ASSIGNMENT

Course Code: BBYCT-133

Assignment Code: BBYCT-133/TMA/2023
Maximum Marks: 100

Note: Attempt all questions. The marks for each question are indicated Marks
against it.

Define the following: (10)

Gross primary productivity vi) Phenology
Biome vil) Binomial nomenclature
Tertiary consumer भा) Tautonym

Synecology ix) Rule of priority

Greenhouse effect x) Bracketed key
Describe phosphorus cycle with well labelled diagram. (5x2=10)
Write a short note on soil profile.

What are the different forms of interactions in a community? (5x2=10)

Describe adaptations in xerophytic plants giving examples and
diagrams.

Explain Shelford’s law of tolerance. (5x2=10)

Discuss the process of formation of a hydrosere.

Write notes on fidelity and Importance value index. (5*2=10)

What are the different functions of herbarium?

Differentiate between alpha and omega taxonomy. (5x2=10)

b) What are the salient features of structure of taxonomical hierarchy?

Outline Bentham and Hooker's system of classification. Also mention the (10)
advantages and disadvantages of the system.

Discuss the different types of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. (5*2=10)

90

a) Write a note on pyramid of energy. (5x2=10)

b) Discuss the vegetation pattern of Western Himalayas.
10. Write short notes on: (2%4*4=10)
Importance of endemics
Xerarch
Systema Naturae

Therophytes
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1. Define the following: i) Gross primary productivity
ANS: Gross primary productivity is the defined as the rate at which the main chemical energy
producers (plants) produces the chemical energy.
ii) Biome
ANS: Biome can be defined as a group of organisms that share common characteristics, and these
characteristics can be correlated to the environment in which they exist. A biome consists of both
plants and animals. Biomes can be found on almost all continents. The characteristics of the
organisms living mside a biome have developed in response to the environmental conditions.
iii) Tertiary consumer
ANS: A tertiary consumer 15 an organism that obtains the energy it needs from consuming other
consumers at different levels, from eating primary consumers or secondary consumers. “For those
of us climbing to the top of the food chain, there can be no mercy.
Synecology
iv)
ANS: The study of whole plant and animal communities, including the study of
terrestrial ecosystems, biological aspects of oceanography, and applied problems of human
management and alteration of ecosystems.
v) Greenhouse effect
ANS: The greenhouse effect 1s a process that occurs when energy from a planet's host star goes
through the planet's atmosphere and heats the planet's surface, but greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere prevent some of the heat from returning directly to space, resulting m a warmer planet.
vi) Phenology
ANS: Phenology is the study of periodic events in biological life cycles and how these are
influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate, as well as habitat factors (such as
elevation).
vii) Binomial nomenclature
ANS Binomial nomenclature is the system of scientifically naming organisms developed by Carl
Linnaeus. Linnaeus published a large work, Systema Naturae (The System of Nature), in which
Linnaeus attempted to identify every known plant and animal.
viii) Tautonym
ANS: When a generic name is repeated in specific name of a species, it is called
tautonym. A tautonym isa scientific name ofa species in which both parts of the name (the genera
and species) have the same spelling. For example, Bison bison for American Bison. It is a binary
combination of the generic name. The use of tautonyms is not allowed by International Code.
However, it is valid names according to ICZN (International Code of Zoological Nomenclature).
Hence, tautonyms are not accepted by botanical nomenclature although they are allowed in
zoological nomenclature.
ix) Rule of priority
ANS: Priorityis a fundamental principle of modern botanical nomenclature and zoological
nomenclature. Essentially, it is the principle of recognising the first valid application of a name to
a plant or animal. There are two aspects to this:
The first formal scientific name given to a plant or animal taxon shall be the name that 18 to be
used, called the valid name in zoology and correct naine in botany (principle of synonymy).
Once a name has been used, no subsequent publication of that name for another taxon shall be
valid (zoology) or validly published (botany) (principle of homonymy).
_X)
Bracketed key
ANS:: In this the two couplets are always next to each other in consecutive lines on the page.
The same example of bracketed key is given below:
(i) Fruit a group of achenes; flowers unspurred (2)
(i) Fruit a group of follicles; flowers spurred ......... (4)
(21 Penis 85071 छलका
पका: 1.51: (3)
(2) PGS छाठ्पशा।, .............. Ranunculus
(3) Sepals usually 4; involucre absent.......... Clematis
(3) Sepals usually 5; involucre present......... Anemone
(4) Flowers regular; spurs 5................. Aquilagia
(4) Flowers irregular; spur | ............. Delphinium
2. a) Describe phosphorus cycle with well labelled diagram.
 Phosphorus Cycle
Rocks &

Inorganic
Phosphate

ANS:
The Phosphorus cycle, unlike those of Carbon and Nitrogen cycles lacks an atmospheric
component.
The global phosphorus cycle involves only aquatic and soil compartments. As a basic constituent
of nucleic acids, phospholipids and numerous phosphorylated compounds, phosphorus is one of
the nutrients of major importance to biological systems.
Further, as Hutchinson has noted, because the ratio of phosphorus to other elements in organisms
tends to be considerably greater than the ratio of phosphorus in the available and primary sources,
phosphorus becomes ecologically significant as the most likely limiting or regulating element in
productivity. Basic source and the great reservoir of phosphorus are the rocks or other deposits
which have been formed in the past geological ages. These are gradually eroding, releasing
phosphates to ecosystems. But much phosphate escapes into the sea where part of it is deposited
in the shallow sediments and part of it is lost to the deep sediments. However, the means of
returning phosphorus to the cycle are inadequate to compensate for the loss.
b) Write a short note on soil profile.
ANS: A soil profile 18 a vertical cross-section of the soil, made of layers running parallel to the
surface. These layers are known as soil horizons. The soil 1s arranged in layers or horizons during
its formation. These layers or horizons are known as the soil profile. It is the vertical section of the
soil that is exposed by a soil pit.
Patent Rock: Parent materials are those which bring forth the layers of soil. Since it is the
foundational material, it influences the properties of the soil formed. For example, the parent rock
of sandy soil is Lava Rock. This is why the sandy soil is in black colour.
Climate: The amount of temperature and precipitation directly affect the rate of weathering of the
parent rock. The soil that has more moisture will be highly weathered. More the moisture content,
the more the movement of minerals in the soil. Warm temperatures also increase the amount of
weathering.
Tine: Time plays an important factor in the formation of the soil. Soil takes thousands of years to
form. The younger soil shares characteristics with the parent rock but with time, the soil ages and
its properties differ from the parent rock. Therefore, with time, one type of soil can change to
another.
Landscape: The type of region where the soil grows also affects the type of soil. For example,
water ins faster on the slope. Therefore, the amount of water present on the slope will be less than
the amount of water present on the foot of the slope. This means the soil will be poor in the slopes
and rich in the foot of the slope.
Organisms: The organisms present in the soil also affect the nature of the soil. For stance, there
are some organisms that help in the chemical reactions taking place inside the soil. This will
directly lead to water infiltration.
3. a) What are the different forms of interactions in a community?
ANS: Competition
In interspecific competition, members of two different species use the same limited resource and
therefore compete for it. Competition negatively affects both participants (-/- interaction), as either
species would have higher survival and reproduction if the other was absent.
Species compete when they have overlapping niches, that is, overlapping ecological roles and
requirements for survival and reproduction. Competition can be minimized if two species with
overlapping niches evolve by natural selection to utilize less similar resources, resulting
in resource partitioning.
Predation
In predation, a member of one species—the predator—eats part or all of the living, or recently
living, body of another organism—the prey. This interaction 1s beneficial for the predator, but
hannful for the prey (+/- interaction). Predation may involve two animal species, but it can also
involve an animal or insect consuming part of a plant, a special case of predation known
as herbivory.
Symbiosis
Symbiosis 1s a general term for interspecific interactions in which two species live together in a
long-term, intimate association. In everyday life, we sometimes use the term symbiosis to mean a
relationship that benefits both parties. However, in ecologist-speak, symbiosis is a broader concept
and can include close, lasting relationships with a variety of positive or negative effects on the
participants.
Mutualism
In a mutualism, two species have a long-term interaction that is beneficial to both of them (4/+
interaction). For example, some types of fungi form mutualistic associations with plant roots. The
plant can photosynthesize, and it provides the fungus with fixed carbon in the form of sugars and
other organic molecules. The fungus has a network of threadlike structures called hyphae, which
allow it to capture water and nutrients from the soil and provide them to the plant.
b) Describe adaptations in xerophytic plants giving examples and diagrams.
ANS: Small! leaves - these ensure that less water is lost from the plant by transpiration because the
leaf has a smaller surface area.
Tap roots - these are long roots (7-10 metres long) that reach deep under the ground to access water
supplies. The tap roots are much longer and bigger than the plant which is visible at the surface.
Spines - some plants have spines instead of leaves eg cacti. Spines lose less water than leaves so
are very efficient in a hot climate. Spines also prevent animals from eating the plant.
Waxy skin - some leaves have a thick, waxy skin on thew surface. This reduces water loss
by transpiration.
Water storage - some plants, known as succulents, store water in their stems, leaves, roots or even
fruits. Plants which store water in their leaves and stems also have a thick waxy skin so that they
lose less water by transpiration.
4. a) Explain Shelford’s law of tolerance.
ANS: Shelford's law of tolerance 18 a principle developed by American zoologist Victor Ermest
Shelford in 1911. It states that an organism 's success is based on a complex set of conditions and
that each organism has a certain minimum, maximum, and optimum environmental factor or
combination of factors that determine success.
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b) Discuss the process of formation of a hydrosere.
ANS: The hydrosphere was formed due to condensation and solidification of water vapor in
the primitive atmosphere, due to the high temperatures that caused the water to be in the form of
vapor. It was formed approximately 4600 million years ago.
Although not from seawater itself, but beneath it, from the seabed of the Central Pacific, important
minerals such as nickel, copper, cobalt, zinc, chromium, uranium, wolfram and lead have been
found. The hydrosphere is formed by all the waters of the earth including:
Liquid water, such as from oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, streams and groundwater,
Solid-state water in Antarctica and the Arctic, and in glaciers.
Gaseous water, found in the atmosphere, such as water vapor.
The greatest source of water on the planet 18 the ocean, which constitutes all salt water and at the
same time, 18 the greatest source ofwater vapor. In the ocean, there are at
least 77 important elements such as sodium and chlorine, magnesium and bromine, which are
commercially exploited from seawater.
5. 3) Write notes on fidelity and Importance value index.
ANS: Fidelity means the degree to which the simulated environment (manikin, room, tools,
equipment, moulage, and sensory props) replicates reality and appearance of the real environment.
Ecological fitting is "the process whereby organisms colonize and persist in novel environments,
use novel resources or form novel associations with other species. The Importance Value
Index in Ecology. is the measure of how dominant aspeciesis in a given ecosystem. The
Importance Value Index (IVI) shows the complete or overall picture of ecological importance of
the species in a community. Community structure study 1s made by studying trequency, density,
abundance and basal cover of species. But these data do not provide an overall picture of
importance of a species, e.g., frequency gives us an idea about dispersion of a species in the area
but does not give any idea about its number or the area covered. Density gives the numerical
strength and nothing about the spread or cover. A total picture of the ecological importance of a
species i a community is obtained by IVI. For finding IVI, the percentage values of relative
frequency. relative density and relative dominance are added together, and this value out of 300 1s
called Lnportance Value Index or IVI of a species.
Method:
i. Find out the values of relative frequency, relative density and relative dominance by the above-
mentioned formulae.
ii. Calculate the IVI by adding these three values:
IVI = relative frequency + relative density + relative dominance.
Results:
Arrange the species in order of decreasing importance, i.e., the species having highest IVI is of
most ecological importance and the one having the lowest IVI is of least ecological importance.
b) What are the different functions of herbarium?
ANS: A modern Herbarium serves valuable functions or utility. Important of them are as follows:
(i) [t is an invaluable conservatory of plant material and data.
(11) It is storehouses of collection including the valuable type specimens. The herbaria greatly aid
in all kinds of taxonomic researches.
(111) Serves as a fundamental resource for identification of all plants of the world.
(iv) It serves as a source for collections biodiversity. Most estimates on global biodiversity today
are based on herbarium collection only.
(v) It aids in biodiversity monitoring by carrying out security of herbarium collection to obtain
quantitative baseline data on the distribution and abundance of keystone species is essential for all
monitoring programmes.
(vi) It serves as a repository of voucher specimens on which varieties Botanical researches are
carried out.
(vii) Aids in assessment of conservation status of a taxon.
(vii) Vast collection of a particular species in a herbarium aids in assessing the diversity or
variations exhibited by a species in its distributional ranges helping in population biology studies.
(ix) It serves as a source for search of new genetic material for improvement of cultivated stock.
(x) The tags of herbarium carry all the information about habitat, habit, local name, flower colour
and other characters of the plant, use of plant, frequency and abundance of species etc. It also
includes the morphological description, range of distribution, variation and uses. In this way it
provides data for botanical, ethnobotanical and phytogeographical studies etc.
(xi) Herbarium serves as an aid in teaching botany. Dried specimen is available all the time as
compared to the fresh plant which may or may not be available. It helps m identifying the newly
collected specimen.
(xi1) Specimen may be used as a source of material for Anatomy, Palynology and Cytotaxonomy,
Ecology, Chenustry, Molecular biology, Pharmacognosy and Environment impact assessment.
(xi1) Seeds of the herbarium specimens can be used to resurrect species extinct in the wild using
modern technology.
(xiv) It aids in assessment and cataloguing of all species of economic potential, as commercial
species, medicinal herbs, food plants etc.
(xv) It helps in development of computer data base on plants and maintains active links to
international network of systematic resources and electronic base.
6. a) Differentiate between alpha and omega taxonomy.
ANS: Alpha taxonomy is based on exploratory nd systematic phases where e:ther more or few
studies on herbarium species is conducted while the Omega taxonomy is where all the possible
charectersticks, detailed genetical nd cytological studies r made. Alpha taxonomy simply just
deals identification of plant on their morophological charectar or feature. Alpha (a) taxonomy is
the analytic phase in which the species are identified, characterised and named. At this level when
a new species is discovered it is named in accordance with Linnaeus system of binomial
nomenclature. Here priority is given to the one who publishes his work first. All problems relating
to species are dealt here. Omega taxonomy is also called as Encyclopaedic taxonomy. Omega
taxonomy has widest scope. Omega taxonomy is one of the types of taxonomy and is based on all
information currently known about plants, including embryology, cytology, ecology, cytogenetics,
phytochemistry, phylogeny, morphology, etc.
It also includes sufficient computation to arrange and classify the plants according to the features
taken into consideration.
Omega taxonomy, also known as encyclopedic taxonomy, serves as an encyclopedia for the plants
being examined in taxonomic studies because it takes into account all information that is currently
known about the plant.
When compared to omega taxonomy, which took into account both exterior and interior qualities
while excluding phylogenetic characteristics, alpha and beta taxonomies found their reach to be
less expansive.
b) What are the salient features of structure of taxonomical hierarchy?
ANS: Taxonomical Hierarchy and systematics are two disciplines that examine the diversity and
interactions of living organisms. Morphological, behavioral, genetic and biochemical observations
are used in both Taxonomical Hierarchy and systematics [he taxonomic hierarchy of plant is the
science of identifying organisms and placing them in a hierarchical structure. Each level is given
a name (e.g., kingdom, division (phylum for animal), class, order, family, genus, species).
Taxonomic hierarchy 1s the process of arranging various organisms into successive levels of the
biological classification either in a decreasing or an increasing order from kingdom to species and
vice versa.” Following are the important taxonomic hierarchies in which different organisms are
classified:
Kingdom
The kingdom is the highest level of classification, which is divided into subgroups at various
levels. There are 5 kingdoms in which the living organisms are classified, namely, Animalia,
Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Monera.
Phylum
This is the next level of classification and 1s more specific than the kingdom. There are 35 phyla
in kingdom Animalia. For Example — Porifera, Chordata, Arthropoda, ete.
Class
Class was the most general rank in the taxonomic hierarchy until phyla were not introduced.
Kingdom Animalia includes 108 classes including class mammalia, reptilia, aves, etc. However,
the classes used today are different from those proposed by Linnaeus and are not used frequently.
Order
Order 1s a more specific rank than class. The order constitutes one or more than one similar
families. There are around 26 orders in class mammalia such as primates, carnivora, etc.
Family
This category of taxonomic hierarchy includes various genera that share a few similarities. For eg.,
the families in the order Carnivora include Canidae, Felidae, Ursidae, etc.
Genus
A group of similar species forms a genus. Some genera have only one species and is known as
monotypic, whereas, some have more than one species and is known as polytypic. For eg., lion
and tiger are placed under the genus Panthera.
Species
It is the lowest level of taxonomic hierarchy. There are about 8.7 million different species on earth.
It refers to a group of organisms that are similar in shape, form, reproductive features. Species can
be further divided into sub-species.
) 7. Outline Bentham and Hooker’s system of classification. Also mention the advantages and
disadvantages of the system. (10)
ANS: The classification system which is based on a set of characteristics for grouping similar
plants is called a natural system. Various plants are grouped purely on the basis of morphological
similarities. Plants share many natural affinities. The classification system of Bentham and Hooker
was the non-phylogenetic system. This system was published between 1862 and 1883 in Genera
Plantarum. They divided seed plants into 202 orders. According to this classification system, all
seed plants were classified into three classes, three sub-classes, twenty-one series, twenty-five
cohorts, and 202 orders. Spermatophytes (seed plants) are divided into dicotyledons,
gymnosperms, and monocotyledons.
Merits of Bentham and Hooker Classification System
It is based on natural classification so changed the artificial classification system.
It differentiates between seed-producing and non-seed-producing plants.
It mostly deals with angiosperms (flowering plants).
It covers a large number of plants.
The criteria for this classification system are vegetative characteristics such as the presence of pith,
cambium, leave venation, etc.
This system greater emphasizes fused and free petals.
Demenrits of Bentham and Hooker Classification System
This system fails to provide the concept of phylogenetic relationships. In that way, it is only the
modified form of the Linnaeus Classification System.
The position of Gymnosperms between Dicots and Monocots is only for convenience. It is not for
affinities between these groups.
It is based mainly on single and mostly artificial characters. Thus, closely related families are
widely separated from each other.
_8. Discuss the different types of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. (5x2=10)
ANS: Types Of Terrestrial Ecosystems
There are different types of terrestrial ecosystems, which are widely distributed around the
geological zones. They include:
Forest
These types of ecosystems include both temperate deciduous forest, plantation forests and tropical
rain forests. They serve as a natural habitat for a vast range of living species and also comprise the
highest species diversity. Forests cover nearly 30 to 35 million square kilometres of the earth’s
surface and more than 300 million species of plants and animals live in forests.
Grasslands
Grasslands are the most dominant type of vegetation and these types of environments occur
naturally in several parts of the world. These types of terrestrial ecosystems serve as a home for a
wide diversity of animal species, such as elephants, giraffes, hyenas, jackrabbits, lions, rhinos,
watthogs and zebras. Other types of grasslands include]:
e Tropical Grasslands
e Temperate Grasslands
e Tundra

Tundra denotes polar regions, which are characterized by harsh environmental! conditions similar
to deserts and is usually windswept, snow-covered and treeless. Compared to deserts, this type of
ecosystem is completely filled with frozen soil throughout the year and in summer, the snow melts
and shallow ponds are produced. This gives rise to lichens and a few plants with small and colorful
flowers.
Desert
The Desert is a barren region of the landscape, which has extremely high or low temperatures and
has scarce vegetation. Depending on the climate and temperature, deserts can be classified into hot
deserts and cold deserts. There are many lives that are well-adapted to life in the desert. Animals
include — Camels, foxes, hyenas, jackals, scorpions, a few varieties of snakes and lizards. The
common plants ate acacia, cactus and date palins.
Types of Aquatic Ecosystem
Different types of aquatic ecosystems are as follows:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem:
These cover only a small portion of the earth which is nearly 0.8 percent. Freshwater means lakes,
ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands, swamp, bog, and temporary pools.
2. Lotic Ecosystems:
These mainly refer to the rapidly flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way including the
rivers and streams. Furthermore, these environments have numerous species such as beetles,
mayflies, stoneflies and several species of fishes including trout, eel, minnow, etc.
3. Lentic Ecosystems:
They include all standing water habitats. Moreover, lakes and ponds are the primary examples of
the Lentic Ecosystem. Also, these ecosystems contain algae, crabs, shrimps, and amphibians such
as frogs and salamanders.
4. Wetlands:
Wetlands are marshy areas and are sometimes covered in water which has a wide variety of plants
and animals. Swamps, marshes, bogs, black spruce, and water lilies are the maim examples in the
plant species. The animal life of this ecosystem consists of dragonflies, damselflies, and various
birds and fishes.
5. Marine Aquatic Ecosystem:
The marme ecosystem covers the largest surface on the earth. Two-thirds of the earth is covered
by water which constitutes oceans, seas, intertidal zone, reefs, seabed, etc. Form of each life is
unique and native to its habitat.
6. Ocean Ecosystems:
Our earth is having five major oceans. Moreover, these oceans are like a home to more than five
lakhs aquatic species. Some species of this ecosystem include shellfish, Shark, Tube Worms, Crab
Small, and large ocean fishes.
7. Coastal Systems:
These are the open systems of land and water, jomed together to form the coastal ecosystems. A
wide variety of species of aquatic plants and algae live at the bottom of it. The diverse fauna
consists of crabs, fish, insects, lobsters snails, shrimp, etc.
9. a) Write a note on pyramid of energy.
ANS: An energy pyramid (sometimes called a trophic pyramid or an ecological pyramid) is a
graphical representation, showing the flow of energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem,
The width of each bar represents the units of energy available within each trophic level: the height
is always the same. The flow of energy moves through the layers of the energy pyramid from the
bottom-up, and is gradually reduced as energy is used up by the organisms at each level The base
of the energy pyramid indicates the energy available within primary producers. Primary producers,
also known as autotrophs, are organisms which create their own food by taking their energy from
non-living sources of energy. In most cases, these are photosynthesizing plants, which use energy
from the sun to create their own nutrition in the form of simple sugars, although there are
exceptions such as deep sea organisms, which use chemical energy from hydrothermal vents. In
this description we will focus on ecosystems that take energy from the sun. All other levels in the
energy pyramid consist of heterotrophs — organisms that obtain their nutrition from organic
carbon, usually in the form of other plants and animals.
_b) Discuss the vegetation pattern of Western Himalayas.
ANS: The area 18 almost a dry place consisting of rolling hills and is dominated by alpine scrubs
and meadows with various kinds of distinct patches of vegetation. The vegetation types
are xerophilous, steppe formation and alpine formation with woody shrubs in the river valleys,
nival formation (herbaceous and giamioids mats) in the open land. Also, the tree line and the
snow line are higher in the eastern Himalayas than the corresponding lines m the western
Himalayas. The Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows covers an area of 70,200 square
kilometres (27,100 sq mi), extending from the Kali Gandaki Gorge in central Nepal westwards
across Uttarakhand and eastern Himachal Pradesh states of India to the gorge of the Sutlej River,
and into southwestern Tibet. The alpine shiib and meadows lie between approximately 3,000 and
5,000 metres (9,800 and 16,400 ft) elevation.
10, Write short notes on: i) Importance of endemics
ANS: Endemic (or native) species play a fundamental 1016 in the ecosystem; they assist other
species and maintain the environment through the specialized functions they provide. These
species are often overlooked and taken for granted. Since they are confined to a certain region the
threat of pollution, climate change, and human development become a large factor in determining
their survival. It is essential to be educated upon the fiinctions that these species provide for the
environment so that society can gain a better perspective on how to save these species before it 1s
too late. With the current rate of extinction, it would not be too long before the terrestrial and
marine communities start to exhibit signs of change. Many people do not consider the importance
species play the environment. Instead, they dismiss them as irrelevant and of little value. The
endemic species are important to their local area and to the world and more efforts need to be made
to ensure the survival of these species—no matter how big or how small they are.
ii) Xerarch
AWS: It refers to the development from the center such as it possesses old cells towards the
penphery. . It is the arrangement in which the protoxylem is directed towards the periphery and
the metaxylem towards the center. In this the development of the xylem follows the centripetal
pattern. Itis found in the roots of the majority of plants. Exarch xylem 1s the arrangement in which
the protoxylem (the first formed primary xylem cells in a plant shoot/root) is directed towards the
periphery and metaxylem ( later formed primary xylem cells in a plant shoot/root) is directed
towards the centre. Its development follows a centripetal pattern and is characteristics of roots.
The term ‘exarch' entered ecclesiastical language at first for a metropolitan (an archbishop) with
jurisdiction not only for the area that was his as a metropolitan, but also over other metropolitans
within local political dioceses. Since imperial vicartus (governor of a political diocese) was often
called "exarch" in eastern, Greek speaking parts of the Empire, it became customary for the
metropolitans of the diocesan capitals (Ephesus in the Diocese of Asia, Heraclea in the Diocese of
Thrace and Caesarea in the Diocese of Pontus) also to use the title "exarch" in arder to emphasize
their precedence and primatial status over other metropolitans within local political dioceses
iii) Systema Naturae
ANS Systema Naturae (originally in Latin written Systema Nature with the ligature 2) is one of
the major works of the Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) and
introduced the Limnaean taxonomy. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature,
was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers, Gaspard and Johann,|2] Linnaeus was first to use
it consistently throughout his book. The first edition was published in 1735. The full title of the
10th edition (1758), which was the most important one, was Systema nature per regna tria nature,
secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis or
translated: "System of nature through the three kingdoms of nature, according to classes, orders,
genera and species, with characters, differences, synonyms, places". The tenth edition of this
book (1758) 1s considered the starting point of zoological nomenclature. In 1766-1768 Linnaeus
published the much enhanced 12th edition, the last under his authorship. Another again enhanced
work in the same style and titled "Systema Naturae" was published by Johann Friedrich
Gmelin between 1788 and 1793. Since at least the early 20th century, zoologists have commonly
recognized this as the last edition belonging to this series.
Therophytes
iv)
ANS: Therophytes are annual plants that die after they reproduce. This type of plant survive
unfavourable seasons (winter, drought) in the form of seeds which germinate once conditions
return to being favourable.
These herbaceous plants therefore have a short lifespan and grow quickly.
Therophytes are annual plants that complete their life cycle in a short period when conditions are
favourable and survive harsh conditions as seeds. They are typically found in deserts and other
arid regions. It is an annual plant that survives unfavorable seasons—cold or dry seasons—
in seed form. Most therophytes are of Mediterranean origin and are characteristic of deserts, semi
deserts, and southern steppes of the northern hemisphere, where they include many Cruciferae an
d Papaveraceae. In the forest zone therophytes are represented mainly by field weeds, for exampl
e, cornflower, pennycress, and stork’s-bill.