The speaker shares close and personal information with

friends, classmates or colleagues. This ordinarily occurs

OralCom Reviwer in everyday life.
Factors affected by a shift in Speech Context Speech Formal
Style, Speech Act, and Communicative Strategy
The speaker has to deliver a pre-planned or written
Language Form speech to address a crowd of people such as giving
opening remarks during a seminar, or the president
This refer to the formality or informality of the language
making a public announcement or delivering SONA.
used, and it involves the choice of words and how
sentences or utterances are structured. Role and Responsibility of Speaker
Formal Language This refer to the role and responsibility of the speaker
which will depend on the purpose and context of
Is used when talking with professionals or persons in
communication.
authority in a formal, official or ceremonial occasion,
situation, gathering or event. Talking with a lawyer, a The speaker may be a person who gives information
doctor or even with your teacher often creates a formal and additional knowledge to another person or an
ambiance in communication. audience, someone who convinces others for a cause or
an individual who provokes laughter for diversion and
Informational Form
fun.
Is used without much consideration to rules of
Hence, his responsibility depends on his purpose for
convention or etiquette. It is casual and mostly not well-
communication which may be to inform, to persuade,
thought-of or prepared because it is used to
or to entertain.
communicate with people with whom you have close
association with like parents, siblings and friends. Message
Duration of Interaction This involves the content of the message. The message
may be facts, opinion, feelings, order suggestions, and
This refers to the amount of time a conversation takes
question.
between and among communicators.
Delivery
Relationship of Speaker
This refers to the manner of delivery involving verbal
This refers to the amount of time a conversation takes
and nonverbal cues made by the speaker. Delivery can
between and among communicators.
be classified as:
Intimate Style
Extemporaneous- speaking with limited preparation and
the speaker talks to family members, best friends or guided by notes or outline;
romantic partners. This may comprise private
Impromptu-speaking without advanced preparation or
conversation or personal interactions.
unrehearsed speech.
Frozen
Memorized- planned and rehearsed speech;
the speaker talks to family members, best friends or
Manuscript- reading aloud a written message
romantic partners. This may comprise private
conversation or personal interactions. Types of Communicative Strategy
Consultative Nomination
The speaker communicates with a person whom he/she A speaker carries out nomination to collaboratively and
may have to clarify things, discuss a problem, or seek productively establish a topic.
advice.
Examples: You may start off with making inquiries,
Casual giving compliment, asking for opinion, or offering help.
This could efficiently signal the beginning of a new topic
in the conversation.
Restriction Example “It’s nice catching up with you. I must be
going.”
Restriction in communication refers to any limitation
you may have as a speaker.
Example In your class, you might be asked by your PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE SPEECH WRITING AND
teacher to brainstorm on peer pressure or deliver a DELIVERY
speech on digital natives. In this case, you cannot decide
to talk about something else. Audience Profile
Knowing your Audience specifically their general
Turn-Taking
age, gender, educational level, religion, language,
It pertains to the process by which people decide who culture, and group membership is one of the most
takes the conversational floor important aspects in developing your speech. Basically
this is done so that you can tailor-fit your speech
Example you can employ this strategy by making your content and delivery to your audience. Analyzing your
response shorter yet informative enough to express audience will help you discover the information you can
your ideas and feelings. use to build a connection between you and members of
Topic-Control your audience

Topic control covers how procedural formality or - Who is the audience?

informality affects the development of topic in - How many?
conversations. - What does the audience know about the
subject
Examples: During a board meeting, the director - Why should they be interested?
manages the communication and directs who may
speak to collectively develop the topic of conversation. Logical Organization

Topic Shifting The logical organization or arrangement of

thoughts when it comes to speech writing can be
Topic shifting involves moving from one topic to defined as all aspects of your writing that help the
another. reader move smoothly from one sentence to the next,
and from one paragraph to another. Thus, carefully
Examples You may use conversational transitions that
planning the content of your speech is necessary.
indicate a shift like “By the way...”, “Before I forget...”,
“Which reminds me of,” and the like. the written speech has three parts: the introduction,
body, conclusion. The role of introduction presents the
Repair
main idea of your speech, while the conclusion
Repair refers to how speakers address the problems in reiterates the main idea. The body offers definitions,
speaking, listening, and comprehending that they examples or any information that can help you convey
your intent and clarify the main concept of your speech.
encounter in a conversation. The Introduction
Examples: Speaker may use recasting or changing the The introduction is the most crucial part of the
form of message to a more understandable one using speech. It is generally only 10-15% of the time the
the following expressions: speaker spends speaking. According to Wrench(2012)
Termination A good introduction serves five functions:
Termination refers to the conversation participants’ - You should be able to gain audience attention
close-initiating expressions that end a topic in a and interest,
conversation This strategy is used to end an interaction - It states the purpose of your speech
or close a topic. Most of the time, the topic initiator or - It establishes your credibility
the person who opened the topic takes responsibility to - It should provide reasons for your audience to
signal the end of the discussion as well. listen
- Your introduction should preview the main idea
of your speech
The Body Signal the end of your speech
The body of the speech is the core part of the speech - End with an impact:
that addresses the main ideas and principles of the - Thought-provoking
speech. It consists of the main points. This is presented - Humor
using methods of organization(Flores 2016) - Quotation
- A call for action
1. Problem Solution Order
Duration
It explains the problem and suggests a possible solution.
No matter how long the speech is, divide it into
Example: Cleaning up Laguna de Bay five parts: An introduction, The body (paragraph 2, 3,
2. categorical/Topical Order and 4) and a conclusion. This format is adaptable to a
speech of almost any length, By doing this, you can
It explains the problem and suggests a possible solution. actually monitor the time and length of your speech or
Example: Cleaning up Laguna de Bay the so-called duration.

3. Chronological Order Most experts say that the ideal length of speech is up to
20 minutes
A historical or time approach which is from the past to
the present. It presents idea in time order. Introduction: 2 minutes (250 words)

Example: The significant development of the province Body: Points 1: 5 minutes (625 words)
of Laguna from Spanish period to present. Points 2: 5 minutes (625 words)
4. Comparison and Contrast Order Points 3: 5 minutes (625 words)
It presents comparison and contrast of two or three Conclusion: 3 minutes (375 words)
points.
Example: Comparison between living in the city and life
in the province. Word Choice

5. Spatial/Geological Order There are lot of vocabularies available to describe one’s

idea. However, the speaker should carefully use the
Going from one place to another, from one direction to correct word in writing a speech. The use of
another. conversational language helps put the audience feel at
Example: Traveling around the wonders of Batanes ease and creates a special bond between the speaker
islands. and the audience. However, there are things you
should consider.
6. Casual Order
The following should be avoided in speech:
It involves a discussion of both cause and effect of an
issue. - Jargons or technical terms specific only for a
group of people
Example: The fish kill in Laguna de Bay - Redundancy or excessive repetition of words
- Language inappropriate for the audience
Conclusion
- Language inappropriate for the occasion
After writing the body of your speech following the
Grammatical Correctness
methods of organization, the last thing that you need to
work on how to end it. The conclusion functions as the Using correct grammar when you give a speech is
summarizer of the entire speech. The conclusion has to important to prevent misunderstanding and
be written using different strategies: misinterpretation between you and the audience. Good
command of the language helps listeners understand
- Present a summary
you quickly. Grammar inconsistencies slow down the
- Repeat the key ideas presented
communication process and generate negative
- Repeat the central idea for emphasis
impressions for the audience, as your ideas and
- Go back to the strategy used in the introduction
thoughts are not clear and coherently conveyed.
 Gitanjali-It is incomparable for the beauty of its imagery
as a form of devotion to God and in appreciation for the
Speech Act
wonders of nature.
Is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an
intended effect. In another world I want my children to tame
grasshoppers in the field, to play with their dolls in the
Speech act are performed when a person offers an living room,
apology, greeting, request, complaints, invitation to inhale the fragrance of flowers waving as wind blows,
compliment or refusal. Speech act is an act of to see the birds measure the sky with their wings.
communication.
These lines expressed the earnest wish of a father.
As we communicate with others, we use language
What do you think these wishes mean?
without minding whether to use complete sentence or
not. The number of words in a single utterance does not The family is suffering from war.
matter so long as we can get our message across. Fable-It is a brief story illustrating a moral or revealing
Three Types of Speech Act general truths about human nature.

According to J. L. Austin (1962) a philosopher of Information and Communication Technology-To

language and the developer of the Speech Act Theory, produce a literary adaptation of a story, one needs to
There are three Types of acts in every utterance, given apply his ICT skills. ICT means _____.
the right circumstances or context These are; Flash Fiction-It refers to an imaginative literature of
extreme brevity. It could range from a word to a
Locutionary
thousand (Gacusan 2018).
LOCUTIONARY ACT: is the basic act of utterance; an act
of saying something; literal and direct meaning of the Complete Plot-It has a beginning, middle and ending of
utterance. (UTTERANCE) the story
Brevity-Flash fiction presents the story with fewest
ILLOCUTIONARY ACT: understanding a communication words as possible.
act on the basis of the speaker’s intention; has social
Surprising Ending-The successful hallmark of a flash
function in mind. (INTENTION)
fiction is its twist at the end of the story.
PERLOCUTIONARY ACT: is the result/effect of the Angels and Blueberries-An example of a flash fiction
utterance on the listener, reveals the effect the speaker that tells a story of various explanations for the color of
wants to exercise over the hearer. (RESPONSE the sky that involves angels and blueberries by Tara
Campbell.
21st Reviewer
Reading Approach:
World Literature-It refers to any written literary genre
that exemplifies the most outstanding characteristics of Teachers use reading approach as one of the methods
particular national literatures. in teaching English. This approach is one way of solving
reading approach-an approach wherein students are students’ reading problems. Students are demanded to
demanded to read more to improve knowledge read more to improve their knowledge and get new
extensive reading-It is reading a longer text, usually for ideas. Inferencing, guessing, and predicting are
pleasure. important skills developed in reading. By reading,
students will know about the different of culture by
Skimming-This technique is useful when the students
reading across cultural understanding, and they will
are seeking specific information rather than reading for
learn how to pronounce the words correctly. In reading
comprehension.
approach, students are expected to improve their
Scanning-It is used by the reader to find answers to
English skills.
questions
Southeast Asia-The Philippines is on the Asian Skimming:
continent. If the Philippines is part of it, which specific
In skimming, the main idea of a text is quickly identified.
region on Asia does the Philippines belong
The goal is to read shorter texts to extract accurate
detailed information. Skimming is done at a speed three 1. “Angels and Blueberries” by Tara Campbell is a story
to four times faster than regular reading. People often of various explanations for the color of the sky that
skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited involves angels and blueberries.
amount of time. Some students will read the first and First line: “Why is the sky blue?” you ask. Well, it is all
last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other depends on who’s answering.
organizers as they move down the page or screen. Some 2. “Taylor Swift” by Hugh Behm-Steinberg tells a weird
might also read the title, subtitles, subheadings, and story of how anyone can order a perfectly clone of
illustrations. Other people consider reading the first Taylor Swift at his doorsteps.
sentence of each paragraph. Skimming works well to
First line: “You’re in love; it’s great, you swipe on your
find dates, names, and places. It might be used to
phone and order: the next day a Taylor Swift clone
review graphs, tables, and charts. This technique is
shows up at your house.”
useful when you are seeking specific information rather
3. “Unnecessary Things” by Tatyana Tolstaya is a story
than reading for comprehension.
of finding an old and torn teddy bear, “unnecessary
Scanning: things” (items that do not serve any useful purpose),
that she adored as a child.
Scanning is quickly reading a text to get the summary of
it. It is a technique wherein students search for First line: This Teddy bear once had amber eyes made
keywords or ideas. Scanning involves moving eyes from special glass- each one had a pupil and an iris. The
quickly down the page seeking specific words and bear itself was gray and stiff, with wiry fur. I adored him.
phrases. Scanning is also used for the reader to find
Graphic fiction or a graphic novel is a comic book
answers to questions. Once a student scanned the
narrative that is equivalent in form and dimension to
document, they will go back and skim it.
the prose novel (Campbell 200, 81). The pictures are
Extensive reading: arranged in sequenced in image panels and dialogues
are written in speech bubbles. The illustrations allow
Extensive Reading is an approach to language learning,
the readers to imagine and experience the characters
including foreign language learning, by means of a large
and events in the story. Some of the examples of
amount of reading. The reader’s view and review of
graphic novels are the following:
unfamiliar words in a specific context will allow the
reader to infer the word’s meaning, to learn unknown 1. “In the Shadow of No Towers: 9/11” by Art
words. Extensive Reading is the free reading of books Spielgelman in 2004 which tells the story about the
and other written material that is not too difficult for terrorist attack on September 11, in America. This also
readers. Extensive Reading is sometimes called Free depicts the traumatic and tragic experience of American
Voluntary Reading. people during the 9/11 terrorist attack.
2. “The Barn Owl’s Wondrous Capers” by Sarnath
Flash fiction is imaginative literature of extreme brevity.
Banerjee in 2009 portrays 18th Century Calcutta
It could range from a word to a thousand (Gacusan
exploiting the myth of the “Wandering Jew.”
2018). It is known as micro stories, postcard fiction,
nanotales and short shorts. According to Sustana 3. “Louis Riel” by Chester Brown in 2003 is a
(2020), most of the flash fictions have these common fictionalized violent rebellion in the 19th Century on the
characteristics. Canadian prairie who led by Riel.
1. Brevity. Flash fiction presents the story with fewest mask one’s sorrow’- Pretend to be sad.
words as possible. ‘etched in his heart’- to be always remembered

2. Complete plot. Flash fiction emphasizes the Plot- considered as the most significant element of a
development of plot. Itt has a beginning, middle, and story for it presents the series of events and characters’
ending of the story. actions in the story
3. Surprising ending. The successful hallmark of a flash flash fiction- also referred to as a short-short story
fiction is its twist at the end of the story. Here are some climax- refers to the time and place the story takes
of the flash fictions: place
 gaiety- emotion felt with the loss of a loved one Which of the following phenomena involves hydrolysis?
exposition - known as the inciting incident where the
Weathering of potassium feldspar to clay
author introduces the characters, identifies where the
story is happening, and establishes the main conflict Which of the following conditions will hasten weathering
flashback- writing technique is used for an episodic plot in an area?
time - When the story transpires on a particular period
Weathering of rocks is influenced by numerous factors
of time such as an hour, a day, a week, a month or even
such as climate in the area, mineral composition, and
a year, it is a plot movement in __________?
texture of rocks. Weathering occurs faster in hot, wet
Resolution- considered as the solution to the problem in climates while slower in very cold, dry places. It also occurs
a story rapidly when there is a large surface area exposed to
surface processes. The higher the elevation of an area the
more the susceptible it is to weathering since it is more
Earth Science Reviewer exposed to wind, sudden change in temperature, and
other factors. Rocks composed of least stable minerals
WEATHERING Mechanical Weathering such as olivine and pyroxene is also more likely to weather
faster.
Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are
broken down into smaller pieces without changing their Granite and basalt are exposed at Earth’s surface in a
chemical composition due to several factors like hot, wet region. Which rock will weather at a faster
fluctuating temperatures and pressure, and biological rate?
activity.
Remember that granite is composed of minerals such as
Chemical weathering is a process wherein rock materials plagioclase, feldspar, and quartz. Based on the Goldich
are changed into other substances that have different stability series, quartz is the most stable mineral on
physical and chemical compositions. Earth's surface. Granite has large amounts of quartz and
Factors Affecting Weathering of Rocks Weathering of rocks therefore will most likely resist weathering. On the
is influenced by numerous factors other hand, basalt is composed of the least stable
minerals such as amphibole, plagioclase, and even small
such as climate in the area, mineral composition, and amounts of olivine. These minerals are more susceptible
texture of rocks. to weathering.
Key Points EROSION
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks either Key Points
mechanically or chemically. Weathering of rocks is caused
by numerous factors such as climate, surface area and Erosion is the movement of sediments and particles
topographic relief, and rock composition. through the help of transporting media such as glacial
ice, water, and wind.
What is the process of gradual breaking down of rocks into
smaller pieces? Water erosion is a type of erosion where water carries
the sediments to different bodies of water such as
Weathering is the process of breaking down of rocks into rivers.
smaller pieces called sediments.
Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as
Which of the following processes occurs when rocks small rocks and pebbles, are carried by the wind to
disintegrate without the change in chemical composition different places
and mainly depends on factors such as fluctuating
temperatures and biological activity? Glacial erosion happens when a glacier or a river of
highly-compact ice moves downhill due to its own
Mechanical weathering. Hydrolysis is a process which weight.
involves water’s reaction with a mineral to form a new
mineral resulting to the incorporation of water into its Which process refers to the movement of weathered
crystal structure. This process is often involved in the rocks with the aid of a transporting
weathering of common minerals.
medium?
Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks with Which of the following processes refers to the
the help of different transporting agents. It is a constant movement of material downward without a need for a
recycling of Earth’s materials under the rock cycle. transporting medium?
Erosional forces such as wind and water carry the soil
components and sediments from one place to another. Mass wasting is a downslope movement of rock,
regolith, and soil under the influence of gravity. It is
Which of the following group correctly identifies the different from erosion because mass wasting does not
agents of erosion? need any transporting medium such as wind, water, or
glacial ice.
Water, wind, ice, and gravity are the agents of erosion. What is the slowest type of mass wasting?
Erosional forces such as wind and water carry the soil
components and sediments from one place to another. Creep is the slow, downhill movement of rock or soil
under the influence of gravity. Each particle moves
Glacial erosion independently and does not move as one mass of
Which type of erosion can transport large amount of debris. It typically moves at a rate of 1 centimeter per
sediments and can create spectacular landforms due to year but may move faster when saturated with water
its erosive power? What happens to the angle of repose in a pile of quartz
sand as the amount of water increases? INCREASES
happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks THEN DECREASES
chunks of rocks and causes scraping between the ice
and the rock. Plucking and scraping can lead to the Slightly wet unconsolidated materials exhibit a very high
development of other landforms if, for example, the angle of repose due to the surface tension created by
glaciers hit a mountain and erode it. Due to its erosive water as it holds the grain together. If the amount of
power glaciers can can carve a valley and change the water is too much (saturated), angle of repose becomes
previous landform in an area. very small and creates fluid-like motion for the grains.
Addition of water in a pile of quartz first increases its
In addition to that, there is also an evident increase in angle of repose but as the material becomes saturated,
runoffs, accelerated erosion, it will start to decrease.

and decrease in soil quality in areas affected by erosion. Which of the following factors will not increase the rate
of mass wasting in a hillside?
What happens to an area which is experiencing soil
erosion? The angle of repose for dry materials increases with the
size of the grains but is also affected by the amount of
Erosion has a large effect not only in agriculture but in water present.
other areas as well. Water pollution due to siltation,
high amount of sedimentation, and contamination from Slightly wet unconsolidated materials exhibit a very high
chemicals are also rampant. angle of

How does grazing affect the soil?\ repose but if the amount of water is too much
(saturated), that’s the time that the area will be
Overgrazing by livestock or by indigenous animals may
remove vegetation leaving the soil more vulnerable to more susceptible to the downward movemen
erosion. It also removes the nutrients from the topsoil
rate of mass wasting processes.
which is the most nutrient- filled part of the soil.It can
leave the area vulnaerable to different types of erosion. t. All the other options may cause an increased
MASS WEATHERING Key Points In which specific environments will mass wasting most
likely to occur?
Mass wasting is the movement of sediments due mainly
to gravity. A very gradual slope in a heavily vegetated tropical
rainforest
Mass wasting can be categorized based on the rate of
without
movement (rapid or slow), type of movement (falling,
A steep hillside composed of alternating layers of rocks
sliding, or flowing), and the type of material involved
located in an area with dry and rainy seasons. The layers
(rock, soil,
are oriented parallel to the slope.
or debris). With.A steep hillside composed of clay in a rainy
environment in an active earthquake zone.WITH MASS n is a process of deposition of a solid material after it is
WASTING. transported by different agents of sediment transport
such as water and wind.
A mountainous region located in a cold polar region
with areas of permafrost. Which of the following processes refers to the
increased amount of suspended sediments and to the
with
accumulation of fine particles at the bottom of a body
For mass wasting to occur, several factors should be of water?
considered such as the angle of the slope, Siltation is a type of pollution that occurs when silt or
clay dominates a body of water. It refers to the
the amount of water present in the area, the presence increased amount of suspended sediments and to the
of vegetation, the type of rocks present, accumulation of fine particles at the bottom of a
the presence of weak zones parallel to the dip of the stream, for example. This is mainly caused by soil
slope, the climate in an area and even the erosion or excess amount of sediments.

occurrence of triggering events. The three Which of the following phenomena are reliable proofs
environments have one or two factors that can of excessive sedimentation of silt and clay?

hasten mass wasting while the other environment has a Corals are mostly affected when there is excessive
gradual slope and a large amount of sedimentation. Since corals do not move, sediments
simply lie on top of it and later on killing it. High
vegetation reducing its susceptibility to mass wasting. amount of sediments also increases the turbidity level
of the water which later on hinders the amount of light
Sediments Key Points
needed for
Sedimentation is the process of deposition once the
sediments are transported. photosynthesis of marine plants.
A stream is observed to flow from the top of a rocky
The Wentworth scale describes detrital or clastic mountain and transports sediments into the sea. At the
sediments by assigning names to foot of the mountain, angular boulders are found. As it
flows toward the sea, the size of the sediments occur
particular size ranges.
from fine sand to silt-size. Based on the information
Which of the following processes produce sediments? given, what can you conclude about the flow rate of
the stream?
Sediments are loose, unconsolidated, solid particles
from any of the three processes Unit 11

weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks, (2) EARHT INTERNAL HEAT Key Points
precipitation of minerals dissolved in water,
Earth’s internal heat is produced by residual heat
1) (extraterrestrial impacts and gravitational contraction)
and radiogenic heat.
and (3) remains of plants and animals.
Earth’s thermal budget is the measure of the amount of
Sedimentatio heat that is released at the surface and produced in the
The solidification of molten material forms igneous interior.
rocks. When these igneous rocks are weathered, that is Which of the following describes geothermal gradient?
the only time that sediments are
Geothermal gradient is the increase in temperature
formed from it.\ with respect to the increase in depth
Which of the following processes refers to the Which of the following are the main sources of Earth’s
deposition of a solid material after it is carried by internal heat? Earth’s internal heat is produced by
different agents of sediment transport such as water extraterrestrial impacts, gravitational contraction of
and wind.? Earth’s interior, and radioactivity of isotopes
Which of the following is true about heat flow on
Earth’s interior? The heat flow from Earth’s interior
powers the convection within the mantle and the core and silica depleted magma of diverse compositions.
and contributes little to the heat balance or convection
in the atmosphere and oceans. • Carbonatites are the only magmas that are not
produced by silicate source rock.
Which of the following elements are used to compute
Earth’s thermal budget?
The thermal budget is computed through the study of Which of the following describes magmatism?
energy emitted by the four major isotopes that produce
Magmatism is the activity or the motion of magma.
heat namely uranium-238, uranium-235, thorium-232,
Magmatism occurs along plate boundaries or margins
and potassium-40 According to the nebular theory, how
and sometimes within the plate. movement of magma.
was heat energy produced?
According to the nebular theory, heat energy was What is the most abundant element in magma?
produced when great amount of kinetic energy
produced by moving objects was converted to heat In general, magma is composed of oxygen, silicon, iron,
energy. Also, during the accretion of particles, it led to aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and potassium.
an increase in the gravitational attraction causing the Oxygen is the most abundant element in magma
contraction of Earth into a smaller volume. This resulted followed by silicon, and then, aluminum.
in the conversion of gravitational energy into heat In which of the following does decompression melting
energy. Finally, the process of radioactive decay happens?
produces heat as a by-product. Decompression melting occurs in divergent boundaries
MAGMATISM :HOW MAGMA IS FORMED where tectonic plates moves apart from each other.
In flux melting, what cause the rocks to partially melt?
Magma Decompression melting occurs in divergent boundaries
where tectonic plates moves apart from each other.
Magma is defined as molten rock material produced by
the partial melting of the mantle and crust. It contains Why is magma formed from partial melting?
liquids, gases, crystals, and rock fragments. Magma is formed from the partial melting of existing
rocks. Partial melting means that only some parts of
Magma can be produced by increase in temperature,
rocks melt. This is because most rocks are made of
decrease in pressure, and addition of volatiles.
various minerals which do not have the same melting
o Temperature increases with depth. temperature.

o As pressure is decreased, melting temperatures of VOLCANOES AND VOLCANISM

materials decrease.
o Rock's melting temperature decreases when more Key Points
volatiles are introduced. Volcanism is the process where magma rises to the
surface of Earth as lava.
Magmatism
A volcano is a hill or mountain where lava, pyroclastic
Magmatism occurs along plate boundaries or margins materials, and gases erupt. It can form along plate
and sometimes within the plate. boundaries or within the plate.
Hot mantle rock penetrates the crust and becomes Lava flows may be classified as pahoehoe and aa.
magma.
Which of the following describes volcanism?
Classification of Magma
Volcanism is the process where magma rises on the
Tholeiitic magmas or tholeiites are produced by large surface of Earth as lava. It can be viewed as a
degree of melting. destructive event as it could damage facilities and cause
injuries or as a constructive process that transformed
Calc-alkaline basalts form along convergent plate
the early Earth through release of volcanic gases and
boundaries above subduction zones.
formed several islands through volcanic processes.
Alkaline basalts form from smaller degree of partial
Which of the following parts of volcano serves as an
melting, which results in alkali-rich
engine?
The magma chamber is the reservoir where magma is country rock (rock native to an area) to form structures
stored. It serves as the “engine” of the volcano that is called plutons. A pluton is a solidified body of plutonic
situated in the crust, just below the volcano. rocks that crystallized when the magma slowly cooled
below Earth’s surface. Geologic processes such as uplift
Which of the following are true about explosive and erosion expose these structures.
eruption?
What are the differences between plutonic rocks and
Explosive eruptions are characterized by fragmented volcanic rocks?
lava spewing out from the vent of the volcano. This
occurs due to the expansion of dissolved gases in the Plutonic rocks form in Earth’s interior while volcanic
magma within the vent. As the magma rises into the rocks form on the crust. Also, they have grains that are
surface, pressure inside it weakens, forming gas much coarser compared to volcanic equivalents.
bubbles. As the magma approaches the surface, bigger Which of the following are examples of concordant
bubbles form. As a result, great pressure inside the plutons?
bubbles are formed than the surrounding magma. Concordant plutons are those that are injected parallel
to features in the country rock such as sedimentary
Composite volcanoes consist of alternating layers of beds. Examples of concordant plutons are sills and
pyroclastic materials and lava flows. Which of the laccoliths.
following volcanoes is an example of a composite
volcano? UNIT 12
ROCK FORMATION
Mayon volcano
Key Points
Which of the following are true about this volcano?
A rock is an aggregate of mineral or minerals which may
Mount Amorong is a potentially active volcano and is
or may not contain organic matter.
considered as one of a cluster of small lava domes.
Therefore, it is young in morphology and has no The rock cycle is a model that shows how each type of
historical record of eruption. Also, since it is a lava rock is formed from each other.
dome, it is quite unstable and may collapse under their
own weight or may also impose danger when pressure The three types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and
underneath cause these bodies to explode. metamorphic rocks.

Plutonism Key Points •

o Igneous rocks form from cooling magma or lava. It can
be classified as intrusive or extrusive, depending on
The term plutonic can be used to classify rocks which where they cool down.
formed in the interior of Earth. This is the opposite of
o Sedimentary rock formation starts with weathering,
volcanic rocks that form on the crust.
which is the breakdown of rocks and minerals into
They vary in sizes and shape and may be classified sediments through mechanical or chemical means.

as discordant or concordant structures. o Metamorphic rocks are formed from preexisting rocks
which have undergone changes in its mineral content
Who proposed the theory of plutonism? and texture. Metamorphic rocks can be classified as
foliated which have clear layers, and nonfoliated, which
In the 18th century, James Hutton proposed the theory
have no defined layers.
of plutonism.
What is the term used to refer to aggregate of mineral
Which of the following describes plutonism?
or minerals which may or may not contain organic
Plutonism states that rocks were formed from heat matter?
driven processes. This heat comes from the interior of
A rock is an aggregate of mineral or minerals which may
Earth.
or may not contain organic matter. It is formed through
Which of the following are true about plutons? several processes caused by different conditions within
and
As magma rises to the crust, it can displace the host or
on Earth’s surface. processes such as recrystallization, neocrystallization,
phase change, pressure solution, and plastic
Which of the following is not considered as one of the deformation.
three main classification of rocks?
What is the process of changing the characteristics of a
Rocks are classified into three namely, igneous, rock caused by changes in temperature, pressure, or
sedimentary, and igneous rocks. Rock cycle shows how volatile content?
the formation of the three types of rock and the Metamorphism comes from the Greek words ‘meta’
processes that they undergo before, during and after meaning to change and ‘morph’ which means form. It is
their formation. the process of changing the characteristics of a rock as a
.What is the main difference between felsic and mafic result of changes in temperature, pressure, or volatile
rock? content.
Rocks composed of almost entirely light minerals are What is the correct term used to refer to the preexisting
described as felsic and often referred to as granitic rock that undergoes metamorphism?
rocks. Basaltic rocks are mafic in composition, meaning,
it is composed mainly of The preexisting rock that undergoes metamorphism is
called the protolith. The protolith can be
dark minerals. Both of these igneous rocks can undergo
fast and slow rate of cooling. In result, both types can igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic.
occur as fine and coarse-grained.
Which of the following statements is true during the
. process of phase change?

Which of the following is not considered as one of the Phase change is characterized by a change in mineral
three main classification of rocks? structure while retaining the same chemical
composition. Minerals involved in this process are called
Conglomerate and sandstone are examples of polymorphs of one another. Polymorphs are minerals
sedimentary rocks. Andesite is an igneous rocks with an which can occur in more than one structure.
intermediate composition. Slate is a type of foliated What happens to rocks during plastic deformation?
metamorphic rock.
Usually, when rocks are subjected to deformational
By referring to the figure of three different rocks below, forces, they break. In some instances, when
which of the following statements are true? temperature is high, minerals can behave like plastic
X can be categorized as a metamorphic rock due to the and stretch instead of break. This process is called
presence of foliation or alignment of plastic deformation.
The metamorphic rock below was identified to be slate.
minerals while mafic rocks are composed of dark It was said to come from a sedimentary rock called
minerals mudstone which usually forms on the seafloor. Which
Felsic rocks are composed entirely of light feature of the slate proves this fact?

minerals. Y is an igneous rock because of its crystalline

structure and the random arrangement of the said
crystals. Lastly, Z is a sedimentary rocks because of the
presence of fossils. Fossils can only be found in this
type of rock due to the involvement of surface
processes during its formation.

WHAT IS METARMORPHISM?
Key Points The presence of the fossil of a sea-creature proves that
this metamorphic rock was once a sedimentary rock
The protolith is the preexisting rock that undergoes
found in the seafloor. The presence of fine-grained
metamorphism.
crystals, layers and folded bands may be caused by the
Metamorphism changes the texture and mineralogy of pressure from underlying rocks or layers but it do not
the protolith and involves signify that the parent rock came from the seafloor.
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM. Regionally metamorphosed rocks usually occur in the
cores of fold/thrust mountain belts or in eroded
Key Points mountain ranges. Compressive stresses result in folding
Metamorphic grade refers to the relative temperature of rock and thickening of the crust, which tends to push
and pressure conditions during the formation of rocks to deeper levels where they are subjected to
metamorphic rocks. higher

Prograde metamorphism takes place when pressure temperatures and pressures.

and temperature are increased.
Factors Controlling Metamorphism Key Points
Retrograde metamorphism takes place when pressure
• The process of metamorphism is controlled by four
and temperature are decreased.
factors: temperature, pressure, chemically active fluids,
Types of metamorphism include contact, burial, and time.
dynamic, regional, hydrothermal,
o Temperature is affected by heat or thermal energy,
and shock. which can come from two sources: igneous intrusions
and Earth’s geothermal gradient.
Which refers to the relative temperature and pressure
conditions during the formation of metamorphic rocks? o Pressure increases with depth and can be classified
Metamorphic grade refers to the relative temperature into two types: uniform stress and differential stress.
and pressure conditions during the formation of the
o Chemically active fluids enhance chemical reactions
metamorphic rocks.
that alter the composition of rocks.
Which of the following processes occurs when
o Metamorphic rocks that contain large crystals need
temperature and pressure are decreased and
time to form, on a scale of tens of millions of years.
begins to require addition of hydrothermal fluids or
Which of the following factors controls metamorphism?
water?
The process of metamorphism is controlled by four
Metamorphic grade refers to the relative temperature
factors: temperature, pressure, chemically active fluids,
and pressure conditions during the formation of the
and time. These factors determine the degree of
metamorphic rocks.
metamorphism the protolith will experience.
n which type of metamorphism does foliation usually
What are the sources of heat or thermal energy that
occur?
produces metamorphism?
Metamorphic grade refers to the relative temperature
and pressure conditions during the formation of the Thermal energy that causes metamorphism comes from
metamorphic rocks. two sources. First is the heat that
What happens to rocks during shock or impact comes from ascending magmas as in the case of contact
metamorphism? metamorphism. Intrusive bodies alter the texture and
mineralogy of surrounding rocks to form metamorphic
When meteorites reach Earth, their kinetic energies are
rocks. Another source of heat comes from Earth’s
transformed into a large amount of heat. The impact of
geothermal gradient. Rocks on the surface may
these bodies causes rocks in contact to melt or even
experience increase in temperature of they are
vaporize. Metamorphic rocks may form in the process
subjected to burial.
of shock metamorphism. In this type of metamorphism,
high-pressure polymorph of quartz is usually formed. Which of the following factors should you change to
This includes coesite and stishovite. make the rocks ductile?
Which of the following statements best describe the
Regional metamorphism is said to occur over large
importance of chemically active fluids in
areas that experience differential stress. This type of
metamorphism?
stress is produced by deformational zones caused by
Any existing open space between mineral grains in a
the collision of two rock bodies with one another. Given
rock can potentially contain a fluid. This fluid is mostly
the said conditions, in which tectonic setting will
water, but contains dissolved ions. The fluid phase is
regional metamorphism occur?
important because chemical
reactions that involve changing a solid mineral into a The layers of Earth can be classified into mechanical and
new solid mineral can be greatly speeded up by having compositional.
dissolved ions transported by the fluid.
The compositional layers of Earth include crust, mantle,
Rocks tend to be brittle at low temperature and
pressure. Given the said condition, in which part of and core.
Earth is most prone to brittle deformation? The mechanical layers of Earth are lithosphere,
UNIT 13 COMPISITIONAL LAYEARS OF EARTH OVERVIEW asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer
OF THE LAYERS OF EARTH Compositional Layers of Earth core, and inner core.
• Crust is the outermost layer which is primarily What was the instrument used to study Earth’s interior?
composed of granitic and basaltic igneous rocks.
Scientists were able to study Earth’s interior when
Mantle is about 84% of Earth’s volume which is mainly seismographs were discovered.
composed of silicates.
Which of the following describes the Mohorovicic
Core is innermost layer which is mainly composed of discontinuity?
iron and nickel.
The Mohorovicic discontinuity is the boundary between
the mantle and the crust.
Which of the following layers of Earth formed by cooling
of magma?
The crust is mainly composed of granites and basalts.
These are igneous rocks that are formed by the cooling
of magma, a mixture of molten or semi-molten rocks
found beneath Earth’s surface.
Mechanical Layers of Earth
Which of the following Earth’s layers is composed of
Lithosphere is the rigid outermost layer composed of basalts and constantly formed through tearing of
crust and the uppermost mantle. tectonic plates?
The crust is mainly composed of granites and basalts.
Asthenosphere is the plastic layer of the mantle which These are igneous rocks that are formed by the cooling
enables the movement of slabs of magma, a mixture of molten or semi-molten rocks
in the lithosphere. found beneath Earth’s surface.

Mechanical Layers of Earth Which of the following are true about the lithosphere?

Mesosphere is a semisolid layer below the The crust is mainly composed of granites and basalts.
asthenosphere. These are igneous rocks that are formed by the cooling
of magma, a mixture of molten or semi-molten rocks
Outer core is the liquid innermost layer of Earth. found beneath Earth’s surface.
Inner core is the solid innermost layer of Earth. THE CRUST
General Characteristics of Crust
Andrija Mohorovičić
The crust is the outermost layer of Earth and is the only
Andrija Mohorovičić, a Croatian meteorologist, and
layer where organisms are found.The crust is the
seismologist was the first to discover Earth’s interior.
outermost rocky layer of Earth which is mainly
He hypothesized that different densities of rocks caused composed of granitic and basaltic igneous rocks. It can
the waves to bend or refract and that a boundary be classified as a continental crust or oceanic crust.
existed between the lighter crust and the denser
Continental crust is composed of granite wherein it can
mantle. This boundary was subsequently called as the
either be in the form of mountain belts or stable
Mohorovičić discontinuity or simply Moho discontinuity
interior
which is located between the mantle and the crust.
Oceanic crust are composed of basaltic rocks and is
Key Points
denser than continental.
Which of the following describes the crust? media only.
Layers of the Mantle
The crust is the outermost layer of Earth. This layer
makes up only 1% of Earth’s total volume. The upper part of the mantle is not uniform. Its rigid
uppermost layer is similar to the crust. Together with
Which of the following are the major parts of the crust? the crust, this layer makes up called the lithosphere.
The crust is divided into two parts: the continental crust Asthenosphere is the denser part of the mantle located
and the oceanic crust. below the lithosphere. In this layer, the materials are
more plastic and flow slowly.
Which of the following is true about shields?
Layers of the Mantle
shields are flat regions composed of deformed
crystalline rocks. A transition zone is a region where rocks undergo a
complete change.
Which of the following is true about continental shelf?
The mesosphere is referred to as the lower mantle
The continental shelf refers to the gently sloping
which lies below the asthenosphere.
platform extending seaward from the shore.
In this region, the materials are semisolid.
These are flooded extensions of the continents.
Mantle makes up about 84% percent of Earth’s volume
Biscay abyssal plain is an example of an underwater
and is mainly composed of silicates.
plain on the deep ocean floor. It is located in the
northern part of the Atlantic ocean. Which of the Mohorovičić discontinuity is the boundary between the
following is true about this example? crust and the mantle.
deep ocean basins lie between continental margins and
oceanic ridges. Abyssal plains are found in these Gutenberg discontinuity is located between the mantle
regions. and the core.

THE MANTLE Convection is the process of sinking cold material and

General Characteristics of Mantle rising hot material due to the

The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth’s total difference in density.

volume. Which of the following describes a transition zone?
It is located in between the crust and the core which is Which of the following describes the lithosphere?
about 2900 km deep. The lithosphere is the solid uppermost part of the
mantle and the crust. This is where the boundary
The temperature of Earth’s interior increases with between the crust and the mantle are located.
depth. Which of the following materials are found in the
mesosphere?
o The rate of increase in temperature with respect to
The lithosphere is the solid uppermost part of the
the depth is called the geothermal gradient
mantle and the crust. This is where the boundary
Mantle Convection between the crust and the mantle are located.
Which of the following is true about geothermal
• It is the process by which the mantle moves as it gradient?
transfers heat from the core to the lithosphere.
The temperature of Earth’s interior increases with
This involves convection currents formed from the depth. The rate of increase in temperature with respect
upward and downward motions of the materials caused to the depth is called the geothermal gradient. At the
by the difference in temperature. Seismic Waves first 100 km, the gradient is around 15 to 30°C/km. This
• Body waves are seismic waves that can travel through temperature gradient drops off through the mantle and
Earth’s interior and can be categorized into two: P- increases quickly at the base of the mantle.
waves and S-waves. How does convection currents transfer heat from the
o The primary or P-waves can travel both in solids and core to the lithosphere?
liquids. o Secondary or S-waves is limited to solids
Mantle convection is the transfer of heat from the core The core is the innermost layer of Earth. It is considered
to the lithosphere. It involves as the center of Earth.
convection currents which transfer the magma to the Which of the following describes Earth’s core?
lithosphere through the plate boundaries
Earth’s core is believed to be formed from the sinking of
and certain hot spots. denser iron and nickel metals during
THE CORE the early stages of the formation of Earth.
General Characteristics of the Core Which of the following are true about the outer core?
The core is the innermost layer of Earth. The outer core is composed primarily of iron and nickel.
It is considered a liquid layer, with very
Earth’s core is believed to be formed from sinking dense
iron and nickel metals during low viscosity, making the materials malleable and easily
deformed. The outer core is also a
the early stages of Earth’s formation, an event known as
the iron catastrophe. region where violent convection occurs.
Layers of the Core Which of the following properties causes the metals in
the inner core maintain their solid
The outer core is about 2300 km thick and has a
temperature that ranges from 4500 °C to 5500 °C. form?
The inner core is a solid ball of iron which has a radius of The pressure inside the inner core of about 330–360
1200 km, and its temperature gigapascals allows the metals to stay in its
is about 5000 to 5200 °C. solid form.
The Rotation of Earth’s Inner Core. Why do outer and inner core differ in their states of
matter?
• Scientists believe that the inner core rotates opposite
the direction of the flow of the outer core, creating a The difference between the states of matter of the
geodynamo effect that generates Earth’s magnetic field. inner and outer core is due to the intense
• pressure in the inner core which prevents the iron from
melting, even though its temperature is
Earth's Magnetic Field
way too high. Therefore, the inner core is able to keep
Key Points its solid form.
UNIT 14
THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
• Magnetic field is very important in protecting Earth
from the charged particles emitted by the solar winds. During the early times, the prior knowledge of most
geologists is that all continents and ocean basins are in
The core is the innermost layer of Earth which is mainly
fixed position.
composed of iron and nickel.
However, this idea was changed after the they have
Outer core is the innermost liquid layer of Earth. discovered that Earth’s continents are gradually moving
resulting to the collision of continental blocks, splitting
Inner core is the innermost solid layer of Earth. apart of landmasses, and continuous creation and
Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the destruction of oceanic basins.
mantle and the core. The continental drift hypothesis was proposed by
Lehmann discontinuity is located between the outer German meteorologist named Alfred
and inner core. Wegener.Continental drift hypothesis states that all
known landmasses on Earth were once joined in one
Which of the following refers to innermost layer of supercontinent known as Pangaea (meaning “all-
Earth?
lands”). It is surrounded by a huge ocean known as specific time.
Panthalassa.
Apparent polar wandering: Data from paleomagnetism
Evidence Supporting the Continental Drift Hypothesis of rocks in Europe and North
Continental Fit: Even before Wegener’s hypothesis,
several people already noticed that some continents America showed that there was an apparent change in
position of magnetic poles over time.
remarkably fit especially Africa and South America.
Fossil Evidence: Wegener recorded cases wherein fossil
organisms were found in a separate landmass. Mechanism of Plate Motion
Similarity of Rock Types and Mountain Ranges: Another • Mantle convection is driven by a combination of
evidence that Wegener found is the presence of 2.2- thermal processes. There are two models of plate-
billion-year-old igneous rocks in Brazil that is similar to mantle convection proposed to explain the mechanism
the rocks found in Africa. of plate motion:
Glacial Evidence: Wegener learned that there was o Some researchers proposed that the mantle is divided
evidence showing the presence of a glacial period dated into two zones of convection which is a thin layer in the
about 300 million years ago in South Africa, South upper mantle and a thick layer located below. This
America, Australia, and India. model is known as “layer cake” model.
A more comprehensive explanation of the movement o Other researchers support the whole mantle
of continent and ocean floor, known as the theory of convection where denser oceanic lithosphere sinks and
plate tectonics states that the lithosphere (includes the may even reach the core-mantle boundary.
uppermost mantle and the overlying crust) behaves as
a strong, rigid layer which is broken into segments • Aside from this heat-driven in the movement of
known as plates. plates, some geologists also believe that there are also
gravity-driven mechanisms referred to as “slab-pull”
The lithosphere is broken into several irregularly- and “ridge-push”.
shaped segments called lithospheric plates or tectonic
plates that are in constant motion with respect to each Key Points
other. Continental drift hypothesis proposed that known
There are seven major plates which include North landmasses were once joined in one supercontinent
America, South American, Pacific, African, Eurasian, known as Pangaea (meaning “all- lands”) and began to
Australian-Indian, and Antarctic plates. break into smaller landmasses about 200 million years
Evidence Supporting the Plate Tectonic Theory ago.
Plate tectonics combines the idea of the continental
drift and seafloor spreading, stating that Earth is divided
Ocean drilling: The Deep Sea Drilling Project was used into several lithospheric plates that move relative to
to collect data from the seafloor to establish its age. each other. It is supported by data obtained from ocean
The data showed that the ocean floor increases in age drilling project, paleomagnetism, and apparent polar
as it moved farther away from the ridge crest which wandering.
supports the seafloor spreading hypothesis.
Mantle convection is the rising of warm material and
Hotspots: Radiometric dating of the Hawaiian Island- sinking of cold material in the mantle. There are two
Emperor Seamount chain proves models of the mantle known as the layer cake model
and whole mantle convection.
that volcanoes increase in age as they move away from
the hot spot. Gravity-driven mechanism includes slab pull and ridge
push.
Paleomagnetism: It is the study of magnetism of
ancient rocks. Several paleomagnetic o Slab pull is the force which causes the oceanic plates
to move downward at subduction zones.
data were collected in rocks to determine the direction
of the magnetic poles at a
o Meanwhile, ridge push is the force that causes warm strong, rigid layer which is broken into segments called
and less dense material to force itself up through a plates. These plates are in constant
ridge.
motion over the weak region in the mantle, the
Who proposed the theory of continental drift? asthenosphere.
In 1915, a German meteorologist named Alfred Based on the figure below, what can you conclude
Wegener wrote The Origin of Continents and about the movement of plates in point A?
Oceans, which discussed his hypothesis called As seen in the figure, the two convection cells
continental drift. responsible for the tectonic activity in point A are
Which of the following concepts refers to the idea that circulating in opposite directions. This causes the
200 million years ago Pangaea began lithosphere to break and create a rift. As time
to break in smaller masses and gradually move to their goes by, the lithospheric plates will move farther away
present positions? Wegener suggested from each other.
that there was once a supercontinent called Pangaea THE FORMATION OF FAULTS AND FOLDS
comprising all of Earth’s landmasses. He
Types of Stress
added that this supercontinent began to break into Stress is a force exerted on an object, in this case, a
smaller landmasses about 200 million years rock. There are two general types of stress.
ago. These landmasses gradually drifted to their present Confining stress takes place when a rock or sediment is
positions in a span of millions of buried and acts uniformly in all direction.
years.continental drift Directed stress only acts in one direction and is most
likely associated with tectonic activities. There are three
Which of the following statements best differentiate types of directed stress, namely: compressive,
continental drift hypothesis from plate tensional, and shear stress.
tectonics theory? Types of Rock Deformation
Continental drift claims that there was a supercontinent A rock undergoing elastic deformation goes back to its
called Pangaea comprised of all the original size and shape once the stress is removed.
Earth’s landmasses. This supercontinent began to break Ductile deformation is a condition where moves in
into smaller landmasses about 200 plastic manner that could lead to permanent change in
million years ago and drifted to their present positions. shape and size yet do not involve breakage of rock.
Plate tectonics, however, explains that Brittle deformation occurs when rocks surpassed its
the lithosphere behaves as a strong, rigid layer which is elastic limit leading formation of fractures.
broken into segments called plates. A fold is composed of various parts.
These plates are in constant motion over the weak A fold arching upward is called an anticline while one
region in the mantle, the asthenosphere. arching downward is a syncline.
Why was Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis Limbs are the sides of the fold.
criticized? Continental drift claims that there
The imaginary plane symmetrically separating the fold
was a supercontinent called Pangaea comprised of all into two is called the axial plane.
the Earth’s landmasses. This
The fold axis is the line dividing the fold into its two
supercontinent began to break into smaller landmasses limbs, and it passes through either
about 200 million years ago and drifted
the crest or the trough of the fold.
to their present positions. Plate tectonics, however,
explains that the lithosphere behaves as a Types of Folds
Folding of rocks could also result in other land stress that may produce discernable displacement or
formation. faults
If rock ages are unidentified, syncline and anticline are What are the typical behaviors of rocks at greater
called depths?
as synforms and antiforms, respectively. At greater depths, there is a higher temperature and
pressure condition making the the original
Faults: General Characteristics and its Parts
A fault is a fracture or a discernible displacement where rock behave as ductile and plastic. In this way, it can be
rocks grind or slide past each other. There are two parts easily folded or compressed instead of
of a fault:
automatically breaking.
A fault line is the trace of fracture on rocks
What structure is formed when the block between two
A fault block is those that interact during faulting of rock normal faults are down-dropped?
layers which can either be a
Graben is formed when a wedge-shaped block of rock
o hanging wall where miners usually hung over their dropped downward between a pair of
heads. o footwall where the miners usually walk
normal faults. This occurs when tectonic forces in an
Key Points area are enough to produce a series of
Stress is a force exerted on an object, in this case, a normal faults.
rock. The different types of stress include confining
Which part in the figure below is the tree located?
stress and directed stress, which is further subdivided
into tensional, compressional, and shear stress. Hanging wall, The overlying side of the fault is called the
hanging wall and is named as such
Rock deformation involves changes shape and/or size
which can either be permanent or temporary. The because miners noticed that it is usually the side that
different types rock deformation include elastic, brittle, hung over their heads. The side beneath
and ductile deformation.
the fault and most of the time where the miners walked
Folds are series of wavelike ripples or bends which is is called footwall. As seen in the figure,
mostly formed when rock layer is subjected to
compressive stress. It is composed of upward fold the tree is located in the hanging wall of the reverse
known as anticline while downward fold as syncline. fault.

Fault is a fracture or a discernible displacement where THE SEA FLOOR SPREADING

rocks grind or slide past each other. This different types The seafloor spreading hypothesis was proposed by
of faults include normal dip-slip fault, reverse dip-slip Harry Hess, a petrologist at Princeton University, and
fault, strike-slip fault, and oblique fault Robert Dietz, an oceanographer in the US Coast and
Which type of stress is characterized by two forces Geodetic Survey. Hess suggested that the oceanic crust
acting in a parallel but opposite directions together with overlying continental crust are moving.
In line with this, paleomagnetism is used as evidence of
which causes the rocks to simply slide past each other? seafloor spreading. This is because basaltic lavas contain
Shear stress acts in parallel but opposite direction. This iron-bearing minerals which record the magnetic
orientation of Earth once the lava cooled.
type of stress causes one rock to slide
past another as seen in transform fault boundary. This discovery leads to the conclusion of geologists that
there is a sequence of events that lead to the
What type of deformation occurs if the rocks subjected alternating bands of normal and reversed polarity of the
to stress is brittle? oceanic crust.
If the rocks are brittle ,it will start to fracture or crack This mechanism leads the scientists to the concept of
once it is subjected to a certain amount of seafloor spreading that explains the source of new
oceanic crust. The seafloor spreading hypothesis and
the plate tectonic theory greatly helped the geologist in
explaining the origin and the features of the mid- New oceanic crust is being formed from the continuous
oceanic ridge which is Earth’s largest mountain chain. flowing of fresh basaltic magma along the ridge. As this
magma cools, it spreads outward the ridge and forms a
Transform faults are extensive in the mid-oceanic ridge new ocean floor
dividing it into several short segments that are slightly
offset from each other. Which geologic feature divides the mid-oceanic ridge
system into shorter segments?
Parts of the Ocean Floor
Transform faults divides the extensive mid-oceanic ridge
High-temperature geothermal vents called smokers are into several short segments that are
also found near or along the mid-oceanic ridge.
slightly offset from each other. Offsets from the ridge
Meanwhile, the greatest oceanic depths are found in may range from less than a kilometer to hundreds of
oceanic trenches. kilometers.
Seamounts and volcanic islands are also formed in During group discussion, one of your classmates argued
ocean basins. that since the seafloor is continuously spreading then
Earth must be getting bigger each day. How will you
Key Points correct your classmate’s misconception?
• Seafloor spreading hypothesis states the seafloor FORMATION OF LANDFORMS
moves away from the ridge crest and towards the
trenches and are constantly melted and recycled in the Transform faults divides the extensive mid-oceanic ridge
subduction zones into several short segments

towards the mantle. that are slightly offset from each other. Offsets from the
ridge may range from less than a
Paleomagnetism and data from Deep Sea Drilling
Project supported seafloor spreading kilometer to hundreds of kilometers.

hypothesis. Mid-oceanic ridge is the longest underwater Types of Plate Boundaries

mountain range which • Divergent boundaries are formed when two plates
comprises 20% of the earth’s surface. move away from each other resulting in the rising of the
molten material.
The different features of ocean floor include abyssal This type of boundary is also known as constructive
plain, seamount, guyot, trench, margins because new ocean seafloor is created during
smoker, and volcanic island. the processes.

Who proposed the seafloor spreading hypothesis? Types of Plate Boundaries

The seafloor spreading hypothesis was proposed by • Convergent boundaries are formed when two plates
Harry Hess, a petrologist at Princeton move toward each other. Moreover, this type of
boundary is also called subduction zone which is an area
University, and Robert Dietz, an oceanographer in the where denser lithospheric plate descends into the
US Coast and Geodetic Survey. mantle.
What is the longest mountain range in the world? Three Types of Plate Convergence
The longest mountain range on Earth is called the mid- 1. In oceanic-continental convergence, the continental
oceanic ridge with a length of 40 389 crust remains buoyant while the oceanic crust starts to
sink into the mantle. This creates continental volcanic
miles. This is a product of a divergent plate boundary.
arc.
The mid-oceanic ridge is comprised of
2. In oceanic-oceanic convergence, the denser oceanic
thousands of individual volcanoes or volcanic ridge
crust sinks beneath the other oceanic crust then creates
segments which erupt periodically.
a volcanic island arc. In continental-continental
What is being formed in the mid-oceanic ridge? convergence, the seafloor sediments that comprised
the old oceanic crust where the were trapped between
the closing continents and were pushed upward to form found in convergent plate boundaries. These
mountain ranges. earthquakes occur at depths shallower than 70
Types of Plate Boundaries kilometers caused by the grinding and pushing of the
cold, brittle descending plate against the
• Transform fault boundaries happen when two plates
simply slide horizontally past each other. This is also other plate
known as conservative margins since there is neither
destruction nor formation of new lithosphere. Which of the following processes is not included in the
formation of long folded mountain
Key Points
ranges?
There are three different plate boundaries namely:
Mountain range formation usually starts with the
divergent boundary, convergent boundary, and
transform fault boundary subduction of oceanic crust under the
continental crust. When all of the oceanic crust has
Divergent boundary is formed when two plates move
apart. This is also known as constructive margins. Rift, descended, both continental crusts collide
ridge, and new seafloor are the land formations created with each other, compressed, and pushed upward.
from plate divergence. These folding and uplifting process occur
Convergent boundary is formed when two plates move because both continental crusts are less dense
toward each other. This is also therefore both will not be able to subduct.
known as destructive margins. Mountains, island arcs, Using the figure below, what geologic features are you
and volcanic arcs are formed due going to find near and on
to the convergence of plate. continents A and B?
• Transform plate boundary happens when two plates
simply slide horizontally past each In between continents A and B, there is a divergent
boundary. Near the two continents
other. Fault zones are formed in transform plate
boundary. are subduction zones where the spreading oceanic crust
starts to descend. These subduction
Which plate boundary is present when two tectonic
plates move toward each other? zones create a long and deep feature known as a
trench. Since there is also an occurrence of
Convergent boundaries are formed when two plates
move toward each other. This is also called partial melting in this type of plate convergence, there
will also be a high possibility of volcanic
as destructive margins.
formation.
Which type of plate boundary exists when there is no
destruction or formation of new UNIT 15
HOW LAYERS OF ROCKS ARE FORMED
lithosphere?
fossil in Sedimentary Rocks
Transform fault boundaries happen when two plates
simply slide horizontally past each Fossils are remains of organisms that lived prior to the
last glacial period about 10 000 years ago.
other without the destruction or formation of new
lithosphere. This is also known as This may include skeletons, tracks, impressions, and
casts and are primarily associated with sedimentary
conservative margins. rocks.
Which of the following plate boundaries enables Therefore, fossils are never formed in sedimentary
shallow earthquakes to occur? rocks, these were just embedded
Occurrence of earthquakes and volcanic mountain and preserved in between rock layers.
ranges happen in subduction zones • Layers of sedimentary rocks are products of
stratification. These layers of rock were There are four general principles of stratigraphy,
namely: law of original horizontality,
formed due to changes in composition or texture of the
deposited sediments. principle of lateral continuity, law of superposition, and
principle of cross-cutting relationship.
Steno's Law
o Law of original horizontality states that sediments are
Principles of Stratigraphy generally deposited horizontally.
Nicolaus Steno formulated a set of principles describing o Principle of lateral continuity states that layers of
layers of sedimentary rocks. sediments spread out laterally in all directions until they
Stratigraphy refers to the branch of geology that studies thin out at the edge of the depositional basin.
stratified or layered rocks in o Principle of cross-cutting relationship states that
terms of time and space geologic features that cut

Stratification is the layering that occurs in most o Law of superposition simply states that in an
sedimentary rocks. Each stratum undisturbed sequence of

contains certain rock type and may also enclose fossils. sedimentary rocks, beds on top are younger than the
beds found below and that
Law of original horizontality states that sediments are
generally deposited horizontally. each layer is younger than the one beneath it.

Principle of lateral continuity states that layers of across rocks are younger than the rocks which they cut
sediments spread out laterally in all directions until they through.
thin out at the edge of the depositional basin or they Who formulated the principles describing the layers of
grade into a sedimentary rocks?
different kind of sediments.
Law of superposition states that in an undisturbed
In the year 1669, a Danish anatomist, geologist, and
sequence of sedimentary rocks, beds
priest Niels Stensen who is known in his
on top are younger than the beds found below and that
each layer is younger than the Latin name Nicolaus Steno, formulated the principles
describing layers of sedimentary rocks.
one beneath it.
Which of the following describe a stratum?
Principle of cross-cutting relationship states that
geologic features that cut across rocks Which of the following describes the principle of lateral
continuity?
are younger than the rocks which they cut through.
Which of the following describes the principle of cross-
Key Points cutting relationship?
Fossils are remains of organisms that lived prior to the What do ripple marks signify?
last glacial period about 10 000 years ago.
Nicolaus Steno formulated principles describing layers
of sedimentary rocks. A stratum, or strata in plural form, is used to describe
rocks that form layers of rocks or
Stratigraphy refers to the branch of geology that studies
stratified or layered rocks in
terms of time and space. stratified rocks.

Stratification is the layering that occurs in most

sedimentary rocks.
The principle of lateral continuity states that a layer can
be traced laterally in all directions but
terminates on edges of the basin of deposition

The principle of lateral continuity states that a layer can

be traced laterally in all directions but

Relative dating uses sequence of rocks to get a grasp on

terminates on edges of the basin of deposition the succession of events that took place in the past.
Ripple marks in a sediment are characteristic of Absolute dating allows the determination of the exact
deposition of the inorganic materials in shallow numerical age of rocks and fossils.
water and are caused by forces such as wave-related Which of the following describe the law of
forces or wind-related forces that leave superposition?
ripples of sand as exemplified by the marks evident on The law of superposition
beach sand or on the bottom of a
states that in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary
shallow stream. rocks, beds on top are younger than the
RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING Relative Dating beds found below and that each layer is younger than
the one beneath it
Relative dating uses a sequence of rocks to get a grasp
on the succession of events that took place in the past. . It is important in the
These dates do not tell the duration of the event but interpretation of Earth's history because it indicates the
gives an idea on what followed or preceded the event. relative age of the rock layers and
To put it simply, relative dating can only determine if a fossils.
rock layer is young or old but does not state the exact
Which of the following is true about the principle of
age of the layer.
cross-cutting relationship? The
Absolute Dating
principle of cross-cutting relationship states that
Key Points geologic features that cut across rocks are
Which of the following describes relative dating? younger than the rocks which they cut through. Igneous
intrusions are the best example for this
Relative dating gives the arrangement of events based
on rock sequence. where the intruding body is younger than the host rock.
Which of the following describes absolute dating? Why is it important to calibrate the geologic time scale?
Relative dating gives the arrangement of events based By calibrating the geologic time scale, geologists are
on rock sequence. able to provide up to date geologic
Absolute dating allows the determination of the exact time scale showing the geologic time intervals which
numerical age of rocks and fossils. describe the relationships between the
The absolute date of rocks is obtained through events that happened throughout Earth’s history.
radiometric methods.
It is also known as numerical dating.
GUIDE FOSSILS AND GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
Comparison of Relative and Absolute Dating

Principal of Fossil Succession

In the late eighteenth century, French paleontologists,
Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, together with
an English geologist William Smith, published the first In the late eighteenth century, French paleontologists
Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart
geologic maps.
They have recognized that rocks of the same age, even
if separated by long distance, may contain the same and English geologist William Smith published the first
fossils. geologic maps.
Smith’s field observation helped in formulating a basic To be considered a good index fossil, four major
principle called the principle of fossil succession. characteristics should be considered. First, the
o It states that fossils succeed one another in a definite fossil has to be widespread in distribution
order and any time period can be recognized by the geographically. Second is that they have to be limited
fossils present.
in a short span of geologic time. Third, the index fossil
Index Fossils has to be distinct and easily recognizable.
Fossils that are distributed in a wide area and existed And finally, it has to be abundant.
for limited time periods are called index fossils.
Which of the following are examples of index fossils?
Their short time frame makes them useful in dating
rocks. One very popular example of an index fossil are the
trilobites. Other examples of index fossils are the
To be considered a good index fossil, the fossil has to ammonites, crinoids, rugose corals, and mollusks.
be geographically widely distributed, limited in a short Others are in the form small, microscopic planktons that
span of geologic time, distinct and easily recognizable, float in the oceans
and abundant. Use of Index Fossils in Determining
Rock A is located 10 km away from Rock B. They have
Geologic Time Scale
the same age.
Key Points
Which of the following describes this scenario? Rocks of
the same age, even if they are separated by long
distance, may contain the same fossils.
• Principle of fossil succession states that fossils succeed
one another in a definite order and any time period can EARTH HISTORY FROM GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
be recognized by the fossils present. Geologic Time Scale
Fossils that are distributed in a wide area and existed Eons
for limited time periods are called index fossils.
• Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago.
A good index fossil has to be widespread in distribution
geographically, limited in a short span of geologic time, • The geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras,
distinct and easily recognizable, and abundant. periods, and epoch.
Through the help of index fossils, geologists were able The Phanerozoic eon began 542 million years ago. The
to create a geologic time scale. term means ‘visible life’ and is assigned to rock units
that bear abundant fossils.
Which of the following suggested that inorganic life-like
shapes grew within rocks? The other earlier 4 billion years of Earth’s history is
called Precambrian. Precambrian refers to the time
Around 300 B.C., Aristotle suggested that inorganic life-
between the birth of the planet and the appearance of
like shapes grew within rocks.
life forms.
Which of the following published the first geological
Era
maps?
Each era is marked by major changes in the fossil
Which of the following characteristics make a good
record. Eras are subdivided into periods. This
index fossil?
subdivision of geologic time is generally based on the of years. Using the scale, one can determine Earth’s
life form existing in each period. history by knowing what event
The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras, namely: corresponds to each unit.
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
o Paleozoic meaning ‘ancient life’ refers to as the ‘age of
invertebrates’ because life forms during this era are Epochs are the shortest subdivision marked by changes
mostly animals without backbones including trilobites in life form and may vary from continent to continent.
and corals. It is divided into six periods. The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras.
o Mesozoic meaning ‘middle life’ is often called the ‘age Paleozoic era is referred to ‘as the age of invertebrates’,
of reptiles’. o Cenozoic means ‘recent life’ is also called Mesozoic era is often called the ‘age of reptiles’, and
‘age of mammals’. Cenozoic era is also called ‘age of mammals’.

Epochs Which of the following periods showed the ‘explosion’

of life?
Key Points
How are the subdivisions of the geologic time scale
determine Earth’s history?

• Periods are further subdivided into epochs, the Cambrian is the period where ‘explosion’ of life
shortest subdivision. Epochs are marked by changes in occurred. All the existing phyla came into being
life form and may vary from continent to continent.
during this period. Oxygen level rose in this time and
Events that took place on the planet in its vast history the dominant animals include trilobites
can be better understood using the geologic time scale.
and brachiopods. The name Cambrian is derived from
Eons represent the greatest expanse of time. The Cambria, Roman name for Wales where
Phanerozoic eon began 542 million years ago while the
rocks from this period were first studied.
other earlier 4 billion years of Earth’s history is called
Precambrian. A geologic time scale is a two-fold scale subdividing all
the time since the formation of Earth
The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras namely
Paleozoic meaning ‘ancient life’, and all the rocks formed ever since. The time span for
each of events can be seen in the
Mesozoic ‘middle life’, and Cenozoic ‘recent life’. Eras
are subdivided into periods. geologic time scale. Some range from thousands of
years while others range to up to millions of
Periods are further subdivided into epochs, the shortest
subdivision. Epochs are marked years. Using the scale, one can determine Earth’s
history by knowing what event corresponds
by changes in life form and may vary from continent to
continent. to each unit.
Which of the following describe a geologic time scale?
Which of the following describes an epoch?
Which of the following are true about eras?
A geologic time scale is a two-fold scale subdividing all
the time since the formation of Earth
and all the rocks formed ever since. The time span for
each of events can be seen in the
geologic time scale. Some range from thousands of
years while others range to up to millions