition and texture of
It involves 5 Main Processes: the soil.
1. Additions: Most additions occur at the surface. The 2. Climate:
obvious ones include solar energy, water controlled  Temperature and rainfall are the most important
by climate, and organic material derived principally factors in soil formation. They determine the
from the vegetation. effectiveness of weathering of the parent material.
2. Losses: Losses occur both from the surface and from
3. Topography:
the deep subsoil. Materials suspended or dissolved in
 The relief is the most important factor for soil
water are the main forms of losses from the subsoil
formation.
e.g. leaching.
 Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant and it
3. Translocation: It refers to the physical movement of
hinders soil formation. Example: Chambal ravines,
material within the soil. The material can be in the
higher reaches of Himalayas where there is minimal
solid, liquid or gaseous form
or no forest cover (most on the steep southern
For instance: slopes) etc.
 Clay, organic matter and iron and aluminium  The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally
hydrous oxides are commonly moved from the experience deposition and have deep soils. Example:
surface horizon to a subsurface horizon. Indo-Gangetic plain.
 Very dry climates salts are moved upwards in  The exceptions in the plateau are river basins where
solution by capillarity the soil layers are sufficiently deep.
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Oceanography Ex: Marina trench (challenger deep) is the deepest

trench in the world situated in the North West pacific
ocean near Philippines, is more than 11 km deep.
 Oceans: 70% or 140 million square miles area is
comprised by oceans.
Oceanic Ridges:
 Oceanography: Science of oceans and deep seas.
 Oceanic ridges are formed by the volcanic activity
along the spreading boundary of plates.
Relief of Oceans:
Sea Mounts and Guyots:
 A ridge rising more than 1000 m above the ocean
floor is called sea mount. Flat topped sea mounts are
called Guyots.
Submarine Canyons:
 Submarine canyons are the deep gorges on the ocean
floor and are restricted to the continental shelves,
Continental Shelf: slopes, and rises.
 Seaward extension of continent from shoreline
marked by 100 fathom. Ocean Deposits:
 Muds: Terrigenous deposits from land deposited on
 Shallowness enables sunlight to penetrate through
continental shelf – blue, green or red muddepending
the water and encourage growth of plants –rich in
on chemical content.
plankton and are richest fishing grounds in world –
 Oozes: Pelagic deposits form oceans – shelly and
Grand banks off New found land, North Sea and
skeletal remains of marine micro organisms with
Sunda Shelf. calcium or silica – have fine flour like texture.
 Limited depth and gentle slope keep out cold under  Clays: Mainly as red clay in deeper oceans due to
current and increase height of tides. Greatest accumulation of volcanic dust.
seaports like Southampton, London, Hamburg,
Rotterdam, Hong Kong are on continental shelves. Salinity
 Degree of saltness in water.
Continental Slope:  NaCl or common salt form 77% of dissolved mineral
 At the edge of continental shelf, abrupt gradient matter. Other salts include magnesium, calcium,
change 1 in 20. potassium.
 Due to free movement, salts remain remarkably
Deep Sea Plain (abyssal plain) constant in all oceans and even at great depths– but
 Undulating plain lies 2-3 miles below sea level and degree of concentration varies.
cover 2/3rd of ocean floor. Ithas plateau, ridges,  Average salinity is 35.2 parts per thousand.
trenches and basins in midst of oceans.  Baltic Sea (dilution of fresh water) – salinity is 7 parts
per thousand.
Deeps / Trenches:
 Red Sea – much surface evaporation and fewer rivers
 Trenches are narrow and steep sides depressions
draining into it – salinity is 39 parts per thousand
 Trenches are formed when two plates of the Earth
 Caspian Sea – enclosed sea with salinity at 180
crust are moving together and one is being pushed
 Dead Sea it is around 250.
down below the other.
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 Lake Van (Asia Minor) at 330 highest salinity.

 With high density in Lake Van and Dead Sea it is
impossible to sink (beginner swimmers find it easier
to float).
Salinity is Affected by:

1. Rate of evaporation: water fringing the High pressure Movements of Ocean Currents:
belts of trade wind deserts have High salinity caused  Circulate in regular pattern. Warm current flow from
by high temperature and low humidity. equatorial region to poles. Cold Currents flow from
Polar Regions to equator and have low surface
Temperate oceans have low salinity due to lower temperature.
evaporation & temperature.
2. Fresh water is added by precipitation, streams and Underlying factors
icebergs – salinity is low in equatorial region due to 1. Planetary Winds:
heavy rainfall and high relative humidity.  Trade winds which move equatorial waters poleward
and westwards and warm eastern coast of continents.
Baltic, Arctic and Antarctic waters have low salinity Ex: South Equatorial Current warms eastern coast of
due to colder climate and little evaporation – as water Brazil as warm Brazilian current.
is added by melting of icebergs and rivers.  Westerlies in temperate are less reliable than trade
3. Degree of water mixing by currents: Water does not Winds – result in north-easterly flow of water in north
mix freely with ocean waters in enclosed seas and hemisphere, so Gulf Stream is driven to Western
salinity is high. Europe.
2. Temperature:
 Warm water are lighter and rises while cold water is
denser and sinks.
3. Salinity:
 Water of high salinity are denser than water of low
salinity. Low salinity water flow on surface of waters.
High salinity water flows at the bottom.
Temperature of Oceans: 4. Earth’s Rotation:

 Annual range of temperature is much smaller – less  It deflects freely moving objects including ocean
than 10℉ for open seas.
currents to right. In north hemisphere it is clockwise
 Cold current as Labrador current reduces surface (Gulf Stream and Canaries Current) while in south
water temperature. Warm current like North Atlantic hemisphere it is anti-clockwise (Brazilian current and
Drift raises the temperature making Norwegian coast West Wind drift).
ice free year round.
 Highest water temperature are seen in tropics – Red 5. Land:
Sea with 85℉ to 100℉.  Landmass obstructs and diverts a current.
 Temperature varies vertically with increasing depth Ex: tip of south Chile diverts West wind Drift
80% ocean waters have temperature 35℉ to 40℉. northward as Peruvian current.

Major Ocean Currents of the World: North

North The North Pacific Current is a
pacific
Pacific Drift slow warm water current
ocean
Cold Currents:
Name Ocean Description
Southward flowing current
California North Pacific
off the west coast of the
Current Ocean
United States in the Pacific
Ocean
The Canary Current is a
Canaries North
wind-driven surface current
Current Atlantic
that is part of the North
ocean
Warm Currents: Atlantic Gyre.
Name Ocean Description The Humboldt Current, also
The Agulhas Current is the Humboldt called the Peru Current,
Agulhas South pacific
western boundary current of the (Peru) Current flows north along the
Current Indian ocean
southwest Indian Ocean. It flows western coast of South
down the east coast of Africa. America
Alaska North Southwestern warm water Labrador North Flowing from the Arctic
Current Atlantic Ocean south along the east
Current pacific current off the coast of Alaska
ocean coast of Canada
ocean and west coast of Canada.
Oyashio or the Kurile current,
Brazil South Flows south along the Brazilian
Oyashio is a cold subarctic ocean
Current Atlantic south coast to the mouth of the North Pacific
(Kamchatka) current that flows south in
ocean Río de la Plata. ocean
Current the western North Pacific
The East Australian Current Ocean.
(EAC) is the southward western West It is a cool surface current of
East
South boundary current that is formed Australian Indian ocean the Southern Ocean and
Australian
pacific from the South Equatorial Current Southern Indian Ocean.
Current
ocean Current (SEC) crossing the Coral West Wind Surface oceanic current
Sea and reaching the eastern South pacific
Drift encircling Antarctica and
ocean
coast of Australia. flowing from west to east.
Equatorial current, ocean
Equatorial
Pacific current flowing westward near Ocean Resources:
Current
ocean the equator, predominantly  Salt
controlled by the winds. Salt is chemically known as sodium chloride. It is one of
North Warm ocean current originating
Gulf Stream the most abundant minerals found in the ocean water.
Atlantic in Gulf of Mexico along the east
Salt can be either directly extracted or could be mines,
ocean coast of the United States
depending upon different regions.
Kuroshio North North-flowing warm current off
Current pacific the coast of Japan in the Pacific
ocean Ocean  Potassium:
The North Atlantic Current Potassium is also one of the most abundant minerals like
North salt. Although Potassium cannot be directly extracted as
North (NAC) warm western boundary
Atlantic
Atlantic current within the Atlantic salt.
Drift
ocean Ocean that extends the Gulf
Stream north-eastward.

 Sand: Tides helps in navigation, desilting, fishing, generation of

The sea beaches can be understood as the residual electrical power.
deposits of sand.
Waves:
 Manganese Nodules:  Waves are oscillatory movements that result in the
These nodules contain enormous amount of metal rise and fall of water surface. They are actually the
wealth. They can be looked upon as a huge potential to energy, not the water as such, which moves across
be used by human beings as a resource as and when the ocean surface.
technology is developed for harnessing these valuable
metals.
 Gold and Diamonds:

 Limestone and Gypsum
 Oil and Gas
Tides
Note: waves and ocean currents are horizontal movement

of ocean water, tides are vertical movement of ocean
water.
 Tides are periodical rise and fall of sea levels caused

by the combined effects of the gravitational forces
exerted by the Moon and the Sun, and the rotation of
the Earth.
 Surges are movement of water caused by
meteorological effects.
 A spring tide when sun, moon and earth are in
straight line occurs on full moon day and new moon
day. Highest height tide.
 Neap tide refers to a period of moderate tides when
the sun and moon are at right angles to each other.

wavy pattern
Climatology Cumulonimbus
They have great
Weather: pertains to condition of atmosphere in any Alto-
vertical extent,
Cirro- stratus Nimbo-
place or any time. white or black
Cumulus composed stratus Dark
globular masses,
Composed of water grey and
Climate: Average weather conditions of a specified area whose rounded
of ice droplets, rainy looking,
for a considerable time. tops often
crystals, forming dense and
spread out in
Elements of Weather and Climate: but sheets of shapeless,
the form of
 Rainfall: Form of precipitation(snow, sleet and hail) globular or grey or often gives
anvil. It is
rippled in watery continues
measured by rain gauge. characterized by
appearance looking rains
conventional
 Humidity:Dampness of the atmosphere. Measured clouds
rain, lighting
using hygrometer. and thunder
 Absolute humidity:Amount of water vapour present Cirro- Stratus
in air. Stratus These are
Looks like a low, grey and
 Relative humidity: the ratio between actual amount
thin white, layered,
of water vapour and total amount the air can hold at almost almost fog
that temperature. transparent like
When relative humidity is 100% then air is said to be sheet, appearance
which ,bringing dull
saturated and air temperature is at dew point. causes the weather and
 Wind: Air in motion with direction and speed. Sun and often
 Wind direction is measured by wind vane or weather. Moon to accompanied
have halos by drizzle
 Winds are named from direction where they blow as
east wind blows from east to west.
 Anemometer is used to measure speed of wind .
 Clouds: After dew point cooling leads to condensation
of water vapour in atmosphere – tiny drops will
suspend as clouds – form, shape, height and
movement tell us about the sky conditions.
 Cloud cover is expressed in eights or oktas.
Classification of Clouds:
Middle Clouds with

High clouds Low clouds
clouds great Vertical
6000- Below 2100
2100- Extent
1200m m
6000m 1500-9000m
Strato-
Cumulus
CIRRUS Cumulus Round Other Elements Pertaining to Visibility:
Alto- Large
Composed topped and flat
cumulus globular  Haze: visibility is less than 1.25 miles, due to smoke
of small ice based forming a
Composed masses, and dust in industrial area which causes unequal
crystal, whitish grey
of water bumpy,
white, globular mass, refraction of light.
droplets in looking, soft
wispy and consists of  Mist: visibility greater than 1km less than 2km.
layers and and grey in
fibrous in individual cloud
patches appearance Condensation of water vapour in air, forms drops of
appearance units
regular and water to float above clouds at ground level.
sometimes
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 Fog: visibility less than 1 km. Water condensing on Structure of the Atmosphere:
dust and other particles forming dense cloud near the
ground surface.
Fogs are more common over sea than land and most
prevalent over coastal areas. Dense fogs are more in
high and mid latitude rather than tropics.
Dry interiors witness mist or haze.
 Smog: Fog and smoke together is called as smog.
 Frost: Forms on cold surfaces when condensation
takes place below freezing point (0° C).
Atmosphere:
 Atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and
dust particles.
 Gases: carbon dioxide is transparent to incoming solar
radiation and opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation.
It absorbs part of terrestrial radiation and reflects
back the rest. Nitrogen is present highest by volume.
Troposphere:
 Lower most layer of the atmosphere, with average
height of 13km.
 Its thickness is greater at the equator (18km), because
the heated air rises to greater heights by strong
convectional currents. Whereas at the poles it is at
8km.
 It is associated with climatic and weather
phenomena.
Water Vapour:  The troposphere ends with the Tropopause.
 Decreases with altitude. In warm and wet tropics it
account for 4 %, in dry and cold areas less than 1%. Stratosphere:
 It decreases from equator to poles.  Found above troposphere, it is cloudless, thin air,
 It acts as a blanket for earth by absorbing some without dust and vapour.
incoming radiation and preserves earth radiated heat.  The temperature in this layer remains constant for
 It contributes to stability and instability of air. some distance but then rises, due to the presence of
Dust Particles: ozone (harmful ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by
 It includes sea salts, fine soil, ash, pollen, smoke soot ozone).
etc.  This layer is almost free from clouds and associated
 Higher concentration of dust particles are found in weather phenomenon, making conditions most ideal
subtropical and temperate regions. for flying aeroplanes. So aeroplanes fly in lower
 These act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water stratosphere, sometimes in upper troposphere where
vapour condenses to from clouds. weather is calm.

Mesosphere: (ii) Angle of inclination of the sun’s rays-The higher the

 This is an intermediate layer beyond the ozone layer latitude, the less is the angle they make with the
and continues up to an altitude of 80 km from the surface of the earth resulting in slant sun rays. The
earth’s surface. area covered by the vertical rays is always less than
 The temperature gradually falls to -100°C at 80 km the slant rays.
altitude. (iii) Duration of the day-The longer the duration of the
 Upper layer of Mesosphere is Meso pause. day, the greater is the amount of insolation received.
Conversely shorter the duration of the day leads to
Thermosphere receipt of less insolation.
 In thermosphere temperature rises very rapidly with (iv) Transparency of the atmosphere -The transparency
increasing height. of the atmosphere depends upon the cloud cover and
 Ionosphere- It contains electrically charged particles its thickness, dust particles, water vapour, etc. They
called as ions, which make short wave radio reflect, absorb or transmit insolation.
transmission possible over long distances. It extends  Thick cloud hinders the solar radiation to reach the
between 80-400 km. earth’s surface. Similarly, water vapour absorbs solar
 Meteors burn in this region, thereby increasing the radiation resulting in less amount of insolation
temperature. reaching the surface.
 When the solar radiation passes through the
Exosphere atmosphere, water vapour, ozone and other gases
 This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere absorb much of the near infrared radiation (mainly in
extending beyond the ionosphere above a height of the troposphere).
about 400 km.  Very small suspended particles in the troposphere
 The air is extremely rarefied and the temperature scatter visible spectrum both to space and towards
gradually increases through the layer. the earth’s surface. This process adds colour to the
 Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the sky. The red colour of the rising and the setting sun
space from here. This layer coincides with space. and the blue colour of the sky are the results of
scattering of the light within the atmosphere.
Insolation
 Insolation is the incoming solar radiation(short (v) Configuration of land in terms of its aspects- sun
wavelength- visible and UV radiations). facing slopes receive more vertical rays of sun, other
 The earth absorbs short wave radiation during side receives less insolation.
daytime and reflects back the heat received into
space as long-wave radiation (mostly infrared Note: Insolation received at the surface- Tropics>
radiation) during night. equator, continents > oceans, desert > other areas.
 Aphelion: on 4th July earth is farthest from sun.
Heating and cooling of Atmosphere:
 Perihelion: On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to
the sun. Three different ways,
1. Conduction: when two bodies of unequal
Variability of Insolation at the Surface of the Earth temperature are in contact with one another, there is
 The factors that cause these variations in insolation flow of energy from warm body to cooler body.
are:
Earth after being heated by insolation transmits heat
(i) Rotation of earth on its axis-earth makes an angle of
to the lower layers of atmosphere in long wave form.
66.5 degree with the plane of it orbit around the sun.

2. Convection: Vertical heating of the atmosphere. Air  Highest albedo- snow > clouds> sand> grass>
in contact with the earth rises vertically on heating, in crops>forest.
the form of currents and further transmits heat to the
Elements of Climate and Factors Affecting Them
atmosphere.
The temperature of air at any place is influenced by
3. Advection: transfer of heat through horizontal
1. Latitude: The temperature of a place depends on the
movement of the air.
insolation received. Where ever there is vertical rays
4. Terrestrial radiation: Earth heats up with incoming of sun, intense heating happens. Slant rays causes less
short waves solar radiation, and becomes a radiating heating and temperature also less.
body. It radiates energy to the atmosphere in the long
2. Altitude: The atmosphere is indirectly heated by
wave form. terrestrial radiation from below through conduction.
Heat Budget of the Earth: The temperature generally decreases with increasing
height. The rate of decrease of temperature with
 The earth as a whole does not accumulate or lose height is termed as the Normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C
heat. It maintains its temperature. This can happen per 1,000 m.
only if, insolation=terrestrial radiation. Balance
between the two is called heat budget. 3. Continentality: Land is heated more quickly than
 This is why the earth neither warms up nor cools water, because of higher specific heat of water. There
down despite the huge transfer of heat that takes by causing warm summers, cool winters and great
place. temperature range for continental interiors.
4. Ocean Currents and Air Mass: Like the land and sea
breezes, the passage of air masses also affects the
temperature. The places, which come under the
influence of warm air-masses experience higher
temperature and the places that come under the
influence of cold air masses experience low
temperature.
Similarly, the places located on the coast where the

warm ocean currents flow record higher temperature
than the places located on the coast where the cold
currents flow.
5. Slope, Shelter and Aspect: Steep slope experiences a

rapid change in temperature. Mountain ranges having
Albedo: East west alignment have higher temperature on
 Reflected amount of radiation from the earth surface. south facing sunny slope (good for vine cultivation)
 The value of albedo will be different for different than the north facing sheltered slope.
surfaces.  Hot day followed by calm night ,air cools more rapidly
 Because of the effect of albedo, highly developed over higher grounds and may induce cold heavy air to
areas such as urban cities can experience higher flow down the slope and accumulate in valley bottom
average temperatures than the surrounding suburban pushing warm air upwards(temperature would be
or rural areas, a phenomenon known as the “Urban lower in valley than above this reversal of lapse rate is
Heat Island Effect”. called as Temperature Inversion).

6. Distance from the Sea: Compared to land, the sea valley bottoms with warm air above. This is called air
gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly. Land heats drainage. It protects plants from frost damages.
up and cools down quickly. Therefore, the variation in
Precipitation:
temperature over the sea is less compared to land.
 The process of continuous condensation in free air
The places situated near the sea come under the
helps the condensed particles to grow in size. When
moderating influence of the sea and land breezes
the resistance of the air fails to hold them against the
which moderate the temperature.
force of gravity, they fall on to the earth’s surface. So
7. Natural Vegetation and Soil –Thick foliage of Amazon after the condensation of water vapour, the release of
cuts incoming insolation and sunlight does not reach moisture is known as precipitation.
ground.  In simple terms we can summarise precipitation as
 In day trees loose water by evapo-transpiration so the following
the air above is cooled.  Rainfall: drop size more than 0.5 mm.
 Light soil reflects more heat than darker soil which is  Virga: raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth.
better absorbers.  Drizzle: light rainfall; drop size less than 0.5 mm.
 Dry soil like sand are more sensitive to temperature  Mist: evaporation occurs before reaching the ground
changes while wet soil retain moisture and warm up leading to foggy weather.
and cool down more slowly.  Snowfall: fine flakes of snow fall when the
Inversion of Temperature: temperature is less than 0°C.
Normally, temperature decreases with increase in  Sleet: frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow;
elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At times, the mixture of snow and rain or merely partially melted
situations is reversed and the normal lapse rate is snow.
inverted. It is called Inversion of temperature.  Hail: precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets
is known as hail; 5 mm and 50 mm.
A long winter night with clear skies and still air is ideal
situation for inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off Types of Rainfall:
during the night, and by early morning hours, the earth is On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three
cooler than the air above. Over polar areas, temperature main types,
inversion is normal throughout the year. 1. Convectional rainfall: The, air on being heated,
becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As
Surface inversion promotes stability in the lower layers of
it rises, it expands and loses heat and consequently,
the atmosphere. Smoke and dust particles get collected
condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are
beneath the inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill
formed. With thunder and lightning, heavy rainfall
the lower strata of the atmosphere. Dense fogs in
takes place.
mornings are common occurrences especially during
 Common in summer/ hot days/ equatorial regions/
winter season. This inversion commonly lasts for few
earth’s interiors.
hours until the sun comes up and begins to warm the
earth. 2. Orographic rainfall or relief rain: When the saturated
air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to
The inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to air
ascend and as it rises, it expands; the temperature
drainage. Cold air at the hills and mountains, produced
falls, and the moisture is condensed.
during night, flows under the influence of gravity. Being
heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like water and After giving rain on the windward side, when these
moves down the slope to pile up deeply in pockets and winds reach the other slope, they descend, and their
temperature rises, leeward slopes remain rainless and
dry. Leeward side also called as rain shadow region.

3. Cyclonic or Frontal Rain: purely associated with Atmospheric circulation and weather systems
cyclonic activity. Tropicl regions with cyclones and  Air expands when heated and gets compressed when
temperate regions with depressions. When two air cooled.
masses with different temperatures meet, turbulent  The pressure decreases with height.
conditions are produced. Along the front convection
Factors affecting wind velocity and direction
occurs and causes precipitation. This is called Frontal
 Air in motion is called as wind. As wind blows from
rainfall.
high pressure to low pressure it experiences
Polar Vortex: combined effect of 3 forces, in addition to
 The Earth's atmosphere has two polar vortices which gravitational forces.
are overlying the North and South Poles. Each polar
vortex is a persistent, large-scale, low-pressure zone, 1. Pressure gradient force: Rate of change of pressure
that rotates counter-clockwise at the North Pole with respect to distance is PGF. Higher the PGF, more
(called a cyclone) and clockwise at the South Pole, is the velocity of the wind and larger is deflection in
i.e., both polar vortices rotate eastward around the direction of the wind.
poles. 2. Frictional forces: Wind at the surface experiences
 These cold blasts of arctic air are bottled up by the friction. It affects the speed of the wind.
strong jet stream or polar jet stream which is 3. Coriolis force: Rotation of earth about its axis affects
circulated at the high latitudes. wind direction. It deflects the wind to right in
northern hemisphere and left in southern
 Even though research claims that there is no direct
hemisphere.
relation between the Polar Vortex and Indian weather
but the Arctic winds influence atmospheric  Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of
circulations, weather systems, including the western latitude. It is maximum at the poles and absent at the
disturbance. equator.
 Since coriolis force is zero winds blows perpendicular
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes:
to the isobars. Low pressure gets filled instead of
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes are severe local storms.
getting intensified because of which tropical cyclones
They are of short duration, occurring over a small area but
does not originate near equator.
are violent.
Note: over low pressure area air will converge and rise
Thunderstorms:
and at the high pressure area air will subside from above
Thunderstorms mostly occur on ground where the
and diverge at the surface.
temperature is high with thunder and lightning.
Thunderstorms are less frequent on water bodies due to General circulation of the atmosphere:
low temperature.
Tornadoes:
From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind
descends like a trunk of an elephant with great force, with
very low pressure at the centre, causing massive
destruction on its way. Such a phenomenon is called a
tornado.
Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes. The

tornado over the sea is called water sprouts.

 The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)  Width may vary between 5°N and 5°S and 20°N and
rises because of convection caused by high insolation 20°S.
and a low pressure. The winds from the tropics  This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of
converge at this low pressure zone. trade winds from two hemispheres from sub-tropical
 The converged air rises along with the convective cell. high pressure belts.
It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude  This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of the
of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This causes extremely calm air movements.
accumulation of air at about 30° N and S. Part of the  The position of the belt varies with the apparent
accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a movement of the Sun.
subtropical high.  Formation: As this region lies along the equator, it
 Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it receives highest amount of insolation. Due to intense
reaches 30° N and S latitudes. Down below near the heating, air gets warmed up and rises over the
land surface the air flows towards the equator as the equatorial region (convection).Whenever there is
easterlies. The easterlies from either side of the vertically upward movement of air, the region at the
equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence surface will be at low pressure. Thus the belt along
Zone (ITCZ). the equator is called equatorial low pressure belt.
 Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-  Climate: This belt is characterized by extremely low
versa are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called pressure with calm conditions. Vertical winds
Hadley Cell. (convection) carrying moisture form cumulonimbus
 In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of clouds and lead to thunderstorms (convectional
sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rainfall).
rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high.
Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes
At the surface these winds are called westerlies and
 The corresponding latitudes of sub-tropical high
the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
pressure belt are called horse latitudes.
 At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the
 After saturation (complete loss of moisture) at the
poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the polar
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the air
easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
moving away from equatorial low pressure belt in the
 These three cells set the pattern for the general
upper troposphere becomes dry and cold. This dry
circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat
and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S.
energy form lower latitudes to higher latitudes
 So the high pressure along this belt is due to
maintains the general circulation.
subsidence of air coming from the equatorial region
Pressure Belts which descends after becoming heavy. The high
There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous pressure is also due to the blocking effect of air at
horizontal pressure regimes or ‘pressure belts’. On the upper levels because of the Coriolis force.
earth’s surface, the following are the various pressure
The subsiding air is warm and dry; therefore, most of the
belts
deserts are present along this belt, in both hemispheres.
1. Equatorial low.
This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and extra-
2. The sub-tropical highs.
tropical disturbances.
3. The sub-polar lows.
4. The polar highs. Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’  Located between 45°N and S latitudes and the Arctic
 Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes. and the Antarctic circles (66.5° N and S latitudes)

 These are dynamically produced due to Hemisphere blow from the north-east
1. Coriolis Force produced by rotation of the earth on its direction due to the deflection of the wind
caused by the rotation of the Earth and so are
axis, called North-East Trades.
2. Ascent of air as a result of convergence of Westerlies  Similarly, the trade winds in the Southern-
and polar easterlies. Hemisphere blow from the South-East
direction and thus called south-East Trades.
 Due to a great contrast between the temperatures of
 They are also known as Tropical easterlies.
the winds from sub-tropical and polar source regions,
 The Westerlies blow from sub tropical high
extra tropical cyclonic storms or lows’ (temperate
pressure belts towards sub-polar low pressure
cyclones or frontal cyclones) are produced in this belts.
region  The Westerlies of Southern Hemisphere
blow with great strength and constant in
Polar High Pressure Belt: direction than Northern Hemisphere.
 The polar highs are small in area and extend around Westerlies  Under the Coriolis force effect, the
Westerlies become the South-Westerlies in
the poles. They lie around poles between 80 – 90° N
the northern hemisphere and the North-
and S latitudes. Westerlies in the southern hemisphere.
 The air from sub-polar low pressure belts after  Westerlies winds are named as roaring
saturation becomes dry. This dry air becomes cold forties, furious fifties, screaming sixties based
on the speed of the wind.
while moving towards poles through upper
troposphere.  The Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing
 The lowest temperatures are found over the poles. winds that blow from the Polar high pressure
belts to the Temperature low pressure belts.
Planetary Winds:  They are extremely cold winds as they
The winds blowing throughout the year from high Polar blow from the Tundra and Icecap regions. The
easterlies Polar Easterlies are more regular in the
pressure belts to low pressure belts in the same direction
southern hemisphere than in the northern
are called “planetary or prevailing winds”. hemisphere.
Due to the effect of the rotation of the earth, the  Unlike the Westerlies, the polar easterlies
are often weak and irregular.
direction of the winds tends to deflect, instead of blowing
directly from one pressure belt to another. These winds Local Winds:
blow throughout the year and are controlled by the  Local winds occur on a small spatial scale.The main
latitudinal pressure belts. They blow over vast area of types of local winds are: Sea breezes and land
continents and oceans. breezes, Anabatic and katabatic winds, and other
The main planetary winds are: local winds.
1. Trade winds
2. Westerlies Due to differential heating of land surface, we have sea
3. Polar Easterlies and land breeze,
 Sea Breeze: Day time – land gets heated - warm air

Planetary
Features rises up – Low pressure develops – sea being less
wind
 Trade winds blow in a belt lying between warm, develops high pressure there by winds blow
5°N-30°N in the northern hemisphere and 5°S- from sea to land causing sea breeze
30°S in the southern hemisphere.  Land Breeze: Night – land cools faster than sea, high
Trade
 There is low pressure on the equator, while
winds pressure over land, low pressure over ocean – winds
high pressure at the sub tropics. So, air moves
from tropics toward equator. blow from land towards sea.
 The trade winds in the Northern-

 Katabatic Wind: It is the generic term for down slope  Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are
winds flowing from high elevations of mountains, cold.
plateaus, and hills down their slopes to the valleys or
planes below. It is adiabatically warmed. Air Masses and Source Region:
There are five major source regions. These are:
 Anabatic Wind: Air flow travelling up a facing slope of
1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;
an orographic surface.
2. The subtropical hot deserts;
Wind Nature Region 3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
Land Breeze Warm Blows From Land to Sea 4. The very cold snow covered continents in high
Rockies (USA And latitudes;
Chinook Warm
Canada)
5. Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and
Fohn Warm Alps/Europe
Antarctica.
Khamsin Hot Egypt
Sahara to Guinea Coast Influence of Air mass and World Weather:
Harmattan Hot
(Ghana, Nigeria etc.)  The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from
Brick Felder Hot Australia oceans to continents and cause precipitation over
Norwester Hot New Zealand landmasses
Black Roller Hot North America  They transport latent heat, thus removing the
Kalbaisakhi Hot North India latitudinal heat balance.
Sirocco Hot North Africa  Most of the migratory atmospheric disturbances such
France to Mediterranean as cyclones and storms originate at the contact zone
Mistral Cold
(Rhine valley)
between different air masses and the weather
Levanter Cold Spain associated with these disturbances is determined by
Blizzard Cold Siberia, Canada, USA characteristics of the air masses involved.
Bora Cold Yugoslavia
Southerly Buster Cold Australia Jet Stream:
Sea Breeze Cold Blows from to land  Jet streams are relatively narrow bands of strong
wind in the upper levels of the atmosphere. The
Air Masses: winds blow from west to east in jet streams but the
 When the air remains over a homogenous area for a flow often shifts to the north and south. Jet streams
sufficiently longer time, it acquires the characteristics follow the boundaries between hot and cold air.
of the area.  Since these hot and cold air boundaries are most
 The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of pronounced in winter, jet streams are the strongest
temperature and humidity is called an air mass. It is a for both the northern and southern hemisphere
large body of air having little horizontal variation in winters.
temperature and moisture.  The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, weaker is
 The main source regions are the high pressure belts subtropical jets.
in the sub tropics (giving rise to tropical air masses) Jet Streams and its Influence on Indian Monsoons:
and around the poles (the source for polar air 2. Somali Jet:
masses).  The progress of the southwest monsoon towards
 Areas with high pressure but little pressure India is greatly aided by the onset of Somali jet that
difference or pressure gradient are ideal source transits Kenya, Somalia and Sahel.
regions for development of Air masses

 It strengthens permanent high near Madagascar and Conditions ideal for the formation of cyclones:
also helps to drive S-W monsoons towards India at a  Sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures higher
greater pace and intensity. than 27 degree.
 The peculiar feature of Somali Current is reversal in  Atmospheric instability.
direction with the onset of the summer monsoon.  High humidity in the lower to middle levels of the
3. Tropical easterly jet stream
troposphere.
 There are major high velocity winds in the lower
 Enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure
troposphere called low-level jets (LLJs).
centre.
 In the tropics, the most prominent of these are the
 A pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance.
Somali Jet and the African Easterly Jet [Tropical
Easterly Jet].  Low vertical wind shear.
 The formation of TEJ results in the reversal of upper  Upper divergence above the sea level system.
air circulation patterns [High pressure switches to
low pressure] and leads to the quick onset of Anticyclones:
monsoons.  An anti-cyclone, as a high pressure area is a large
 The easterly jet does not come into existence if the atmospheric circulation system with the wind flowing
snow over the Tibet Plateau does not melt. This clockwise around it in the Northern Hemisphere, and
hampers the occurrence of rainfall in India. counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Anticyclones form from air masses cooler than their
Cyclone: surrounding, leads to contraction of air making it
Features of a Cyclone:
denser, thereby increasing surface air pressure.
 It is large system of winds that circulates about a
 Calm settled weather is usually synonymous with
centre of low atmospheric pressure in a counter-
anticyclones in temperate latitudes. Anticyclones are
clockwise direction north of the Equator and in a
clockwise direction to the south. typically relatively slow moving features.
 Cyclonic winds move across nearly all regions of the
Earth except the equatorial belt. Cyclones Region
 Anticyclones, wind systems that rotate about a high-
Typhoons China Sea
pressure centre. Anticyclones are so called because
they have a flow opposite to that of cyclones—i.e., an Tropical Cyclones Indian Ocean
outward-spiralling motion, with the winds rotating Hurricanes Caribbean Sea
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter-
clockwise in the Southern. Tornadoes USA
Willy Willes Northern Australia

Energy source of Cyclones:
 The fuel for a tropical cyclone is provided by a El Nino Southern-Oscillation (ENSO):
transfer of water vapour and heat from the warm El Nino and La Nina are opposite phases of what is known
ocean to the overlying air, primarily by evaporation
as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. The
from the sea surface.
ENSO cycle is a scientific term that describes the
 The temperature difference between the warm rising
fluctuations in temperature between the ocean and
air and the cooler environment causes the rising air to
atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific.
become buoyant, further enhancing its upward
movement.

 It refers to a periodic warming in sea surface Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

temperatures across the central and east-  The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), also known as the
central Equatorial Pacific, with increase in
Indian Nino, is an irregular oscillation of sea-surface
temperature of more than 0.5°Cfor at least
five successive overlapping three-month
temperatures in which the western Indian Ocean
seasons. becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the
 El Nino events occur irregularly at two- to eastern part of the ocean.
seven-year intervals.  The IOD involves an a periodic oscillation of sea-
 The warm ocean conditions in the equatorial
El Nino surface temperatures (SST), between "positive",
Pacific induce large-scale anomalies in the
"neutral" and "negative" phases.
atmosphere. Rainfall increases many fold in
Ecuador and northern Peru, causing coastal  A positive phase sees greater-than-average sea-
flooding and erosion. surface temperatures and greater precipitation in the
 Strong El Nino events are associated with western Indian Ocean region, with a corresponding
droughts in Indonesia, Australia, and north-
cooling of waters in the eastern Indian Ocean, which
eastern South America and with altered
tends to cause droughts in adjacent land areas of
patterns of tropical storms in the tropical
belt. Indonesia and Australia.
 It is a cyclic counterpart to El Nino, consisting  The negative phase of the IOD brings about the
of a cooling of surface waters of the Pacific opposite conditions, with warmer water and greater
Ocean along the western coast of South precipitation in the eastern Indian Ocean, and cooler
America.
and drier conditions in the west.
 La Nina has less effect in Europe but it does
tend to lead to milder winters in Northern  The IOD also affects the strength of monsoons over
La Nina Europeand colder winters in the Indian subcontinent.
southern/western Europe, leading to snow in  The IOD is one aspect of the general cycle of global
the Mediterranean region. Elsewhere in the climate, interacting with similar phenomena like the
world, areas that are affected by La Nina
El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific
experience the opposite of the effects they
experience with El Nino. Ocean.
 It does not occur as often as El Nino.
Madden-Julian Oscillation:
 The Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is the largest
element of the intra-seasonal (30- to 90-day)
variability in the tropical atmosphere.
 Unlike a standing pattern like the El Nino–Southern
Oscillation (ENSO), the Madden–Julian oscillation is a
travelling pattern that propagates eastward, through
the atmosphere above the warm parts of the Indian
and Pacific oceans. This overall circulation pattern
manifests itself most clearly as anomalous rainfall.
 Heavy tropical rainfall associated with the MJO shifts
eastward from the eastern Indian Ocean to the
western tropical Pacific.

and less luxuriant than equatorial forest.

World Climate •Summer – thorny scrub or savanna –
scattered tree & tall grass.
World Climatic Regions: •Timber: durable hardwood – teak – Burma
Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate: between 5-10 degree (3/4th of world production).
North and South of Equatorial Regions: •Monsoon: India, Burma, Vietnam,
Factors Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, South China,
Life &
Rainfall Vegetation Affecting North Australia.
Development Locations
Development
•Maritime: C. America, West Indies, NE
Variety: •Climate: high
Australia, Philippines, E. Africa,
Evergreen heat &
hardwoods like humidity; sun- Madagascar, Guinea & East Brazil.
mahogany, stroke;
ebony; small •Amazon: perspire and Savanna or Sudan Climate:
•Convectional palm trees; Indian Tribes lose energy; 1.Transitional type of climate found between
Rainfall – climbing lianas – gather wild malaria & Equatorial forest and Hot deserts
mostly in epiphytic or rubber. yellow fever. 2. Distinct Dry and wet season Transition, hot
Afternoon parasitic; ferns, •Congo: •Bacteria & rainy and cold dry. Extreme diurnal temperature.
Characteristics
(one orchids and Pygmies insect pests: Experiencing local hot wind- Harmattan.
afternoon is Lalangs. gather nuts injurious to 3. Trade winds bring rain to coastal area – strong
equal to •Distinct Layer: •Malaysia: crops, in summer and dry in continental interior
entire year thick canopy, Orang Asli diseases; (scattered tree and short grass).
rainfall in struggle for (Orang Asli plague. •Tall grass – 6 to 12 ft. – elephant grass – long
desert) sunlight. are the •Jungle roots, Short trees, Parkland or bushveld.
Vegetation
Orographic or •Multiple indigenous hinders •Deciduous – acacia, Rain decreases – thorny
relief rainfall. Species: No people and development: scrub (Australia)-mallee, mulga, spinifex.
•Cyclonic pure strand; the oldest Lalang (tall Tribes – Masai – E. Africa, Nomadic – Kenya,
rainfall – commercial inhabitants grass) & thick Tanzania & Uganda
convergence exploitation is of Peninsular undergrowth •Kikiyu of Kenya – millet, banana, Hausa – N.
Human Life
of air in hard; hardwood Malaysia) – choke crops Nigeria, Settled cultivators in Bauchi plateau.
Doldrums. don’t float on cane •Deterioration • Groundnut, banana, cotton, tobacco – leave it
water and products. of tropical fallow Rotate crop in different fields.
haulage soil.
expensive (so •Difficult Hot Desert & Mid-latitude Desert:
tropical nations lumbering &  Temperate desert, Scanty Rainfall, Hot
are timber livestock Climate.
Characteristics
importers). farming.  Cause of aridity- Offshore trade winds (trade
wind desert) and located in interior region.
•Scrub and herbs, Dormant vegetation,
Tropical Monsoon & Tropical Marine Climate: Xerophytic or drought –resistant scrub cactus,
•Seasonal Winds • Distinctive seasons thorns, trees are rare and date palms.
Characteristics
1. On shore wet monsoon – summer •Leaves are waxy and leathery, needle shaped –
Vegetation
2. Off shore dry monsoon –winter reduce transpiration.
Climate – Tropical Monsoon. Landmass is •Cactus – thick succulent stems.
heated in summer in Northern Hemisphere, •Seeds have thick and tough skin.
•Salinity of soil – salt accumulates – hard pans.
Low pressure develops in Indian mainland
•Deficient in humus.
& High Pressure in Australia. Leading to
•Gold – Great Australian Desert• Diamond and
Seasonal reversal of winds. copper – Kalahari Desert.
Seasons – 1.Tropical Monsoon •Cool Dry •Caliche (sodium nitrate) – Atacama •Copper –
Climate (Oct to Feb), Hot Dry (March to June), Rainy Mines
Chuquicamata, Antofagasta, Iquique, Nevada
(June to Sept),2. Retreating Monsoon – •Silver –Mexico •Uranium – Utah •Oil- Sahara &
after mid Sept (North East monsoon). Arab desert.
Climate – Tropical Marine Bedouin of Arab: - Best nomadic herdsman,
•On east coast of tropical lands, Receive Trade- Caravan merchants, Oases people-
rain from trade winds all time .Favourable Wander for water and pastures.
Life of Human Bushmen of Kalahari (Nomadic Hunters and Food
for habitation. Has severe tropical cyclones.
Gatherers): skill to obtain water in desert – store
Vegetation •Deciduous – dry period and shed leaves. in ostrich shell suck water from ground by hollow
•In regions of heavy rainfall – forest – open reed travel in family groups (sherms)
www.laex.in World Climatology www.civilsprep.com

Bindibu of Australia (Nomadic Hunters and Food Warm Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate:
Gatherers): Wooden stick – boomerangs, Women Border desert and lie in interior of continents:
gather grass and roots, Lives in groups, Close to Temperate Grasslands Lie on Westerly belt
water supply, Houses called wurlies. •Away from maritime influence and are
Sahara Desert -largest desert > Great Australian Characteristics treeless
Desert. •South Hemisphere: Moderate climate •North
Locations Atacama/Peruvian Desert – Driest desert hemisphere: extensive and continental
Patagonian Desert – rain shadow position on Steppes: Black Sea to Altai
leeward side of Andes. •Prairies: Rockies and Great Lakes
•Pampas: Argentina & Uruguay
Warm Temperate Western Mediterranean Climate: Locations •S. Africa: b/w Drakensburg & Kalahari
Region: Western area between30 degrees to 45 (Bushveld in north & Highveld in south)
degrees N and S. •Downs: Australia (Murray Darling Basin)
•Shifting of wind belts. •Continental, Temperature extremes-
•Winter rain with on shore westerlies (cyclonic, Summers are warm, Winters are cold, snow
Characteristics orographic rainfall),Dry Warm Summer with covered. Rainfall due to Convection and
offshore trades (no rain, dry air, intense heat, low westerlies depression
relative humidity). Climate •Mildura: fringe of Mallee scrub of Great
•Climate is transition between Trade wind hot Australian Desert
desert (S) and Cool temperate maritime (N) •local Winds: Chinook (USA)hot wind, melt
Hot Winds: snow covered areas around rockies
•Sirocco- Hot, dry dusty wind – from Sahara – •Fohn (Switzerland)
most frequent in spring – accompanied by
depressions. Natural •Scanty vegetation
•Chili – Tunisia •Ghibli – Libya •Leveche – Spain Vegetation •Grass covered with differences in density and
•Khamsin – Egypt & Malta quality of grass Treeless with short grasses
•Gharbi – Adriatic & Aegean Sea – cause fog &
•Prairies- most sparsely populated area of
rain – blood rain (red dust).
Local Winds world, extensive mechanized wheat cultivation
Cold Winds: and granaries of world (wheat and maize)
•Mistral – Cold wind from north – down to Rhone •Pampas: leading ranching region of world
valley (40-80 miles/hr) – funnelling effect (b/w Extensive wheat cultivation: •Cool moist
Alps & Central Massif) spring – early growth and light showers for
•Bora – cold north-easterly wind along Adriatic ripening yield •Warm& sunny summer:
coast – difference in pressure b/w continental harvesting and straw to be dried •Levelness–
Europe and Mediterranean – occur in winter. ploughing and harvesting easy
•Tramontana – cold wind• Gregale – cold wind. •Greatest quantity of wheat per capita
•Trees with small broad leaves, no shade Economic amongst world’s wheat growing nations –
•Growth restricted to autumn and spring – good Development greatest exporter of wheat
moisture and high temperature. Pastoral Farming:
Natural •Mediterranean evergreen–open woodlands – •Dairy products: milk, butter and cheese •Tuft
Vegetation evergreen oaks grass ploughed up and replaced by sown
•Evergreen coniferous trees – pines, firs, cedar alfalfa.
and cypress. •Pampas: lead world in export of beef,
•Mediterranean bushes – low bush in scattered estancias (ranches) were established and
clump – laurel, lavender, rosemary and scrubs. linked to frigorific (meat processing factories)
•Mediterranean shorelands – cradle of civilization in coastal ports.
•Orchard framing – citrus fruits – orange, lime, •Australia: world’s leading wool exporter (one
lemon, citron, grapefruit – long roots to draw third of total production).
water in summer droughts •Steppes: ranching for meat production.
•Olives – Hardy and long rooted – survive on poor
limestone with scanty rainfall – versatile, species, Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China) Climate:
Economic oil, cooking, soap etc.
•Modified monsoonal climate – Temperate
Development •Nuts – chestnut, almond, walnut, hazelnut
monsoon or China type Also known as Gulf
•Fruits – Peach, apricot, pear, plum, cherry, fig
climate.
•Wheat – hard winter wheat – macaroni,
•Seen in SE USA, New South Wales
spaghetti, vermicelli •Barley – important cereal. Characteristics
(Eucalyptus), Natal (cane sugar), Parana-
Viticulture – wine production – 3/4th from
Paraguay-Uruguay (maize).
Mediterranean region
•Onshore trade winds year round – without
Also known for fruit canning, flour milling & food
monsoonal variation – Natal type Climate.
processing

•Warm moist summer and cool dry winters, and deciduous forest at lowlands and
with strong maritime influence. conifers at highlands.
•Uniform rainfall throughout the year Palm trees, chestnut, ironwood, blackwood
(except Central China with distinct dry and wattle trees, Eucalyptus, walnut, oak,
Climate
season) due to convection, orographic and pines, used
occasional depressions. •Most productive and intensively tilled parts
•Rain by convectional source or orographic of earth.
rain in summer & by depressions in •World’s greatest rice growing areas, warm
prolonged showers in winter. wet and lowland favours rice cultivation.
China Type: •Central and North China Agriculture in Gulf (USA): Export crops (rice
including South Japan. Continental in nature. Economic in Mississippi delta), Corn (half of world’s
•Intense heat in Heart of Asia creates low Development corn production, used to fattened animals)or
pressure in summer and brings SE monsoon, Maize, cotton, cane sugar, market gardening.
causing heavy rain. Gulf –tobacco is native crop.
•Winter – pressure gradient between cold Cropping/ pastoral in Southern Hemisphere:
Mongolia , Siberia and warm Pacific , there is cane sugar, cotton, tobacco, maize, produce
outflow of air as NW monsoon (cold and dry) from cattle and sheep. Famous for dairy
•Has great annual range of temperature products.
•Occurrence of Typhoons – intense tropical
cyclone in Pacific Ocean and move westward
bordering South China Sea during July to
Warm Temperate Western Margin (British) Climate:
September.  Under permanent influence of
Gulf Type Westerlies, Cyclonic activity, Oceanic
•SE USA – similar to China type – with less influence
monsoonal characteristics Characteristics  Also called North-West European
•No complete seasonal reversal of wind as Maritime Climate
pressure gradient between America and  N. America ,S. hemisphere – New
Atlantic is less marked Zealand, Tasmania and Chile
•Narrow range of temperature •Ideal climate for maximum comfort and
•Heavy rainfall with no distinct dry period – mental alertness , equable climate with warm
abundant moisture & excess cultivation of summers and mild winters
3 Types of cotton (cotton belts) and maize (corn belts) •Warming effect of warm North Atlantic Drift
Regions •Thunderstorms in summer and hurricanes and South Westerlies
in September and October Climate •Precipitation: Rainfall throughout the year.
Natal Type Western margins have highest rainfall (as rain
•Includes Natal, Eastern Australia , Brazil- bearing winds come from west), there by
Paraguay-Uruguay and Northern Argentina , western slopes of Southern Alps have more
all warm temperate eastern climate in rainfall compared to Canterbury plains (rain
southern hemisphere shadow area) .
•No monsoonal characteristics – narrowness •Deciduous forest -Shed leaves in winters – to
of continent and dominance of maritime protect against snow and frost.
Natural
influence •Valuable temperate hardwood: Oak, elm,
Vegetation
•South East Trade winds bring even birch, beech, poplar, Willows, Alder, Aspen
distribution of rainfall –•Depression along •Other species – elsewhere – chestnut,
southern edges lead to autumn or winter maple, lime, eucalyptus, conifers.
maximum (wettest month from March to •NW Europe: Little surplus for export and a
July) net importer of food crop mainly wheat.
•Small annual temperature range •Fishing: Britain, Norway & British Columbia.
•Violent local storms-Southerly Buster (Cold •Netherlands: horticultural and Dairy Industry
wind along coast of New South Wales), (Britain, Denmark).
Economic
Pampero (cold wind along Argentina and •Australia: High speed boats ply across Bass
Development
Uruguay), Berg (hot, dry wind in eastern Strait and Tasmania named as garden state
Africa) – comparable to Fohn or Chinook – Mixed Farming.
bring unpleasant high temperature and •Both arable farming (potato, wheat, barley,
oppressive weather beet sugar, cash crop and fodder crop etc)
Natural •Eastern margins have more rainfall. and pastoral framing(pigs, poultry, sheep
Vegetation •Home to timber species, with broad leaved rearing).

Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate: •Trees occur in pure stands – easy commercial
exploitation Canada – greater reserve of coniferous
Due to extreme climatic condition- cold pole of softwoods.
earth •Lumbering – timber, paper and pulp industries
Broad E-W spread- Merge with Arctic tundra in north Agriculture – potatoes on podzolized soil, oats and
and Steppes in south. Also called sub artic. barley.
• Evergreen coniferous – continuous belt in north •Asiatic region –Soyabeans (N. China, Manchuria &
Called Taiga – Siberia. Korea), groundnut, sesame, rapeseed, tung oil and
Chara-
•Absent in South Hemisphere – narrowness of Economic mulberry.
cteristics
southern continents in high latitude and strong Developm •Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia – world’s most
oceanic influence. ent renowned region of apples.
•Coniferous (S. Hemisphere) only in mountain •Fishing- major activity in this region- as warm and
uplands. cold current mixes. World’s largest fishing ground on
•Cold long winters and cool brief summers, with Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Sea weed cultivation,
rainfalls throughout the year. oyster cultivation etc is most common specifically in
•Winds – Blizzards of Canada and Buran of Europe Japan (with rich plankton growth on continental
•Conifers – require little moisture and transpire less shelves, upwelling of waters).
are best suited.
Climate
•Low temperature, low evaporation & high relative Arctic or Polar Climate:
humidity. North of Arctic Circle: Ice-Caps – Greenland and
•Permanent snowfields are absent (as in Alps & highland of high latitude regions – permanent snow
Himalayas) due to melting in spring & summer Frozen Characteri
cover.
rivers are thawed causing rise in water level & floods. stics
•Tundra climate – lowlands with few ice free months
•Greatest softwood production – USSR, USA< Canada – coastal Greenland, North Canada, Alaska and Arctic
& Fennoscandia (Finland, Norway, Sweden). seaboard of Eurasia.
•Taiga (Siberia) – richest source of temperate •Very low temperature •Winters – long and severe
softwood Occur in pure strands – good for (weeks of continuous darkness).
commercial exploitation. 4 main species – Pine, Fir, •Summers – cool and brief, Sun rays occur as faint
Vegetation Spruce & Larch. rays – reflected by ground snow or ice melting.
Coniferous: •Soil water is frozen and summer heat can thaw for 6
•Uniform, straight, tall•No annual replacement of inch of soil.
new leaves .Food stored in trunks and bark is thick to Climate •Frost and blizzards are commonly seen.
protect trunk from cold. •Coastal Areas – Warm water meets cold land then
•Conical in shape to prevent snow accumulation thick fog develops.
•Leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle-shaped. •Precipitation as snow in winters and varies from ice
Economic •Many areas are untouched in Canada, E. Europe and crystals to snowflakes.
Develo- Asiatic Russia. Lumbering – transported to saw mills. •Anticyclones over ice caps• Coastal areas –
pment Fur farms, paper making, matches, newsprint firms cyclones.
are well established. •Tundra type – few plants can survive – deficiency in
heat, frozen soil.
Vegetatio
Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian): n
•No trees, Mosses, lichens and sedges are present.
•Intermediate between British and Siberian climate •Drainage is poor – subsoil is permanently frozen
•Both maritime and continental  Birch, willow and alder, reindeer moss, arctic
Only in 2 Regions: 1.NE USA, E. Canada or America flowers as arctic prairies are commonly found.
Region and 2. E. Asia, E. Siberia, N. China, Manchuria, Confined to coasts: Plateaus and mountains are
Characteri
Korea & N. Japan – Asiatic Region. inhabitable and snow covered.
stics
•Absent in SH – small section of continents, oceanic •Semi-nomadic life: Eskimos – around 28,000 –
influence and climate is equable. hunters, fishers, food gatherers.
•Only exception could be E. Patagonia- Westerlies Nomads of Eurasia: •Lapps – N. Finland and
don’t reach causing aridity (rain shadow desert). Scandinavia •Samoyeds in Siberia •Yakuts in Lena
•Cold dry winters – temperature below freezing Basin •Koryak & Chuckchi in NE Asia.
point, winds are dry westerlies from continental Human
Discovery of minerals: •Gold – Alaska, •Nickel –
Climate interior. Activities
Petsamo, USSR, •Petroleum – Kenai Peninsula,
•Warm wet summers (has cooling effect of offshore Alaska, •Copper – Rankin Inlet, Canada, •Coal –
cold currents). •Rainfall – year-round. Spitsbergen and Alaska, •Iron Ore – Lake Superior &
•Cool temperate forest. Coniferous trees north of now Labrador (railway line to bring ores to St.
Natural
latitude.Lumbering is main activity – timber as export Lawrence River); Kiruna and Gallivare in Sweden.
Vegetatio
item. •Trying to grow hardy cereals for local needs in Arctic
n
•Fir,spruce and larch,oak, beech, maple, birch are the lowlands with warm currents and higher
trees found. temperatures.

Deepest Point on the Ocean: Related Fact Name of the Lake

Ocean Deepest point Deepest lake in the world Baikal (fresh water)in Russia
Lake Superior, between Canada
Pacific Mariana Trench Largest fresh water lake
and the USA
Atlantic Puerto Rio Trench Caspian Sea, bounded by Iran,
Indian Java Trench Largest lake in the world Russia, Kazhakistan, Azerbaijan
Arctic Eurasian Basin and Turkmenistan.
Dead Sea bounded by Israel,
Saltiest lake in the world
Important Canals of the World: Jordan and west bank
Canal Connects Dead Sea between Israel and
Lowest lake in the world
Jordan
Panama Pacific Ocean with Atlantic Ocean Largest lake in India Sambhar lake in Rajasthan
Suez Mediterranean Sea to Red sea Largest fresh-water lake in
Kolleru lake in Andhra Pradesh
India
Erie Atlantic Ocean to Great Lakes Largest coastal lagoon in India Chilka lake in Orissa
Kein North sea to Baltic Sea Sriharikota island is located in Pulicat lake in Andhra Pradesh
Major lakes of the World Country known as land of thousand lakes – Finland
Lakes Location Canals and Straits:
Caspian Asia Water Bodies
Superior Canada and USA Strait / Canal Land Masses Divided
Joined
Victoria Africa Mediterranean
Suez Canal Runs through Egypt
Huron Canada and USA and Red Sea
Tanganyika Africa Runs through North Sea and
Kiel Canal
Baikal Russia Germany Baltic Sea
Great Bear Canada Bering Strait Alaska and Siberia Pacific and Arctic
Aral Kazakhstan Bay of Bengal and
Palk Strait India and Sri Lanka
Great Slave Canada Gulf of Mannar
Highest /Lowest Point of Various Continents: Name of the Desert Extends into Countries
Continent Highest point (m) Lowest point (m)
Asia Mt Everest (8850) Dead Sea(-396) Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mail,
MT Kilimanjaro Sahara desert Mauritania, Morocco, Niger,
Africa Lake Assal(-151) Sudan, Tunisia
(5951)
North America Mt Mckinley (6252) Death Valley(-87) Atacama Chile, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina
Mt Aconcagua Valdes Peninsula(-
South America Kalahari Desert Botswana, Namibia, South Africa
(7026) 40)
Vinson Massif Bentley Subglacial
Antarctica Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman,
(5189) Trench (-2538) Arabian Desert
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Yemen
Europe Mt EI’s Brus(5687) Caspian Sea(-28)
Australian Koscuisko Lake Eyre(-16) Gobi Desert Mongolia, China
Largest Geographical Features in the World: Great Victoria Desert Australia
Feature Name Patagonian Desert Argentina, Chile
Largest Continent Asia Thar Desert India, Pakistan
Largest Ocean Pacific Ocean TaklaMakan Desert China
Largest Bay Bay of Bengal Syrian Desert Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Syria, Iraq
Largest Gulf Gulf of Mexico
Chihuahuan Desert Mexico, United States
Largest Peninsula Arabian Peninsula
Great Basin Desert United States
Largest Island Greenland
Great Barrier Reef Mojave Desert United States
Largest Coral Reef
(Australia) Karakum Desert Turkmenistan
Largest and Highest Plateau Pamir (Tibet, China)


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READY RECKONER WORLD GEOGRAPHY

2. Earth and its Associated Aspects .......................................................... 4-7

D 4. Geomorphology, Volcanoes and Earth Quake ..................................... 9-18

7. Oceanography .................................................................................. 25-28

R 8. Climatology ....................................................................................... 29-39

E 9. World Climate ................................................................................... 40-44

READY RECKONER OF WORLD GEOGRAPHY |2|

Origin and Evolution of Earth Solar System:

 Our solar system consists of the sun (the star), 8

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 The Kuiper Belt is a great ring of debris similar to the

 Celestial Bodies: Any natural body outside of the

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 The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major 4. Iron 5.00

Composition of Earth Crust:

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READY RECKONER OF WORLD GEOGRAPHY |6|

Latitudes and longitudes:

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3. Forces generated by rotation of the earth. Epirogenic Or Continent Forming Movements:

4. Climatic factors like winds, precipitation, pressure

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Boundary asthenosphere leading to generation of new magma.

Pyroclastic-adjective of or denoting rock fragments or

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Classification of Volcanoes: Types of igneous intrusions,

1. Laccolith- igneous mound with a dome shaped upper

Composite Cones are most commonly called as

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Distribution of Volcanoes:  Wave Velocity - 5 to 8 km per second through the

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Body Waves:  Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to

1. Primary waves or P waves (longitudinal) Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics:

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READY RECKONER OF WORLD GEOGRAPHY |16|

 Regolith - mineral remains of decomposed rocks.

Types of Chemical Weathering:

Denudation Involves 4 Processes: Physical Weathering:

READY RECKONER OF WORLD GEOGRAPHY |17|

2. Repeated Wetting and Drying  Slumping is permeable layer overlie over

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