12 Ecosystem

Healthy forest ecosystems purify air and water, mitigate droughts and �oods,
cycle nutrients, generate fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat, maintain
biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide storage sites for carbon, and also provide
aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values. Healthy ecosystems are the base for a
wide range of economic, environmental and aesthetic goods and services. The
soul of sustainability of all life forms on Earth lies in the services provided by
these ecosystems.

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 ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE AND
1
FUNCTION
| TOPIC 1 |
ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where interaction within the
living organisms and with the surrounding physical environment occurs. A.G.
Tansley (1935) coined the term ‘Ecosystem’.
Most of the ecologists consider the entire biosphere as a global ecosystem, as
a composite of all local ecosystems on Earth that varies greatly in size from a
small pond to a large forest or a sea.
Ecosystem being an open system receives input in the form of solar energy
and inorganic nutrients that results in synthesis of food or productivity.
Then the transfer of energy takes place in the form of food through different
components of ecosystem through food chains or web and nutrient cycling.
This circulation of matter in the ecosystem also involves degradation and
energy loss as output.
Ecosystem is a biological community consisting of living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic) components that interact with each other and with their physical
environment through energy exchange and flow of nutrients.
An ecosystem can be divided into:
(1) Natural Ecosystem is a community of living and non-living entities that
occur freely in nature and is capable of maintaining and operating
themselves without the interference of humans. It is further classified as:
(i) Terrestrial ecosystem like forest, grassland and desert.
(ii) Aquatic ecosystem like pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary.
(2) Artificial or man-made ecosystem are those that are maintained and
operated by human beings such as crop fields, aquariums, etc.
Components Of Ecosystem
An ecosystem comprises of two major components:
Abiotic Components
The abiotic or non-living components of an ecosystem consist of factors like
temperature, soil, water, light, etc.
Biotic Components
The biotic or living components of an ecosystem are:
(1) Producers: All green plants present in the ecosystem are termed as

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 producers as they synthesise their own food by use of solar energy. They
are also known as autotrophs. In terrestrial ecosystem, herbaceous and
woody plants are producers whereas in aquatic ecosystem, phytoplanktons
and some algae are producers.
(2) Consumers: It includes all animals that depend directly or indirectly on
plants for food and oxygen. They are also known as heterotrophs.
(3) Decomposers: These include the organisms that decompose the organic
matter and are also known as saprobes, saprophytes or mineralisers.
Example: Moulds, mushrooms, bacteria etc.

| TOPIC 2 |
PATTERNS OF ECOSYSTEM
The two important structural features of an ecosystem are:
(1) Species composition: It is calculated by identification and enumeration of
plant and animal species of an ecosystem.

...
(2) Stratification: It is the vertical distribution of different species occupying
different levels in an ecosystem such as trees occupy top vertical strata
or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and grasses occupy the
bottom (third) layers.

Ecosystem 3
 OBJECTIVE Type Questions
[ 1 mark ]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Decomposers like fungi and bacteria are:
(I) autotrophs (II) heterotrophs
(III)saprotrophs (IV)chemo-autotrophs.
Choose the correct answer:
(a)(I) and (III) (b)(I) and (IV)
(c)(II) and (III) (d)(I) and (II) [NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. (c)(II) and (III)
Explanation: Fungi and bacteria are the decomposers which are both
heterotrophic and saprotrophic biotic component in an ecosystem. They
are heterotrophs as they depend on others to obtain their food. Moreover,
they decompose the dead and decaying organic matter and get nutrients
from it. Therefore, they can be termed as saprotrophs.
2. How much of the net primary productivity of a terrestrial ecosystem
is eaten and digested by herbivores?
(a)1% (b)10%
(c)40% (d)90% [NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. (b)10%
Explanation: Ten percent of the net primary productivity of a terrestrial
ecosystem is eaten and digested by herbivores.
Related Theory
 According to 10% (ten percent) law of Lindeman, at every trophic level of
food chain when organic food energy is transferred from one trophic level
to the next trophic level, only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to
the next level and remaining is lost as heat.

Assertion-Reason Questions
In the question a statement of assertion followed by a statement of
reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
3. Assertion (A):The abiotic components of an ecosystem consist of
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 factors like temperature, soil, water, light, etc.
Reason (R):The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are
independent of each other.
Ans. (c)A is true but R is false.
Explanation: In an ecosystem the abiotic factors include temperature,
soil, water, light, air, etc. whereas the biotic factors or components of
an ecosystem include the living organisms present in it such as plants,
animals, microorganisms, etc.
The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem interact and result
in a physical structure that is characteristic for each type of ecosystem.
They are interdependent on each other.

CASE BASED Questions (CBQs)

[ 4 & 5 marks ]
Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow:
4. Decomposers are the most important component for the soil ecology as
they feed upon the dead mass, which in the process gets broken down
into essential molecular elements like carbon, calcium, nitrogen, etc.,
and becomes available in the soil for plants. Saprophytes carry out the
digestion process externally, i.e., outside their body. Saprophytes secrete
digestive enzymes to break down the organic dead mass and convert
them into simpler substances. For example, proteins are broken down
by saprophytes into amino acids, carbohydrates into simple sugars,
and fats/lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. Fungi and bacteria are the
common saprophytes that survive on saprophytic nutrition.
Decomposers, as well as scavengers, are an important part of the food
cycle involved in the ecological recycling of nutrients and organic matter.
However, the two classes of organisms differ in their mechanism of work.
Essentially, scavengers are the initiators of the process of decomposition
which is eventually taken over by the decomposers.
(A)The bacteria and fungi feeding on the dead animals are:
(a)first link of the food chain and are called primary producers.
(b)second link of food chain known as herbivores.
(c)third link of food chain termed as tertiary consumers.
(d)the end link of the food chain and are known as decomposers.
(B)Assertion(A):The decomposers are not included in the food chains.
Reason(R): Decomposers act on all the trophic levels of a food

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 chain.
(a)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b)Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c)A is true but R is false.
(d)A is false but R is true.
(B)Which of the following are also termed as ‘nature's scavengers’?
(a)Man (b)Microorganisms
(c)Insects (d)Plants
Ans. (A)(d)the end link of the food chain and are known as decomposers.
Explanation: Bacteria and fungi feeding on the dead animals represent
the end of the food chain and are known as saprophytes/decomposers.
They breakdown the dead remains into simpler compounds and obtain
energy from it. They secrete enzymes onto dead matter and convert it
into chemicals like nitrates that are important for plants.
Bacteria are specialised to breakdown organic materials that are
difficult for other organisms to digest. They help in returning the
constituents of organic matter to the environment in inorganic forms
so that they can again be assimilated by producers and thus play
a vital role in an ecosystem. In the absence of saprophytes, the soil
would run out of the nutrients and thus plants will be deprived of the
nutrients.
(B)(a)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
Explanation: Decomposers feed on the dead bodies of plants and
animals regardless of the trophic level to which they belong. Since,
decomposers feed on any dead organism irrespective of the trophic
level to the dead organism belong. Therefore, decomposers cannot be
placed in any trophic level or in any food chain and they act on all
trophic levels.
(C)(b)Microorganisms
Explanation: Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi are
decomposer or saprophytes of the ecosystem. They feed upon dead
decaying organisms i.e., both plant and animals and break them into
simpler compounds. They are called nature's scavengers as they
consume the dead organic matter and clean the environment.

VERY SHORT ANSWER Type Questions (VSA)

[ 1 mark ]

5. The below given image depicts the pitcher plant.

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 Justify that besides acting as powerful insectivorous, Nepenthes or
the pitcher plant also behave as a producer.
Ans. Pitcher plant is chlorophyllous and can take part in photosynthesis. It
feeds on insects to fulfill its nitrogen requirements. Therefore pitcher
plant can also be considered as producer.
Related Theory
 Pitcher plant is a carnivorous plant which has modified pitcher-shaped
leaves known as pitfall traps. It has a mechanism of prey-trapping that
features a deep cavity in leaves filled with digestive liquid. The pitcher
plant attracts and drowns its prey with nectar.

SHORT ANSWER Type Questions (SA)

[ 2 marks ]
6. How does the dead organic matter get decomposed in nature?
Explain. [CBSE 2012]
Ans. Decomposers like bacteria and fungi in nature act on the dead and
decaying organic matter and decompose it with the help of various
digestive enzymes. Decomposition is the process of breakdown of
complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon dioxide,
water and nutrients with the help of decomposers.

LONG ANSWER Type-II Questions (LA-II)

[ 4 & 5 marks ]

7. Justify the following statement in terms of ecosystem dynamics.

“Nature tends to increase the gross primary productivity, while man
tends to increase the net primary productivity”. [NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. Gross primary productivity (GPP) of an ecosystem refers to the
rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis. After
subtracting respiratory losses from it, net primary productivity (NPP)

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 is obtained. Net primary productivity is the actual available biomass
for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores and decomposers).
Nature provides sunlight, which is the prime source of light energy and
an essential requirement for photosynthesis. It also provides various
other biotic and abiotic factors to increase the rate of gross primary
productivity. Therefore it can be said that nature tends to increase the
gross primary productivity.
On the other hand, humans tend to increase the net primary productivity
by cultivating food and other crops, so that sufficient food is provided
to the growing human population.

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 ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM 2

| TOPIC 1 |
ENERGY FLOW
The solar energy or the Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on
Earth except for the deep-sea hydro-thermal ecosystem. Less than 50 percent
of the incident solar radiation is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
Plants is able to use only 2-10 percent of the PAR and this small amount of
energy sustains the entire living world. The plants and photosynthetic bacteria
(autotrophs), fix the radiant energy of Sun in order to prepare food from simple
inorganic materials. Therefore, all organisms depend on producers for their
food directly or indirectly.
Flow of energy is unidirectional i.e., from Sun to producers and then to
consumers, and thus maintains the first law of thermodynamics. Ecosystems
require a constant supply of energy to synthesise the molecules they require
to counteract the universal tendency toward increasing disorderliness. This is
in correlation with the second law of thermodynamics.
In an organism, no energy that is trapped remains in it forever. The energy
trapped by the producer is either passed on to a consumer or the organism
dies.
Types of consumers (heterotrophs)
Consumers can be classified as:
(1) Primary consumers: The consumers that feed on the producers or
plants directly are termed as primary consumers or herbivores. Example:
Insects, birds, mammals in terrestrial ecosystem and molluscs in aquatic
ecosystem.
(2) Secondary consumers: These are those animals which feed on herbivores
(those animals that eat plants or their produce). These are also called as
primary carnivores.
(3) Tertiary consumers: These are those animals that feed on secondary
consumers and obtain their nutrition from them. They are also called as
secondary carnivores.

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 ...

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 OBJECTIVE Type Questions
[ 1 mark ]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Observe the given inverted pyramid of an aquatic ecosystem.

Carnivore 12 gm/m2

Herbivores 8 gm/m2

4 gm/m2
Producers

This ecological pyramid is represented as .............

(a)Pyramid of biomass
(b)Pyramid of energy
(c)Pyramid of number
(d)Pyramid of volume
Ans. (a)Pyramid of biomass
Explanation: The pyramid of biomass is inverted in an aquatic ecosystem
because the biomass production by the consumers (fishes) far exceeds
the biomass produced by the producers (phytoplanktons) at the bottom
level.

Assertion-Reason Questions
In the question a statement of assertion followed by a statement of
reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
2. In the upright pyramid of numbers, the numbers of organisms mostly
reduce from bottom to top. It usually occurs in pond and grassland
ecosystems where plants occupy the base of the pyramid. The next
levels of the pyramid include the consumers.

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 Hawk
(1 kcal)

4 Snake (10 kcal)

Frog (100 kcal)

3

Grasshopper (1,000 kcal)

2

Grass (10,000 kcal)

1

Assertion (A):All the pyramids of number, energy and biomass are

upright in most of the ecosystems.
Reason (R): In any food chain the number and biomass of producers is
more than that of herbivores and the herbivores are more
in number and biomass than the carnivores.
Ans. (a)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

CASE BASED Questions (CBQs)

[ 4 & 5 marks ]

Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow:
3. In ecology, a food chain is a series of organisms that eat one another so
that energy and nutrients flow from one to the next. For example, if you
had a burger for lunch, you might be part of a food chain that looks like
this: grass → cow → human. But what if you had lettuce on your burger?
In that case, you're also part of a food chain that looks like this: lettuce →
human.
As this example illustrates, we can't always fully describe what an
organism—such as a human—eats with one linear pathway. For
situations like the one above, we may want to use a food web that
consists of many intersecting food chains and represents the different
things an organism can eat and be eaten by.
Study the various food chains given below and answer the questions that
follow:

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 bluebirds snake owl

grasshopper

grass
primary secondary tertiary
consumers consumers consumers

decomposers apex
producers predator

Food Chain
(A)Apart from oxygen which is the other major factor on which
decomposition depend on?
(a)Carbon
(b)Chemical composition of detritus
(c)Decomposers
(d)Leaching
(B)A group of organisms that transfer food energy through a linear
series of processes such as eating and being eaten is termed as:
(a)detritus (b)food chain
(c)decomposers (d)producers
(C)On what does the number of individuals in each trophic level
depends on?
(a)Number of individuals at upper trophic level.
(b)Number of individuals at top-most trophic level.
(c)Number of individuals at lower trophic level.
(d)Amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface.
Ans. (A)(b)Chemical composition of detritus
Explanation: Decomposition is a physical and chemical process
of break down of complex dead or decaying organic remains into
inorganic substances. Along with the availability of oxygen, the
decomposition also depends on the chemical composition of detritus.
Chemical composition of detritus affects decomposition. Detritus
which is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances decomposes
rapidly whereas the detritus having chitin and lignin decompose at a
very slow rate.

(B)(b)food chain
Explanation: A group of organisms that transfer food energy through
a linear series of processes such as eating and being eaten is known
as a food chain. A food chain always proceeds in a progressive straight
line and intertwine into food webs. A food chain is a linear sequence of
organisms through which nutrients and energy pass as one organism
eats another.

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 (C)(c)Number of individuals at lower trophic level.
Explanation: The number of individuals in each trophic level depends
on the number of individuals present at their lower trophic level.
Producers are always more in number than all the consumers. Tertiary
consumers are present in the least number.

VERY SHORT ANSWER Type Questions (VSA)

[ 1 mark ]

4. List any two ways of measuring the standing crop of a trophic level.
 [CBSE 2010]
Ans. Standing crop of a trophic level can be measured as:
(1)Biomass of living organisms in a unit area.
(2)Number of living organisms in a unit area.
Related Theory
 The mass of living material at each trophic level in a food chain at a
particular time is called as standing crop.

SHORT ANSWER Type Questions (SA)

[ 2 marks ]

5. Given below is a pyramid of biomass in an ecosystem where each bar

represents the standing crop available in the trophic level. pyramid is
possible in nature?
(A) With the help of an example explain the conditions where this kind
of
Trophic Level 2
Trophic Level 1

(B)Will the pyramid of energy be also of the same shape in this

situation? Give reason for your response.
Ans. (A)Inverted pyramids of biomass are seen in aquatic conditions where a
small standing crop of phytoplankton supports a large standing crop
of zooplankton/fish/In terrestrial ecosystem where a large number of
insects are feeding on the leaves of a tree.
(B)No, the pyramid of energy is always upright, and can never be inverted
because when energy flows from one trophic level to the next trophic

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 level some amount of energy is always lost as heat at each step.

LONG ANSWER Type-I Questions (LA-I)

[ 3 marks ]

6. Fill the labeled (1), (2), (3), (4) trophic levels in the given figure.
Heat

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Heat Heat
Sun Heat

Heat Heat

Heat Heat

Ans. In the given figure, (1) represents producers, i.e., plants (First Trophic level),
(2) represents the primary consumers, i.e., herbivores (Second Trophic
level), (3) represents secondary consumers, i.e., carnivores (Third Trophic
level) and (4) represents tertiary consumers, i.e., top carnivores (Fourth
Trophic level).

Second trophic Third trophic Fourth trophic

Heat First trophic level primary level secondary
level producers level tertiary
consumers consumers consumers
(plants) (herbivores) (carnivores) (top carnivores)
Heat Heat
Sun Heat

Heat Heat

Heat Heat

Diagrammatic Representation of Energy flow through different Trophic Levels

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16 Biology Class XII