Untitled
Untitled
Untitled
by
Mohammad Abdelghani
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Engineering Management
Construction projects have temporary fragmented supply chains that face many challenges, such
as lack of trust, inadequate knowledge management, and poor communication. These challenges
led to poor performance in terms of low productivity, high cost, schedule delay, and poor quality.
Construction is a conservative industry resists changes to its structure and adoption of technology
and new management principles. The study aims to develop a value stream mapping and
information management frameworks for construction projects. The developed frameworks can
support the elimination of wastes and facilitate the integration of the construction supply chain,
which ultimately reduce the project’s cost and lead time. It can also support the current shift
towards Industry 4.0, which targets the enabling of Construction 4.0. Surveys and interviews are
conducted to determine existing tools to exchange information, the extent of value stream mapping
(VSM) adoption, and the key performance indicators in Alberta. The results show Alberta’s
industry mainly depends on face-to-face discussions, phones, and emails to exchange information.
The knowledge most likely stays at the individual levels and neither shared nor stored and poorly
managed. This hinders knowledge capitalization, as well as the integration of the value chain
network. Alberta’s construction industry hasn’t adopted lean management tools yet, and no
common key performance indicators (KPIs) are established. Case studies are completed to
implement VSM in procurement case studies. The results show traditional VSM can efficiently
identify wastes in the current state of repetitive construction processes and eliminate them in future
ones. The study proposed a new VSM framework for non-repetitive processes, which is more
suitable for onsite construction activities. The framework is implemented in case studies. The
results show significant improvements in terms of reducing wastes and the project’s lead time. The
construction industry lacks standard methodology for ontology development. The ontologies that
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have been developed in construction have a deficiency in a philosophical basis and built for a
specific use, and for certain project types and phases. To support knowledge management, which
can facilitate information flow in the construction supply chain, an ontology for construction
knowledge is developed using the Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) structure, ISO 12006-2
recommendations, and input from industry experts. BFO is a mature upper ontology. It provides a
framework to build a complete ontology based on philosophical basis. An ontology for the VSM
framework is also developed using the BFO structure, so it can be integrated with the construction
knowledge ontology. The developed frameworks can also support the industry’s current efforts to
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Preface
This thesis is an original work by Mohammad Abdelghani. The research project, of which this
thesis is a part, received research two ethics approvals from the University of Alberta Research
Ethics Board, Project Name “Generalized Value Stream Mapping (GVSM) and Information Flow
Pro00078004, Feb 20, 2018, and No. Pro00089508, April 30, 2019.
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Acknowledgments
It would not have been possible to complete the thesis without the support, mentorship and
guidance of the amazing people around me. First, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to
my supervisors Dr. Rafiq Ahmad and Dr. John Doucette for giving me the opportunity to do my
Ph.D. under their supervision, and for the tremendous guidance and support throughout this
journey. They have inspired me by their sincerity and great mentorship. Beside guiding my
research work, Dr. Rafiq and Dr. John created an environment that is full of energy, passion and
motivation that shaped me throughout my study and helped me to go through difficult times.
I would like to thank my family and friends for the support and encouragement that have been
To may parents, I would like to express my gratitude for the love and support you have always
provided me in the ups and downs. I cannot sufficiently express my appreciation for the
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Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii
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2.3 Mixed Research Method ..................................................................................................... 35
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5.6.2 VSM Ontology Conclusion ........................................................................................ 101
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List of Tables
Table 3. Information Flow Tools Survey Results -Frequency index for sharing and storing
Table 4. Information Flow Tools Survey Results- Importance index (II) .................................... 44
Table 10: Lists of object properties summary of the VSM ontology ........................................... 99
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List of Figures
Figure 14: VSM Case Study 1- Current Vs Future Plan Results .................................................. 72
Figure 16: VSM Case Study 1- Plan Vs Actual Vs Forecast VSM ............................................. 75
Figure 19: VSM Case Study 2- Plan Vs Actual Vs Forecast VSM .............................................. 82
Figure 20: VSM Case Study 2- Final Plan Vs Actual VSM ........................................................ 84
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Figure 23: VSM Framework- Current PVSM .............................................................................. 91
Figure 26: Case Study 3 Current NVAT Vs Future PVSM Vs Actual ......................................... 94
Figure 34: Advanced Work Packaging Model (adapted from [199]) ......................................... 118
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Motivation
Construction is a major sector in the world economy, with approximately $11.4 trillion spent on
construction-related goods and services in 2019, [1]. Regardless of the significant contribution to
the economy, the construction supply chain (CSC) is the least integrated among all other major
sectors, [2]-[3]. CSC lacks the integration along all project phases and collaboration among
stakeholders, [4]. The construction industry has underperformed in terms of labour productivity
and quality compared to other industries, [5]. The estimate of wastes in the construction industry
starts at 55%, [6]. Labour productivity in manufacturing has approximately doubled since 1994,
while in construction it has remained nearly flat, [7]. Construction performance has been suffering
worldwide: 72% of the projects are delayed, 63% have cost overruns, significant rework, and low
customer satisfaction, [8]. The construction industry has an opportunity to increase its productivity
by five to ten times and enhance its value-added by $1.6 trillion USD per year by acting in multiple
areas, such as reshaping design and engineering processes, changing contractual frameworks,
improving supply chains, increasing onsite efficiencies, implementing digital technology and
automation, training workforces, and adopting manufacturing production systems, [9]. Taking into
consideration these areas, enabling Industry 4.0 in construction can be an opportunity to overcome
The Industry 4.0 concept emerged in Germany in 2011 as a vision for advanced manufacturing,
[10]. It represents the fourth industrial revolution, which is based on the integration of information,
communication, and industrial technologies, [11]. The first industrial revolution started at the end
of the 18th century and was based on mechanical production driven by steam, [12]. The second
industrial revolution started in the early 20th century and was led by mass production powered by
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electricity, [12]. The third industrial revolution emerged in the early 1970s and was driven by
Brettell et. al defined Industry 4.0 as the decentralization of manufacturing to build a global system
that shares resources to increase efficiencies and achieve customization, [13]-[14]. Such an
integrated system can promote industrial specialization with higher resource utilization that can
benefit all stakeholders, including consumers and producers. It can also help small and medium
enterprises (SMEs) to access global markets and have the ability to compete with larger
organizations, [14].
automation, [11]. Industry 4.0 has also been discussed in the context of the concepts and
technologies that form its foundations such as cyber-physical systems (CPS), Internet of Things
(IoT), Internet of Services (IoS), and smart factories, [15]. CPS is defined as the systems that
connect the real and virtual worlds with the ability to cooperate, adjust, and progress, [16]. In the
CPS world, every physical system has a virtual representation and vice versa, i.e. every virtual
system has also a link to a physical one. The connection between the two worlds is viewed from
communication, information, and control perspectives, [17]. CPS uses sensors and computing
systems to capture, understand, and analyze the changes in the real world, then control it through
smart decisions, [17]-[18]. IoT is a global network that connects devices using sensors,
(RFID) and wireless sensor networks (WSNs), [19]. RFID allows the transfer of information
through wireless communications while WSNs use sensors to monitor and control systems, [20].
IoS emerged from the two concepts Web 2.0 and service-oriented architecture (SOA), [21]. Web
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2.0 has four major aspects: (1) web services that enable the communication between servers and
web browsers, (2) social networking which allows the information to be available from multiple
sources in different formats, (3) tagging that allows adding keywords to make the internet content
searchable, and (4) web services that make web applications available to humans as well as
machines, [22]. SOA is the design of information technology in a structured manner that allows
applications and web services to be accessed simultaneously by many users, [22]. The smart
factory concept represents the integration of machines and information management systems to
Industry 4.0 technologies provide continuous communications not only between humans but also
among machines themselves. This interaction establishes the need for new knowledge
management systems which are called knowledge management (KM) 4.0, [15].
The construction industry adopted the Industry 4.0 concept and called it Construction 4.0, [24].
One of the main aspects of Construction 4.0 is information flow in a timely, reliable, and uniform
manner, [25]. Moreover, key Industry 4.0 features within the construction value chain are vertical
and horizontal, with end-to-end integration of the value networks, [11]. Horizontal integration
represents the collaboration among organizations to form an ecosystem where information and
material can flow efficiently, [26]. The vertical integration can be achieved within organizations
through integrating the physical and information management systems while end-to-end
integration focuses on value creation along the supply chain activities throughout the entire life
cycle of the product which includes customer requirements, design, production, maintenance, and
disposal, [26]. Construction 4.0 promotes the implementation of modern technologies to support
the integration and digitalization of the construction supply chain,[24]. Industry 4.0 represents the
future and construction should embrace it [27] where technologies on future construction sites will
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be integrated to improve communication, safety, higher computational powers and efficiencies,
[28]. The study aims to use value stream mapping (VSM), which is a lean management tool, to
support eliminating wastes and increase efficiencies for construction processes at the field level.
Taking into consideration the characteristics of Construction Supply Chain (CSC) (i.e., projects
are built as per owner requirements, every project is unique, temporary supply chains involve large
environment, [29]), current state VSM can be developed but implementing future state map can
be challenging. It has been argued that traditional construction is not ideal for the application of
VSM and more studies should focus on implementing VSM for nonrepetitive construction
processes, [30]- [31]. Moreover, literature review shows there is a research gap in terms of focusing
on the execution of the future state maps for the less repetitive processes at the site level as well
as monitoring it. The objective of this study is to develop a VSM framework that suits the less
repetitive processes in construction, which are mainly onsite construction ones, as well as focuses
on implementing future state map. Ontology approach can support the implementation of the VSM
literature review for ontology development in the construction industry identified five significant
research gaps: the lack of standard methodology for ontology development, absence of an
lack of developed ontologies in construction, and efforts that are focused on specific project types
and phases, [32]. The study aims to follow the Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) structure to develop
an ontology to structure construction information. Using the BFO structure provides a mature
methodology and automatic method to develop an ontology for construction knowledge, with a
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philosophical foundation. The study aims to develop an upper ontology that covers all the life
cycle phases of the construction project, i.e., starting from conceptual design to the disposal phase.
1.2 Background
Construction is a major industry in Canada, with approximately $142 billion spent on construction-
related services and goods in 2018, [33]. Regardless of the construction contributed to the
economy, its supply chain is the least integrated among all other major sectors, [2]-[3]. Researchers
have defined the construction supply chain (CSC) differently. Simchi et. Al defines it as the
management of information and money flows to build a construction project while Utomo et. Al
defines it as a system where stakeholders work together, share information, supply, and install
materials, equipment, and other resources to deliver a construction project to a client, [34]- [35].
The main reasons for the fragmentation of the CSC are the large number of companies and the
wide variety of trades involved in a project, [36]-[37] and the industry’s continued reliance on
assembling teams on a project-by-project basis with contractors often managing the supply chain,
[38]. This approach has been proven to be inefficient and often leads to miscommunication, [39].
Construction has a temporary supply chain due to the transient relationship among stakeholders,
[40]. The consequences of such a relationship are lack of trust, coordination, and collaboration as
well as miscommunication among project partners, [41]. These consequences have resulted in a
fragmented supply chain where each partner prefers to work on his own which often leads to poor
knowledge flow, inaccurate documents, un-met information needs, incorrect information, wrong
deliverables and extended waiting time for documents approval, [38], [42]. This led to major
negative performance such as low productivity, high cost, schedule delays, inadequate
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specifications, and claims, [38]. Such fragmentation in the supply chain imposes challenges for
Construction projects involve companies from a wide variety of trades; a medium-sized project
can include hundreds of various companies that supply equipment, materials, and labour to
perform the work, [43]. Moreover, the industry relies on a fragmented and largely subcontracted
workforce [44], where construction companies only execute a small portion of the project and
depend on subcontractors and suppliers to perform the majority of the work to mitigate and spread
the risks, [45]. Having a large number of partners can result in poor communication and less
collaboration among the partners, [38]. Besides the larger number of partners, the construction
supply chain has multiple levels (e.g., the contractor is the subcontractor’s client, while the
contractor is the project owner’s client), therefore, there are often multiple end customers, [46].
Furthermore, the industry is primarily driven by cost, where the cheapest bid typically wins the
contract, which has led to a conservative industry that invests less in innovation and adoption of
new management principles and tools. This has become a fundamental problem within the
construction industry, [47]; such conservative cultures will often resist changes to their structure,
[48].
These characteristics and challenges have adversely impacted the construction industry’s
performance. The industry has been suffering from a high percentage of physical and processes
wastes where more than 50% of construction time is considered waste, [49]. Proper planning is
crucial for the success of a construction project, [50]. Project planning is a set of directions that
tells the project team what to do, when to do it, and the resources that are needed. It aims to reduce
uncertainties, improve efficiencies, and establish baselines to monitor and control construction
execution, [51].
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VSM is a lean management tool that aims to identify and eliminate wastes to improve efficiency
and create better value for the customers by visualizing the material and information flow for a
process, [52]. On the other side, value stream management consists of VSM and value stream
design (VSD), [53]. VSM is based on observing the process to create the current state VSM and
then identify and eliminate the wastes in the future state map, [52]. Therefore, future state VSM
industry where nearly every project is unique, and most activities are nonrepetitive, [29].
Therefore, VSM in the construction industry cannot easily be implemented in a traditional VSM
methodology. The study aims to develop a generalized VSM framework that implements VSM
during the project’s planning, pre-construction activities, to eliminate wastes before the execution
phase and enhance information flow to downstream phases. Proper planning is crucial for the
success of construction projects; poor planning can result in a project’s failure, [50]. Also, the
study aims to develop an ontology-based system to structure the CSC knowledge to support the
The evolution of the production system is closely related to the Toyota Motor Company, [54]. In
the early 1950s, the Japanese automotive industry was underperforming compared to the American
industry because the Japanese market was relatively small with limited labour, natural, and
financial resources, [55]. Toyota realized its production cannot compete with American carmakers,
and they need to “catch up within three years; otherwise, the automobile industry in Japan will not
survive”, [56]. This necessity to survive led to the born of lean principles. Toyota started to
restructure its assembly lines, integrate suppliers with its supply chain, and engage the workforce
to optimize production, [55]. Toyota goals were to reduce cost, improve quality and minimize
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production lead time; and to achieve these goals, Toyota Production System (TPS) was built on
two pillars: (1) just-in-time (JIT) and (2) judoka which is the Japanese word for automation, [57].
JIT concept is based on ordering needed materials, in the right amount, and at the right time to
minimize inventory and achieve continuous workflow, using a pull system while Judoka is the
automation of processes to eliminate defects and separate human and machine works, [57]. These
pillars built on the foundations of continuous improvement, standardizing, and leveling work
concepts, [57]. Implementing these principles, known later as lean principles, shaped a culture of
organization that led the industry, outperforming other carmakers in the 1990s, [55]. TPS and lean
The manufacturing Lean principles became management principles across all industries, [59].
Construction implemented lean principles as well as developed systems based on the lean concepts
that are specific to the industry such as the last planner system (LPS), [60]. Implementing Lean in
construction has been facing many challenges because of the fragmentation of its supply chain,
largely subcontracted work, financial issues, inadequate performance measurement systems, lack
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1.2.2 Process Mapping
TPS is a process-driven system that aims to standardize work through continuous improvement
and increase efficiencies to maximize the product’s value to the customers, [57]. Process mapping
such as VSM is one of the fundamental tools that can be used to identify and eliminate wastes
which ultimately supports achieving TPS goals, [57]. Harrington [62] defined the process as a set
of activities that takes inputs, adds value and transform it to an output while Davenport [63] defined
it as a sequence of activities that take place during a period, in a place, has a start, an end, inputs
and outputs. A process can be demonstrated with two approaches: bottom-up and top-down. The
bottom-up approach focuses on the individual activities and grouping them based on their
interactions to form a process while the top-bottom which is the most common approach focuses
on the whole process from the input, output, and added value perspectives, [64]. Process mapping
is a technique used to understand an existing process and redesign it to improve its performance
and ensure customer satisfaction, [65]. It is an intervention and analytical tool that visually shows
the relationships among activities and initiates discussions among process stakeholders to
understand their relationships, [65]. Process mapping can simplify the workflow, identify and
eliminate wastes, increase resource utilization, improve quality, and enhance communication and
cooperation, [66]. It is a visual tool that aims to improve existing processes and different from
process reengineering that involves fundamental changes to a process. Process mapping can
support the reengineering of a process, [66]. There are many process mapping techniques, [66]:
▪ flow chart identifies process flow and paths as well as decision steps,
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▪ string diagram shows the physical flow of activities,
▪ value stream mapping is a lean tool that shows information and material flows.
Value-stream mapping (VSM) came to prominence in the latter half of the 20th century and became
one of the foundations of the Toyota Production System, [67]. It is a graphic representation of
chain value flow from receiving customer order to the delivery of the final product or service. It
divides activities into value-adding and non-value adding activities and helps to visualize the
whole production process by showing information and materials flows as well as the sequence of
activities. It also documents the relationships between process and production controls such as
The traditional VSM methodology can be summarized in the following four steps, [3], [68], [69]-
[70] :
Data related to processes such as activities, sequences, resources, the relationships among
activities is collected to understand the current process starting from receiving customer order
to the delivery of the final product. The customer needs are identified to facilitate value
creation. Process activities and their relationships which include information and material
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Data can be collected by using tools such as field walks, discussions with people involved in
the process, as well as using documents and information management systems. The purpose of
this step is to analyze and understand the process that needs to be mapped, [68]- [69].
In this step, the current process is mapped to develop the current state VSM which is a mirror
image for how the current process. Current VSM shows the process metrics such as process
time, lead time, crew size, information technology, quantities, and queue that measure the
process, [52], [68]. Material and information flows should be shown as well as the sequence
of activities. The level of detail should be determined by the mapping team and in accordance
with the purpose of implementing VSM. The current VSM should be socialized with process
stakeholders to ensure its accuracy. It can be drawn on a board, or on paper, or using software,
[68],[69].
The current VSM should be analyzed to identify value and non-value-added activities (NVA).
NVA can be classified into two categories; (1) essential NVA which cannot be eliminated due
to constraints such as capacity or technology and (2) wastes that should be eliminated, [71].
(a) Waste of overproduction: Producing more than needed which includes requesting
quantities more than the customers need or earlier than needed that Toyota calls
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(b) Waste of time on hand (Waiting): any delays between processes which also include
workers or machines waiting to start work or partially finished work waiting for
processing.
(d) Waste of processing itself: extra processing steps that are not needed by the
customer
(e) Waste of stock on hand (Inventory): extra materials or products in hand that are not
(g) Waste of making defective products (Defects): producing faulty items that don’t
After eliminating wastes, the future state VSM can be developed. It shows the improved
process that should be implemented. The improvements may be implemented in several stages
which depends on the purpose of implementing VSM as well as the constraints such as
In analyzing the current state VSM and developing future one, many lean management tools
such as kanban, JIT, pull system, plan-do-check-act (PDCA) can be implemented, [57]. Such
tools can facilitate identifying and eliminating wastes as well as achieve continuous flow in
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the process with minimum interruptions. Following is a summary of major lean management
tools:
▪ Just-in-Time (JIT)
TPS addressed the supply issue through just in time which is the supermarket model where
people buy only what they need when they need it, in the amount needed. On the other
side, door to door sellers may carry products that may not sell which is a waste of time and
resources, [57]. In the manufacturing process, the latter process gets only what it needs
from the earlier process, then the earlier process produces what's taken. JIT reduces the
inventory which eliminates the costs needed to handle, store and pay for the extra
inventory, [57].
▪ Kanban
Kanban is a system used to control inventory levels and components’ supply. Kanban
prevents overproduction because it starts downstream in the final process and works
backward to determine what's needed, so it controls the flow of goods in the production
line, [56]. The most common form of Kanban is a paper-based instruction for the worker
▪ Pull System
Pull system produces as per customers’ needs i.e. the downstream processes and customers
pull their needs from the producers. The upstream processes only produce what the
downstream ones need and at the time needed, [74]. On the other hand, the push system
produces based on a set schedule and pushes the products and components to the
downstream processes and customers whether they need them or not, [57]. Pull system is
based on flowing products in small batches and one-piece flow if possible, to reduce Work
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in Process (WIP) as well as inventory. WIP is partially completed products in the
production system. Takt time also is used to control the pace of flow to minimize
overproduction and the Kanban system can be implemented to signal the replenishment
and level out the work. Pull systems can enhance the workflow, minimize the inventory,
The TPS aims not only to eliminate the waste (Muda) but also to reduce the overburden
(Muri) of people and equipment as well as the unevenness (Mura). Overburdening the
system may cause safety and quality issues. Therefore, the production units and
workstations should be loaded with the right amount of work to avoid workers fatigue,
equipment breakdown, and defects, [57]. The aim of eliminating unevenness is to minimize
the variations within the process i.e., peaks and valleys. In a normal production process, at
some time the system can have more work than its capacity and other times will have a
lack of work, [74]. This will increase the inefficiency when the system is underutilized and
impact the quality when it is overloaded. Therefore, eliminating the wastes, levelling the
workload, and minimizing the overburden can achieve a stable workflow that can deliver
implementing tools and techniques to find the root causes for the problems, provide
countermeasures and ensure knowledge is transferred to the right people to prevent the
repetition of the same mistakes. It also empowered its employees to promote the continuous
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Toyota is a process-driven company that invests long term in its people, tools, and
processes. The goal is to create value for the customers by continuously increasing
efficiencies and eliminating wastes, [57]. Kaizen is implemented in stable and standardized
processes to improve them. 5-whys is another technique used to find the root causes of the
problems by asking the why question five times. Every time why is asked it unpeels a layer
PDCA cycle is another kaizen tool used by Toyota, and it is very effective in unwrapping
the root causes of the problem and implement solutions, [75]. In the “plan” phase, the data
is collected, and the problem’s root cause(s) are determined. The improvements and
solutions are implemented and measured in the “Do” phase; then the results are analyzed
and evaluated in the “Check” phase. If the solutions are deemed acceptable, the process
will be standardized in the “Act” phase if not the cycle will be repeated, [75].
Jidoka is the second pillar for the TPS and based on detecting defects in the production line
when they occur and fix them before they move downstream, [57]. It minimizes the
defective products and promote a culture of building things right at the first time. Andon
is one of the tools Toyota used to implement Jidoka. Andon is a signalling system that uses
lights placed by machines and when an error occurs the worker turns the light on, asking
for help, [48]. Jidoka built high-quality TPS which became one of the major features for
▪ Standardization
Standardization prevents the recurrence of defects and mistakes and became an important
aspect of the TPS. Standardization in TPS has three major elements: (1) takt time, which
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is the time required to complete one job at the pace of customer demands, (2) the sequence
of activities, and (3) the level of inventory needed to complete the work. Toyota aims to
make shop floor tasks repeatable and efficient. Moreover, Toyota standardized the office
The crucial task in standardization is the ability of the standards to provide guidelines for
the workers to perform the work and be flexible to allow innovation. Rigid standardization
can hinder innovation and personal growth. TPS implemented a flexible standardization
The term value stream was introduced in 1990 by James Womack, Daniel Jones and Daniel Ross
in the book, The Machine that Changed the World, [77], and further developed by Jame Wack and
Daniel Jones in Lean Thinking in 1996, [78]. In 1999, Mike Rother and John Shook transformed
the understanding of the work flow and VSM in their seminal book, Learning to See, [52]. Then,
VSM has been widely applied in many sectors and emerged as a lean fundamental tool by its ability
to establish a direction to design the work process by deepening the understanding of the process
from the customer’s perspective, [79]. It’s ease of use and ability to reduce wastes made it very
attractive, [79]. It has been implemented in the healthcare sector to improve the operations of
emergency rooms and departments in a hospital. The results show VSM can be an effective tool
to improve operations in healthcare, [80]. Villaleneal et. Al [81] applied VSM to improve the
efficiency of the transportation supply chain by focusing on physical distribution. It was also
implemented in Software Product Line Engineering as well as a product development process for
a US-based mining SME, [82]-[83]. Moreover, VSM has been utilized by experts in the food
industry to reduce food losses and wastes and to promote innovation management, [84].
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The lean philosophy has been introduced to the construction industry since early 1990s, [85]. The
Transformation Flow Value (TFV) theory discussed the construction projects in terms of
production system i.e. trasforming inputs to ouputs with flow and value concepts which supported
the classification of value added and non value added activities in project mangament. TFV theory
became a corner stone for lean construction, [86]-[87]. As VSM evolved during the late 1990s, the
construction industry adopted it in early 2000s. In 2003, few studies implemented VSM to the
construction supplies but not to production processes, [85]. In 2005, Pasqualini et. al discussed the
activities, customers, suppliers and the value flow of the process. The study selected the masonary
pavement stage to implement VSM. The construction project occurs over a relatively long period
of time and different processes produce different products, so VSM in construction should be
applied to a selected stage, [85]. Later, many studies have implemented VSM in onsite construction
processes such as installing cast-in-place concrete [69], [88], structural steel erection [89], drain
construction project [90], and structural masonry case studies, [91]. The focus of these studies was
to develop the current and future state maps but not the implementation of future state maps that
in most cases cannot be applied as these processes are less repetitive. VSM is worthless if a future
Several studies have implemented VSM in construction processes that use manufacturing
production systems. In 2008, Fontanini et al. implemented VSM to improve the production of
precast concrete elements, [92]. More studies later focused on precast buildings and elements [3]-
Few studies later focused on implementing VSM in the administration tasks of the construction
companies. In 2009, kemmer et al. implemented VSM in payments’ process [100], and Garret et
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al. used VSM to improve submittals’ review process in 2010, without extending it to the site
activities, [101].
In 2009, Yu et al. implemented VSM to the housing construction. Taking into consideration
construction processes are less repetitive compared to manufacturing, the study collected data for
400 houses and viewed it as repetitive work. The sequence of activities, materials and using same
subcontractors can be repetitive for all housing, but many factors may impact the application of
VSM such as mapping level and variations in site conditions, [30]. Moroever, the model may not
There have been many attempts to use VSM to support sustainable and green construction projects.
In 2011, Vieira et al. studied the relationships between lean construction tools and techniques
production in a construction project, [69]. Then more recent studies used VSM to support green
VSM has been used to improve the design of construction projects. In 2013, Leite et al.
implemented VSM to the design phase of the housing project, [105], and other studies focused on
standardizing the information flow for an architectural firm [106], as well as support the
elimination of wastes in structural design process, [107]. However, these studies did not extend
Recent studies used VSM to improve non-production processes. In 2019, Cavdur et al. study
combined VSM and simulation-based methods in a university maintenance and operation case
study, [108]. In 2020, Wang et al. integrated VSM with work posture analysis to improve
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construction safety using a scaffolding case study, [109], and VSM has been implemented to
Rother et al. introduced the concept of multilevel VSM mapping (process, plant, multiple plants,
and across companies), [52]. In 2016, Oberhausen et. al. discussed the multilevel VSM concept in
The validation of the multilevel VSM, as shown in Figure 1, concept can be a key to standardize
VSM which facilitates collaboration and communication within supply chain networks, [111]. In
construction, VSM found in literature is mainly focused on the nano or micro levels; however, the
challenges will be completing VSM at meso or macro levels where multiple partners are involved.
Therefore, efficient information management systems across enterprises can be a key to multilevel
The benefits of VSM have been illustrated in many sectors and its implementation is still growing
in all domains including manufacturing, [79]. However, VSM is still inadequately applied in many
cases such as developing only the current VSM and ignoring future one which could be due to the
weakness of the traditional VSM that may not be suitable for all sectors as well as lack of its
standardization which leaves it to the users’ judgments to figure out the most suitable methodology
19
Figure 1: Multilevel VSM (adapted from [111])
VSM is an effective tool in replicated processes by identifying wastes and inefficiencies in the
current state map and implementing the improvements in the future state map. However, taking
into consideration the characteristics of CSC i.e. projects are built as per owner requirements, every
project is a unique, temporary supply chain that involves a large number of partners in
current VSM methodology in traditional construction processes that are less repetitive. Current
state VSM is developed by observing the existing process and then develop a future state map that
reflects the improvements. It is a challenge to implement the future state map in a less repetitive
process. Construction processes at the field level are less repetitive because every construction
project is unique in terms of design, location, stakeholders, and site conditions that are subject to
change due to weather, location, and logistics, [29]. VSM is worthless if a future state map is not
executed, [52]. Studies in literature mostly focused on developing the current state map and less
20
effort dedicated to execution of the future state map. The industry needs to work on implementing
VSM in non-repetitive processes and non-typical activities, [30]-[31]. The study examines the
implement VSM during the planning phase of the project and utilize it as a monitoring and
controlling tool at the field level for the less repetitive processes.
Planning is a crucial practice and a key to the success of a construction project. Project planning
is defined as a set of instructions given to the project team to tell them what to do, when to do them
and the resources needed to complete the work. The major outcome of the project planning is a
plan that contains the project’s overview, activities needed to reach the project’s objectives,
schedule, resources and evaluation criteria to measure progress and success, [112]. Proper project
planning can minimize project uncertainty reduce risks, develop a good understanding of the
project’s objectives, and establish a basis to monitor and control performance during the
construction execution phase, [51]. Therefore, implementing VSM in project planning can support
VSM is a graphical representation of material and information flows, and multiple partners such
as engineers, general contractors, material suppliers, project owners, architects, and subcontractors
can be involved in a construction process, [38]. Therefore, information flows across enterprises in
construction processes. Moreover, data related to processes and activities may require to be
collected from multiple partners to develop the current and future state VSMs. Therefore, data
structuring and efficient information flow can be keys for VSM across enterprises. The industry
has been lacking the development of a standardized ontology that can structure its data as well as
21
1.2.6 Ontology Literature Review
Ontology is a representation of domain knowledge in the form of concepts, their relationships and
interoperable manner. Due to their abilities to explicitly define domain knowledge in a machine-
readable form, ontologies have been used in many domains such as Web development (e.g.
Yahoo.com categories), shopping catalogues (e.g. Amazon.com), and data integration (e.g.
Resource Description Framework), [114]. Ontologies have also been utilized in artificial
intelligence to support knowledge sharing and reuse, [115]. Ontology can have many benefits to
facilitate communication among various software systems and promote building automation, [32].
Taking into consideration the aim of designing an ontology, ontologies can have three different
meanings. The first meaning is philosophical, in which the ontology studies the kinds and
structures of objects, properties, events, and relationships to produce a description of what exists
as representational artifacts, [116]. The second meaning is the domain ontology, which
represents entities and their relationships in a domain or area of study, such as biology or law,
[113]. The third meaning is a formal or top ontology that supports communication among
domain ontologies, such as the standard upper merged ontology (SUMO), [117]-[118].
Ontologies have been applied to a wide range of sectors to facilitate communication, integration
Ontologies can be classified into two main categories: application ontologies that are designed to
achieve specific tasks and reference ontologies that are developed to encapsulate established
22
ontologies have been developed to satisfy particular needs and purposes, such as information
retrieval and organizing construction knowledge, [121]-[122]. Ridder et al. [119] conducted a
construction projects, while El Dirby [123] focused on developing a domain ontology to generate
one of many representations for construction knowledge. Dhaka et al. work focused on
for the disaster-resilient practices at construction sites, [124]. Other studies focused on
safety risks in metro construction [125], and identifying hazards by integrating computer vision
construction [127] by integrating data from various construction applications, such as Building
Information Modelling (BIM) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS), due to their high
facilities, [129]. Ontologies have been developed in the industry to support specific needs
without extending them towards a complete domain ontology [130], such as ISO 15926 which is
a standard for managing the data for process plants including oil and gas facilities, [131].
Construction still lacks domain ontologies to support specific requirements, such as the need to
Developed ontologies in the construction industry has mainly focused on specific use within
enterprises, without covering the entire project phases mostly. Ontologies in construction are still
in the early stages of development and far away from maturity, [32].
23
An intensive literature review for ontology development in the construction industry identified
five significant research gaps: (1) the lack of standard methodology for ontology development, (2)
philosophical basis, (4) lack of developed ontologies in construction, and (5) efforts are focused
on specific project types and phases [32]. The industry lacks standard and complete ontologies
which impacts the information management across enterprises. Taking into consideration these
research gaps, this study aims to develop an ontology that represents the construction knowledge
following the basic formal ontology (BFO) structure which is a mature ontology that has been
widely applied in many domains such as natural sciences and information technology. BFO has
been widely used as an upper ontology by hundreds of ontologies, [133]. BFO is based on
existence in time such as objects and occurrences represent processes, events and changes, [113].
Continuants have three subclasses: (1) generically dependent continuant, (2) independent
continuant that has material and immaterial entities as subclasses and (3) specifically dependent
continuant that has quality and realizable entities as subclasses. On the other side, occurrent has
four subclasses: (1) process, (2) process boundary, (3) spatiotemporal region, and (4) temporal
It is very difficult to develop an ontology that can cover all the concepts within a domain and
satisfies all the needs, [134]. It is also expected that many different ontologies can be developed
to describe the same knowledge, [123]. Therefore, in designing and developing ontologies, the
purpose of the ontology should be defined clearly as well as its interoperability with existing
ontologies should be taken into consideration. The study aims to use the BFO structure to develop
an upper ontology that covers all the life cycle phases of the construction project, i.e. starting from
24
conceptual design to the disposal phase. The ontology can be used as a framework to manage and
structure construction knowledge. Using the BFO as an upper ontology provides a mature
methodology and automatic method to develop an ontology for construction knowledge, with a
philosophical foundation. It was estimated that 50 person-years are required to develop a complete
ontology for construction knowledge, [122]. Therefore, the purpose of this study is not to develop
a complete ontology, but an upper ontology that can be used by construction companies and experts
to structure their knowledge and further detail it towards a complete construction ontology. This
supports the integration of the construction supply chain by structuring its data, which facilitates
knowledge management and the implementation of Construction 4.0. Many Industry 4.0
domain, [135]. Ontologies can be used to develop a mechanism that facilitates the exchange of
25
knowledge in the construction sector as well as communicating it with other domains, For
example, communicating information related to energy consumption and Green House Gas (GHG)
emissions for buildings with stakeholders can urge them to take actions to reduce these emissions
[136]. A complete ontology that covers the entire project life cycle will structure such information
which facilitates collecting and communicating it with stakeholders. The study aims to follow the
(1) What is the current state of information flow tools and the extent of adopting VSM in
(2) How VSM can be implemented at multilevel to identify current wastes in the industry?
(3) What are the requirements for a VSM framework that is suited for less repetitive
(4) How the construction industry can structure its information to facilitate its management
The study aims to develop a VSM and information management frameworks to support the
integration of the construction supply chain and enhance the performance of its non-repetitive
processes at the field level. The frameworks can be suited to accommodate fluctuation, capture
process disturbances and enhance construction processes’ efficiencies which can promote the
26
Traditional VSM methodology requires observing the current processes to map it and implement
improvement in future state map. However, construction projects are unique and onsite processes
are most likely nonrepetitive. Therefore, implementing a future state map can be a challenge as the
future process most likely will not occur under the same conditions. Current VSM is effective in
manufacturing where processes are repetitive. VSM for construction processes found in literature
has been completed at the nano or micro levels i.e. within enterprise boundaries. However, many
construction processes involve multiple partners where VSM at Meso and Macro levels should be
completed. To develop VSMs at multiple levels, information and knowledge modelling for
construction is required to structure its data in an interoperable manner. The industry has been
lacking a standardized methodology for the development of a domain ontology that has a
philosophical foundation and covers all project phases. The study aims to develop a Value Stream
Mapping and information management frameworks to support the integration of the construction
supply chain and enhance its performance at the field level. The frameworks can be suited to
concepts, their properties and relationships, [137]. The construction industry still lacks a consistent
methodology to develop a domain ontology. The study aims to develop an upper domain ontology
by using the BFO structure, incorporating ISO 12006-2 recommendations, [138] and conducting
interviews with domain experts. BFO is a mature upper ontology [139] that has been used in
ontology using the BFO structure can support its interoperability with other domain ontologies and
establish a philosophical foundation for it. The thesis has four objectives:
27
(1) Determine and analyze existing information flow tools and the extent of adopting VSM in
(2) Apply VSM to determine the current wastes induced in the construction processes and
(3) Develop and validate a VSM framework for the less repetitive onsite construction processes.
(4) Structure construction information using ontology approach to support the application of
Taking into consideration the culture of the construction industry that has been resisting changes
for a long time, the industry needs to focus on the social, cultural and technological aspects of the
changes in moving towards enabling the concepts and technologies of Construction 4.0, [49]. The
aim of implementing VSM at the field level is to eliminate wastes and enhance efficiencies for
these processes that are still mainly dependent on labour forces. More efficient or automated
processes can be understood as fewer workers will be needed to execute the work. This may spread
the fear of losing jobs among workers, so it should be communicated that the aim of implementing
such processes and tools is to move the resources to work in other areas, and there should be no
fear regarding job security. Reducing wastes and increasing efficiencies allow us, as a society, to
better utilize our resources. Moreover, building a complete ontology for the construction industry
may introduce security issues regarding integrating data and sharing information, so this should
be addressed and resolved to manage the risks associated with its implementation.
The dissertation consists of seven chapters. The first (1) chapter states the motivation for the study,
objectives, and related work through a literature review. The second (2) chapter discusses the
research framework that is adapted to achieve research objectives. The third (3) chapter addresses
28
the first research objective which is determining the existing information flow tools and techniques
currently used in the industry by conducting surveys and interviews with industry experts. The
fourth (4) chapter summarizes case studies that implement VSM in the construction supply chain
to understand the current state of the industry, opportunities for improvements and limitations of
current VSM methodology which fulfils the dissertation’s second objective. Chapter five (5)
discusses the developed VSM framework for construction processes, the implementation and
validation of the framework to fulfil desertion’s third objective. In chapter six (6), construction
knowledge ontology is developed and evaluated to fulfil the dissertation’s fourth objective.
Chapter seven (7) states the study’s conclusion, limitations, and recommendations for future work.
The summary of the dissertation’s roadmap is shown in Figure 3. The background is discussed in
chapter one. Literature review is discussed in chapter two. The four objectives as shown in Figure
3 are addressed in chapters three, four, five and six respectively. The conclusion and future work
29
Figure 3: Thesis Roadmap
30
Chapter 2: The Research Framework
The research framework defines the research process i.e. how is the research designed and
executed? How the theories are developed and tested? On the other hand, the research method
refers to the specific techniques and tools used to collect and analyze data, [140]. The three main
research methods generally used are quantitative, qualitative and mixed, [140].
Qualitative methods are used to answer questions that cannot be investigated by quantification
such as behaviour, [141]. In the qualitative paradigm, the researchers are seeking to capture
experiences and knowledge of the participants that are involved in a phenomenon by using
techniques such as interviews, observations, and case studies, [141]-[142]. Qualitative analysis
focuses on the process and meanings that are not measured in the form of quantity, frequency or
magnitude, [143]. It has many benefits such as providing a deep understanding of a topic by closely
knowledge obtained from the quantitative study, and helping study a phenomenon that cannot be
approached quantitively, [144]. Interviews are one of the most common tools used in qualitative
research methods.
Interviews are a systemic method to collect data and gain knowledge from individuals through
conversations. Interviews can be used as a research tool when highly personalized data is required,
researching a topic with little or no knowledge exist about it or the knowledge still at the tacit
level, and obtaining experts opinion on the topic, [145]. There are several types of interviews,
[146]:
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▪ Structured Interview
A structured interview is also called standardized interviews. In this type of interview, the
same questions are asked to all participants, using the same wording and sequence, [147]-
[148]. Questions are usually specific, and the answers have a fixed range which gives the
researcher control over the interview. It provides a common format for the data which
facilitates its analysis, [149]. However, this type of interview can be rigid and hinder probing
rephrasing and explanations are limited which can lead to inaccurate answers, [146].
▪ Semi-structured Interview
Semi-structured interviews are non-standardized and often used in qualitative analysis. The
interviewer has a set of topics and questions to be discussed during the interview, [150]. The
questions sequence can be changed, and extra ones can be asked as needed. The semi-
structured interviews provide flexibility where researchers can probe deeper into the topic.
Moreover, the researchers can rephrase and explain the questions to ensure the interviewee
understands them which provides more accurate answers, [148]. This type of interview
requires experienced interviewers who can ask the right questions and probe into the
conversation to collect the required data; otherwise, relevant information can be missed.
▪ Unstructured Interviews
This is a flexible type of interview that allows the interviewees to speak freely and give as
many details as possible to express their opinions and knowledge as well as share their
experiences, [146]. Unstructured interviews are suited when no or little knowledge exists
32
about the studied topic. However, this is an inappropriate type for inexperienced interviewers
as they may not ask the right questions, and they can be biased. Also, the interviewees have
the freedom to deviate from the topic which can lead to irrelevant data. Also, the collected
data can have a wide range and in different formats which can create a challenge in analyzing
it, [146].
▪ Non-directive Interviews
Nondirective interviews have no predetermined topic or questions and the interviewee leads
the conversation, [148]. The interviewer has the research objective in mind, mainly listening,
check and rephrase the answers to ensure accuracy and understanding the interviewee, [148].
This type of interview can support finding deep-rooted problems and feelings such as
psychology topics. However, analyzing the data is a challenge as no specific topic or issue
to explore, [147].
Quantitative research is objective and based on testing hypotheses and theories composed of
variables that can be measured and analyzed, [140]. Quantitative methods are used in methodical,
experimental and controlled approaches to investigate natural phenomena, [151]. Some of the
commonly used quantitative tools are experiments, surveys and symbolic models, [152]. It has
been argued that quantitative methods are inflexible and can be limited in testing existing
Survey is a research tool used to collect data “to answer questions that have been raised, to solve
problems that have been posted or observed, to assess needs and set goals, to determine whether
or not specific objectives have been met, to establish baselines against which future comparisons
33
can be made, to analyze trends across time, and generally, to describe what exists, in what amount,
and in what context”, [153]. Survey has three main characteristics: (1) a quantitative method used
to describe a population, (2) the data is subjective as it is collected from people, and (3) the
researchers seek to generalize the findings of a data collected from a sample of the population,
[154]. Surveys can be conducted in a written format such as paper questionaries’ and electronic
mail or verbal such as interviews, [155]. There are three types of surveys, [156]- [157]:
(1) Cross-sectional Survey collects data at one point in time i.e. a snapshot of what is happening
(2) Longitudinal Survey collects data over a period which can be months or years. It allows
the researchers to compare data for the studied period. Longitudinal survey has two forms:
(a) Cohort Survey collects data from the same population over a period of time.
(b) Trend Survey collects data from various groups of people over a period of time, using the
same questions.
(3) Explanatory or Correlation Survey aims to correlate two or more variables using the
collected data.
The survey is an efficient tool in obtaining data from a large sample of the population and able to
describe it, and the results can be generalized when the sample can represent the population, [157].
Moreover, surveys can identify attitudes which can be a challenge to measure using other tools,
[157]. On the other hand, the survey has weaknesses where results can be biased because of
inaccurate or lack of responses, and obtaining a representative sample is one of the fundamental
34
Table 1: Qualitative Vs Quantitative Research [140], [158]
Reports rich description and narrative Reports statistical and measurement analysis
The mixed research method combines qualitative and quantitative approaches. Creswell argued
that using the mixed approach can strengthen the research method by counteract the weakness of
each approach. It can also give more comprehensive results that neither one approach can do,
[140]. A case study is a common mixed research technique. Case refers to an individual, event,
entity or unit of analysis. A case study as a research method investigates a phenomenon with its
real-life context to explain how and why things happen in a certain manner, [159]. It can provide
a holistic view of the phenomena by capturing its full properties which can allow generalization
using replicated results of multiple case studies, [160]. The case study approach allows the use of
mixed research methods, i.e. quantitative and qualitative analysis, because of its ability to use
various methods to collect data in a single study. Moreover, case studies support the study of
35
Case studies have weaknesses in terms of generalization of results when a specific situation is
studied, and results cannot be replicated. The case study’s results can be biased by the researcher’s
Cross-sectional surveys and interviews are conductive to achieve the first objective which is
determining and analyzing current tools and methods for information flow in the construction
industry. A survey is an efficient research method to describe what exists, in what amount, and in
what context, and an interview can collect the tacit knowledge, [153]. To achieve the second
objective i.e. current wastes in construction processes and implementing traditional VSM
methodology, case studies are completed; case study can answer the questions regarding how and
why things happen in a certain manner, [159]. The fourth objective which is developing and
validating the VSM framework is completed through case studies and using Microsoft Visio
professionals in the industry and built and validated using Protégé software as shown in Figure 4.
36
Figure 4: Research Framework
37
Chapter 3: Survey and Interviews
To determine the existing information flow tools currently used in the construction industry as
The data obtained was collected via a cross-sectional survey in the fork of a questionnaire
developed using Google Forms and distributed through the Edmonton Construction Association
(ECA) e-newsletter, [161]. A survey was chosen as the preferred approach because the study is
seeking to describe a reality, [156]. The questionnaire aims to determine the existing tools used by
individuals and enterprises to exchange information in Alberta’s construction industry. ECA is the
largest non-profit construction association in western Canada and serves all construction sectors,
i.e., residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial. The association membership is made up
contractors, suppliers, owners, architects, engineers, and associated members, [161]. The survey
is divided into five sections. In the first section, participants were asked about their roles and
experiences in the industry to understand their professional background. The second section
focused on the tools that are currently used to exchange information in construction projects. In
the third section, questions were asked about the tools and methods used to exchange information
during specific phases of the project, e.g., procurement, tendering, etc., where multiple partners
are involved. In the fourth section, participants were asked about key performance indicators
(KPI), including information management KPIs. The last section focused on determining if any
tools or techniques are currently being used to improve efficiency including lean management
tools.
The survey is sent via the ECA e-newsletter twice, in March and April 2018. 16 completed answers
are received from the 1300 members who received the e-newsletter. The response frequency
38
provides a 95% confidence level with a confidence interval of 24.36%, [162]. The low response
rate is a major limitation and would not allow the generalization of the results. However, responses
received from various construction stakeholders i.e. project owners, contractors, subcontractors
and consultants who work in all major construction sectors, i.e., residential, industrial, commercial
and infrastructure. Most of the participants have more than 5 years of experience as shown in
Figure 5. Participants were not asked about their genders because the focus is on their work
experiences and the construction sector they are working in. Therefore, no gender-based results
are in the survey. The results are not deterministic because of the low response rate, but still
insightful due to the participants’ profiles that can be a representation of the industry. The results
indicate the extent of adoption of VSM in Alberta’s industry, but a larger sample size will be
39
3.1 Survey Results
There were several tools and methods of communication stated by the participants; these included
meetings, phone calls, face to face discussions, emails, correspondence via hard copy, and
information management systems (IMS). The respondents were requested to select the frequency
for each tool’s usage on a scale of 0 through 4, as follows: never (0), seldom (1), sometimes (2),
often (3) and always (4). The frequency index for usage (IF), frequency index for sharing and
storing information (IS), and importance index (II) are calculated using equations (1)–(3),
respectively, [163]. IF is used to rank the information flow tools based on frequency of usage as
identified by the participants while IS used to rank the socialization of information for each tool
based on the frequency of storing and sharing information as identified by the participants as
shown in equations (1) &(2) respectively, [164]. The importance index is calculated as a function
100
IF = ∑𝑖=4
𝑖=0 nFi x dFi (1)
4𝑁
100
IS = ∑𝑖=4
𝑖=0 nSi x dSi (2)
4𝑁
II = IF 𝑥 IS/100 (3)
Where,
nFi = Number of respondents who indicated that they used the communication approach in question
at a degree of i. (e.g., if 10 respondents said they use email “sometimes”, then nF2 =11 for email).
dFi = Degree of use indicated by the respondent for communication approach in question (e.g. if
40
nSi = is the number of respondents who indicated they share, and store information communicated
using the communication approach in question at a degree of i (e.g. if 6 respondents said they
“always” share and store information communicated by email then nS1 = 6).
dSi = Degree of sharing and storing information indicated by the respondents for communication
approach in question (e.g. if the respondents mentioned they “sometimes” share and store
IF shows that email is the most used method for communication, followed by meetings, phone
calls, correspondence, and IMS, respectively as shown in Table 2. The participants were also asked
about the efficiency of emails in communication, with over 70% of the responses indicating that
they experience late replies for requested information via emails, which causes delays in making
decisions. Only 12% indicated that email is an effective means of communication, encountering
no delays.
Emails 91
Meetings 80
41
Knowledge is one of the essential assets in the construction industry because of its role in
innovation and value creation, [165]. Knowledge is divided into tacit and explicit knowledge.
Explicit knowledge is stored and can be shared in the form of data, Figures, etc., where tacit
knowledge is deeply rooted in individuals’ behaviours and has to be learned through interactions,
[166]. An interview is an effective research method to collect tacit knowledge, [153]. The
interaction between tacit and explicit leads to knowledge creation. A four-stage conversion model
the steps of converting tacit knowledge to explicit and ultimately knowledge creation, [167]. The
first step, socialization, is where information is shared at the individual employee level through
various means of communication. At the externalization stage, tacit knowledge is transformed into
formal knowledge that is stored and shared in a formal language such as figures, charts, manuals,
etc. The third stage, combination, is where explicit knowledge is placed into a systematic structure.
Finally, the fourth is internalization, where individuals absorb the explicit knowledge and create
their tacit knowledge, [168]. Based on the SECI model, tools and means of communication are
crucial for knowledge creation and for transferring tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge.
communication utilized.
The participants were asked about the frequency of storing and sharing information communicated
by emails, meetings, phone calls and face to face discussions. As shown in Table 3, the IS for
emails is 72%, while it is 55% for meetings and 19% for phone calls. Considering that emails,
meetings, phone calls, and face to face discussions are the most common means of communication
used in the Alberta construction industry, with minimal use of IMS, we can conclude that a sizeable
amount of exchanged information not adequately socialized or externalized and remains at the
42
individual employee level. This hinders knowledge creation which adversely impacts innovation
Table 3. Information Flow Tools Survey Results -Frequency index for sharing and storing
information (IS)
Emails 72
Meetings 55
The importance index for each tool was calculated based on the frequency of usage as well as the
information storage and sharing frequency index, with results shown in Table 4. Emails have an
important index of 65% while phone calls and face-to-face discussions scored the lowest at 13%.
Taking into consideration the usage, storage, and sharing frequency factors, the current tools for
information flow in Alberta’s construction industry is not as effective as it could be and doesn’t
support knowledge creation based on SECI model. The study results are in accordance with similar
studies completed in other regions where the construction industry faces similar challenges in
terms of inefficient communication and loss of information, [169]- [170]- [171]- [172].
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Table 4. Information Flow Tools Survey Results- Importance index (II)
Emails 65
Meetings 44
Approximately 56% of the respondents use hard copy purchase orders to procure materials while
the remaining use different tools such as emails, phone calls, internal systems, etc. The answers
show that existing tools used to exchange information in the procurement supply network in
Alberta are project or company dependent and unstandardized. The answers are in accordance with
the case study results where the construction industry is relying on hard copies, phone calls, emails
One of the steps in developing the VSM is the selection of the process metrics, such as the
processing time, information management tools, crew size, to measure the performance and
efficiency of the process and associated activities. The participants in the survey are asked to
identify the importance of safety, customer satisfaction, productivity, quality, waste reduction,
performance, cost, information management and safety key performance indicator (KPI) as shown
in Figure 6. Safety KPI is ranked by the participants as the most important to their organizations.
44
Cost reduction, customer satisfaction, and schedule ranked the second, third and fourth important
KPIs respectively. The participants were also asked if they have a KPI to measure the process
improvements within their organization i.e. increasing the efficiencies of the processes. These
results are in accordance with other studies that show time, quality, cost, and safety are the top
performance indicators established in the industry, [173]. These KPIs are considered traditional
lagging KPIs that are based on safety, cost and customer satisfaction. Enabling Construction 4.0
will require the industry to adopt more leading KPIs, such as data quality, customer return rate,
not just only the lagging traditional ones, [49] Moreover, these traditional construction KPIs have
limited use during the execution phase and need to be replaced with active performance indicators
to improve project controls, [174]. The survey results show Alberta’s construction industry is still
using the lagging KPIs which is in accordance with the other studies. This is may hinder
developing VSM across enterprises because of the plack of agreement on leading KPIs that can be
successfully used to monitor and adjust future state maps among various stakeholders (if needed).
45
3.3 Interviews
Five semi-structured interviews are conducted with professionals who are in mid-to-senior level
management positions within their organizations. The validity and reliability of the collected data
is within a constructivist paradigm, not a positivist, [175]. Thus, results are not deterministic but
still insightful due to the careful selection of interviewees that represent various companies within
the Edmonton construction industry as well as their experiences. The interviews aim to determine
the current tools and techniques managers use to improve processes and enhance efficiencies as
well as the extent of adopting lean management tools in the industry. The interviewees are asked
eight questions, related to (1) the interviewees’ professional experience and current position within
the organization, (2) the interviewees’ familiarity with lean management tools, (3) their processes’
wastes, (4) how they measure their processes’ efficiencies, (5) tools and techniques they use to
enhance their processes, (6) how they find the root causes of the problems they encounter in their
workplace, (7) how they measure the value of the products and/or services they deliver to their
clients, and (8) whether they implement VSM to identify and eliminate wastes to increase their
values.
The interviewees work for four different organizations and their current positions are Vice
President, Project Director, Senior Planning Engineer, Safety Director, and Senior Project,
Coordinator. The interviewees work in various departments within their organizations. Three of
the interviewees mentioned that they are not familiar with lean management tools and the other
two stated they are familiar with them, but they haven’t used them at work. Only one interviewee
is not familiar with the process wastes, but the others mentioned that they have at least some
familiarity with some types of wastes. All interviewees mentioned that they don’t measure their
processes’ efficiencies, but they measure local productivities which are mainly related to the cost
46
and productivity of certain activities. Likewise, they don’t measure any KPI’s for the value stream
of these activities.
Four of the interviewees stated that they haven’t implemented any tools or techniques that can
improve their processes’ efficiencies. One interviewee discussed using previous experiences to
improve current processes, but they have no procedures or tools to implement those improvements.
All interviewees mentioned that they investigate and analyze safety incidents to find their root
causes, however, those investigations or analyses haven’t been extended to other departments.
Only one interviewee stated that he uses the 5-why’s technique in the root cause analysis, but the
remaining haven’t mentioned any tools or techniques. Two of the interviewees stated that they
don’t measure or evaluate the value of the product or service they deliver to their customers, while
the other four interviewees talked about qualitative analyses, such as “repeat business” and
“discussions with clients”, which they use to gauge customer satisfaction. None of the interviewees
The results show that most of the interviewed managers are not familiar with lean management
tools, including VSM. Moreover, they have not implemented tools or techniques that can identify
and eliminate wastes, increase process efficiency, and deliver better values to their customers.
Despite the benefits of lean construction in terms of eliminating wastes and improve efficiencies,
studies show that it hasn’t been widely adopted in the industry due to many barriers that are still
facing its implementation, such as lack of education and investment costs, [176], [61], [177]. Lack
of awareness and unfamiliarity with lean are major barriers in adopting it, [178]. The results of
these studies are in accordance with the interview and survey results we conducted in Alberta that
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3.4 Survey and Interviews’ Conclusion
The survey results, based on the participants’ answers, show the construction industry in Alberta
uses many tools to exchange information inconsistently. The information is most likely neither
shared nor stored and poorly communicated. Most of the information seems to stay at the
individual levels which can hinder knowledge capitalization. Moreover, the importance of KPIs
varies among companies which is promoting the fragmentation of its supply chain as each
organization works to achieve its own goals. VSM is an efficient tool that has been adopted by the
manufacturing industry to identify and eliminate wastes. However, the construction industry in
Alberta seems that it has not adopted VSM yet. The survey results are compared to similar studies
that were conducted in other regions, using criterion validity test, [179]. A study conducted in the
UK shows emails, meetings and hard copy documents are the most common approaches to
communicate information at the construction site level, and information is not exchanged properly,
[180]. Studies completed in various regions show that the industry relied on meetings, face to face
other studies also show that e construction industry faces challenges in terms of inefficient
conducted in Alberta are in accordance with these studies in terms of the tools to exchange
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Chapter 4: Case Studies – VSM
Construction project consists of several phases which include project definition, design,
installation, operation and maintenance phases as shown in Figure 7. Project owners, engineers,
consultants, contractors, material suppliers and subcontractors collaborate through the various
phases of the project, [38]. During the project definition, the project owner (client), engineers, and
architects work together to define project concepts, feasibility study and shaping the project. In the
next phase design phase, engineers with various disciplines such as mechanical, electrical and civil
work together to design the project. After design is complete, construction contractors build the
project and turnover it to the owner who operates and maintains it as shown in Figure 7. In the
procurement stage, the owner usually hires a contractor to manage and perform the work. The
project’s materials and equipment are also purchased during this phase, [38]. Procurement
processes involve many partners such as owner, contractor, suppliers and subcontractors which
requires information and/or material flow across enterprises. The study implements VSM at the
nano and meso levels in procurement and tendering case studies to understand the current state of
the industry in terms of improving its performance by identifying and eliminating wastes.
VSM is implemented in procurement case studies for two different projects. The projects’ scope
of work includes fundamental construction activities for earthmoving and concrete foundations.
The study examines onsite procurement activities. Data is collected for six cases from the two
different projects by field observations, using ERP system database, and projects’ documents. The
durations of the cases vary from 192 to 450 hours. VSMs are developed at the Nano level and links
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Figure 7: Construction Project Phases (adapted from [186])
are shown to the meso level. After analyzing the current state map and implementing lean
management techniques, a future state map is developed, and recommendations are made to
overcome some of the industry’s challenges. The General Contractor (GC) is responsible for
executing the scope of work which includes earthmoving and installing concrete foundations. GC
hires several subcontractors to perform specialized work and purchase materials from local
suppliers. The study focuses on material procurement activities which include calculating
quantities, ordering, shipping, and installation of materials. The two projects have different
management teams and clients. Construction materials are specified on design drawings by design
engineers. Procurement and installation of materials are executed by GC’s site team i.e. project
engineer and superintendent. The material’s cost was determined during the tender stage by GC’s
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estimators and carried in the project’s cost estimate. However, the site teams request several quotes
before ordering the materials in an attempt to find more competitive prices. Material costs may
vary between the estimate and installation times due to changes in market conditions. Therefore,
checking material prices is important especially for long-term projects where the project’s
schedule extends over several years. The VSM is completed as per the following steps:
The customer, i.e. project owner, requires the material to be supplied and installed as per design
The project requirements are outlined by the project’s owner. The project is designed by the
engineers who specify the materials and design requirements. Then, design drawings and
specifications are transferred to the construction contractor who purchases and installs the
materials.
▪ Time including process and lead times to identify value-added and non-value-added times,
▪ Information technology used for information flow i.e. ERP system, email, phone calls,
▪ Queues or wait time that the information was held on someone’s desk without being
processed,
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▪ Personnel performing the work.
These metrics measure the efficiency and duration of the activities, show the information flow
tools, and the personnel who are performing the activities to understand the roles of each partner
The current VSM is developed as shown in Figure 8. It shows that the construction industry relies
on phone calls, emails and hard copies to exchange information. The hard copy purchase order is
an inefficient information flow tool. It was held onsite for several days which hinders the execution
of the next step, creating a long queue. Moreover, it creates no value to the process as it is only a
The materials are purchased and delivered to the site several weeks before installation. Therefore,
the “just in time” technique hasn’t been implemented which adds extra cost for storing and
handling the material. This is common in all six cases where materials were ordered in advance
and stored onsite. The contractor orders the materials in advance to ensure they are available once
needed without considering the extra cost and wastes associated with early material purchasing.
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Figure 8: VSM Case Study- Current State Map
Step 5: How can we create an improved future state map?
The following steps are completed to develop the future state map:
The customer i.e. the project’s owner requires the materials to be purchased according to design
drawings with the lowest price and installed on time to meet the project’s milestones.
(b) Which steps create value, and which ones are waste?
The current state map shows owners, engineers, contractors and suppliers are operating in an
“island” concept i.e. fragmented supply chain where every partner works on his own. At the
▪ Extra processing: there are four approvals for the suppliers’ invoice
▪ The physical transportation of the PO to the office is a waste and increased the queue for the
process
▪ Overproduction: extra work has been created by the hard copy PO system which creates no
▪ Waiting: The project assistant was waiting for the PO to process the data in the ERP system.
▪ Inventory:
o Invoices are processed randomly, so the number of POs is fluctuating in the system.
o Materials are stored and preserved on site before they are installed, so extra unnecessary
inventory is created.
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Examining the contractor activities, the PO was queued onsite at the project coordinator’s desk for
almost two weeks which interrupted the value stream of the process and did not allow the next step
to occur. In a “push system”, the PO should be delivered to the office immediately after it has been
issued to the supplier which can be completed by mailing it or sending a scanned copy. However,
a more efficient approach can be achieved in combining and eliminating activities as shown in
Figure 9.
“Just in time” pull system can be implemented at the site level for purchasing materials, so
materials are ordered only when needed. This reduces inventory and material handling times.
Moreover, it can support the company’s cash flow by making payments for materials only once
needed. Such a system can prioritize the next steps in the procurement value stream by processing
payments based on FIFO and reduce the amount of work in process (WIP). The more WIP and in
queue in the system, the longer it takes to process the work. By controlling the time of ordering
material based on “due date” i.e. when needed as per the construction project schedule, the size of
the queue can be reduced which results in a more stable and predictable value stream.
Implementing the “Just in Time” model for purchasing materials can reduce costs by minimizing
To increase workflow within the subnetwork, a collaborative supply chain can be developed where
all partners can communicate effectively throughout all phases of the project.
Using the analysis in previous steps, a future state map is developed as shown in Figure 10. The
process and lead times are calculated and compared to the current state values as shown in Table
5. Process time has been improved by 43% i.e. 3.5 hours. Taking into consideration the company
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processes hundreds or thousands of invoices annually, this is a significant cost reduction which
reduces the overall project cost and creates value for the customer. Moreover, more cost reduction
can be achieved by implementing “just in time” for ordering materials on site by reducing or
eliminating storage and inventory cost. Besides, collaboration and partnership with the suppliers
can increase process efficiency by eliminating the request of extra quotes from several suppliers.
Tendering is a procurement process where the project owner or his representative invites
construction companies to bid on a project. A case study for a tendering process is completed. The
contractor was invited to bid on a project. The project’s scope includes excavation, backfill,
The current state and future state maps are developed, refer to Appendix B for the VSMs. After
implementing lean management tools, the processing time for future state maps is improved by
23.19 hours i.e. 23.19% as shown in Table 6. This is a significant cost reduction taking into
consideration the company develops many proposals annually. This improvement is achieved at
the enterprise process level i.e. nano level. However, significant improvement can be achieved at
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Figure 9: VSM Case Study - Current State Map Comments
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Figure 10: VSM Case Study - Future VSM
the subnetwork level by completing Meso VSM and implementing an information management
Varinace (hrs) 20 46 66
The data was collected for the other five procurement case studies from two different projects. The
processes for all the cases are similar i.e. the site team calculates the bill of quantities, calls multiple
suppliers to request pricing, issues a purchase order for the supplier with the lowest price then send
it to the office where the account payable department follow the same process to pay the supplier.
The developed future state map is applicable to all the cases. On the other hand, data was collected
for a second tender case study, and it was noticed the company follows the same process i.e. the
estimators lead it and many review meetings with the managers are conducted to finalize the
estimate. The future state map that was developed for the first tender case study is applicable for
the second one. Based on mapping the procurement and tender case study, it was noticed that
implementing VSM in one case study for the replicated process can be sufficient even though the
stakeholders are different. Construction companies can improve their processes significantly by
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The process time in the procurement case study is improved at the nano level by 43%. However,
meso VSM that maps the entire procurement subnetwork can introduce a global optimization to
the process along the value chain network. This will promote the integration of the supply network
where information can flow efficiently among the project’s partners. An efficient information
management system not only can reduce the project’s cost but also improve quality by providing
accurate and on-time information. Following are recommendations to overcome some of the
▪ The construction supply chain is temporary. The case studies show that contractor- supplier
several suppliers before purchasing materials. A long-term relationship may minimize the
impact of this challenge. The nature of the construction industry is project-based i.e.
temporary, but the relationship between contractor and supplier can be permanent, so
material for different projects can be purchased from the same supplier. Such permanent
relation can build trust among the project’s partners and enhance communication which
can improve efficiency and performance. Meso VSM can support the development of a
▪ Construction is a conservative industry driven by cost. The contractor tries to obtain the
lowest material prices even though this may have cost more through the “waste” and extra
steps created in the process. Moreover, the industry is still heavily dependent on paperwork
and hard copies such as PO, mail, and cheques. The contractor has an ERP system, but it’s
not fully utilized. To reduce costs and have a more efficient process, ERP and other
technologies should be adopted throughout the whole process. Macro VSM can support
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integrating supply chain and standardization as well as introducing new techniques to
The case studies for procurement and tendering processes involve many partners i.e. general
contractors, suppliers, subcontractors, engineers and project owners. The results show
inconsistency in the tools used for information flow among stakeholders i.e. emails, hard copies,
web-based systems, etc.; every partner uses his tools which promotes the fragmentation of CSC.
The inconsistency also creates wastes due to “wait” and extra processing. Moreover, the case
studies show that the construction industry hasn’t yet adopted lean management tools to enhance
efficiency even at the nano or micro-levels. VSM at the nano level partially enhanced the process
by eliminating waste at its level. However, major improvements can be achieved by a VSM at
the meso and macro levels i.e. across enterprises. The key to implement multilevel VSM in CSC
is information management to ensure information is flowing efficiently among all partners and
across enterprises. The future VSM can be implemented in CSC repetitive processes such as
office and administrative ones. However, the current VSM methodology may not be efficient for
non-repetitive processes as the future VSM most likely would not be executed.
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Chapter 5: VSM Framework in Construction
VSM is an effective tool in replicated processes by identifying wastes and inefficiencies in the
current state map and implementing the improvements in the future state map. However, taking
into consideration the characteristics of the construction supply chain i.e. projects are built as per
owner requirements, every project is unique, the temporary supply chain that involves a large
number of partners in nonrepetitive processes and uncontrolled environment [29], the current VSM
methodology can be inefficient for onsite construction processes. The study proposes a framework
to implement VSM during the planning phase of the project, pre-construction activities, and
VSM aims to create graphical representation for the current processes, to identify and eliminate
wastes, aiming to create a better value for all stakeholders. The study proposes a framework that
incorporates VSM during the project planning phase of a local construction project, and use the
developed plan to monitor it during the execution phase. The intent is that it will allow the project
team to identify and eliminate wastes before execution, and measure and control performance
during the subsequent execution phase. The proposed framework has three VSM’s compared to
two in the traditional methodology. In our proposed framework, the first map represents the current
planned processes. Wastes are then identified and eliminated, to develop the “planned VSM”
(PVSM). The third map is developed to monitor the execution phase, update any future PVSM’s,
and compare actual process metrics to those that are planned. The third VSM also forecast
remaining activities based on completed activities’ performance and allows the project team to
monitor the project’s progress and adjust the execution plan accordingly.
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The developed framework has twelve main steps, as shown in Figure 11. The first step, (1), is to
identify the client’s needs, which establishes the value that the project’s partners should work to
create. In construction projects, the customer can be the project owner, internal customer,
subcontractor, or supplier. The client can be identified as the one who accepts completed work. As
an example here, the client’s need for a concrete placing subcontractor might be triggered by the
steel reinforcing installers completing their work on time and as per design drawings. The second
step, (2), is the mapping of activities and their sequence beginning when the customer order is
received, and running to the delivery of the final product or service. One of the major sources of
information for this step is the “pull” planning session, which is a collaborative planning approach
that involves all processes’ stakeholders, [187]. Other tools can be used to identify construction
activities, such as the project schedule, path of construction (which shows the sequence of project
activities), project estimates, and construction execution plan. The third step, (3), is choosing
proper process metricsmetrics to measure performance. The process metrics metrics should be
chosen from the customers’ perspective to meet their requirements and needs. For example, the
process metrics for a concrete-placing process might be process time, crew size, lead time, and
information flow tools. Process metrices should be chosen to reflect the execution plan; for
example takt time is used to determine the duration of the product in an assembly line to meet
demand; takt time may not be required to measure the process performance in some cases. Process
metrices are specific for the process. The fourth step, (4), is the creation of the current state map
for the process, which represents the current plan. The map should be validated with all
stakeholders to ensure accuracy. In the fifth step, (5), non-value-added activities are identified.
Waste is eliminated in the sixth step, (6); there are seven types of wastes as defined in the Toyota
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movement, and defects, [56]. These wastes can be eliminated by applying lean management tools
such as just-in-time, pull planning, and Kanban, [57]. In the seventh step, (7), the constraints that
may interrupt workflow should be identified and removed to ensure no workers are waiting for
work and no work is waiting for workers. In step eight, (8), the future PVSM can be created and
validated with the project team. Future state VSM is a visual tool for project execution plan that
shows the flow of work and information across multiple partners which can support creating a
collaborative work environment. In step nine, (9), the future PVSM should be monitored during
the execution phase to update the process metrics for completed activities. They are analyzed in
step ten, (10), and developed into a forecast plan based on completed activities’ performance in
step eleven, (11). These steps will be repeated until all activities are completed to develop the final
map that shows PVSM versus the actual process metrics in step twelve, (12). Steps 9 to 12 are
additional steps to traditional VSM. They can support the monitoring and implementation of VSM
as well as forecast remaining activities based on completed ones. Process metrices are actualized
once associated activities are completed, then activites 5, 6 and 7 are repeated for remaining
activities to forecast future work. This is a nonlinear process due to the required iterations and
repeating steps during project execution. This frameworkprovides flexibility to adjust the plan and
eliminate wastes as site conditions change which support value creation for the client. The
framework i.e. the steps to complete VSM can be generalized, but the details of VSM such as
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Figure 11: Construction VSM Framework (adapted from [52])
This case study aims to demonstrate the developed VSM framework’s concept. A typical site
preparation earthmoving project is presented for a construction project team to prepare a project
construction execution plan. The scope of work comprises topsoil stripping, general cut/fill,
hauling of materials, and placement of backfill materials; bill of quantities is shown in Table 7:
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Table 7: VSM Case Study 1- Bill of Quantities
stockpile distance
thickness
stockpile
The project team developed a construction execution plan which requires five crews. Each crew
consists of general labourers and equipment operators. Crews and equipment breakdowns are
shown in Table 8. The project team anticipates 11 weeks to complete the work which includes
mobilization, survey, construction and demobilization activities as shown in the project schedule
in Figure 12.
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Table 8: VSM Case Study 1- Crews and equipment list
Dozer (D8) 2
1 Stripping of Topsoil 5
40-Ton Excavator 1
Dozer (D8) 2
Dozer (D8) 1
Grader 1
40-Ton Articulated
10
5 11 Trucks
Granular Material-Load & Haul from
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Figure 12: VSM Case Study 1- Project Schedule
The project owner needs the project to be completed within the project’s budget at the lowest
possible cost, on time, and as per design. Customer’s needs can be achieved by hauling excavated
materials and placing the backfill materials as per estimated productivities to maintain baseline
project schedule as well as avoid cost overrun. The quality control team will monitor the backfill
The activities and resources such as equipment, crew size, and productivities are identified using
the project’s schedule and construction execution plan. Following is the sequence of activities: (1)
the project starts with the mobilization activities, (2) topo survey to determine project limits and
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existing coordinates, (3) stripping and hauling topsoil, cut and haul unsuitable material, (4) haul
and place gravel, (5) and finally survey placed materials and demobilization.
Process metrics are chosen to measure process time, wait time, lead time, Crew & Crew Size,
productivities, cost, and quantities for each activity. These process metrics map the project
execution plan as well as can measure its progress. The lead time show activities’ durations which
can be summed to determine the overall work duration. On the other hand, crew names and sizes
as well as manhours show work execution and provide metrics that can be compared to the original
The current VSM for the project execution plan is developed as shown in Figure 13. VSM is a
visual tool for the project execution plan. It shows the project schedule, productivities, crews and
their sizes, cost, and critical path which facilitates socializing the plan with the entire project team.
The project is divided into three phases: (1) stripping/hauling, (2) excavating/hauling, and (3)
hauling/placing. The activities of each should be completed concurrently. The VSM shows hauling
topsoil and unsuitable materials as well as loading gravel are the project critical path activities.
These activities have no float time. A critical path is the set of activities that determines the overall
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Figure 13:VSM Case Study 1- Current "Planned" VSM
Steps 5&6. Classify Activities to Identify and Eliminate Waste
Waiting is the major waste in the process and can be classified into two categories: crews waiting
to start the work and work waiting for execution. The total wait time between the three project
phases is 7.5 days as shown in Figure 13 which is a work waiting for execution. On the other hand,
waiting times within the project phases are 1.2, 2.5 and 22.3 days for stripping & hauling,
excavating & hauling, and hauling & placing gravel activities respectively. This waiting time is
categorized as worker waiting to start work due to the fluctuation of the productivities and
VSM shows the hauling crews have the most manhours. Therefore, increasing hauling crews’
efficiencies and reducing their wait times can reduce the overall project’s cost and duration. In
stripping and hauling activities, the productivity for loading is higher than hauling, so process
efficiency can be improved by levelling the workload between these activities via narrowing the
gap between their productivities. On the other hand, a 40T articulated truck can be added to the
hauling unsuitable material and hauling topsoil crews to increase their productivities from 342
m3/hour to 411 m3/hour which reduces the total wait time for these activities by 2.73 days.
However, in gravel hauling crew, the productivities for hauling crew are higher than the loading
crew which leads to 6.42 days of waiting time for the hauling crew. By decreasing the number of
articulated trucks for the hauling gravel crew from 10 to 6 trucks, the productivity decreases from
685 m3/hr to 411 m3/hr which leads to having the hauling gravel as a critical path activity. This
reduces the overall project cost as the hauling crew has the highest hourly cost.
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Step 8. Create Future “Planned” VSM
The future state map is developed as shown in Figure 15. The wait time between phases is
eliminated, and the resource levelling plan developed in step 7 is implemented. The project lead
time and budgeted manhours are reduced by 20.4% and 12.5% respectively as shown in Figure 14.
This is a relatively significant improvement for the execution plan. In future VSM plans, only
hauling activities are on the project critical path as shown in Figure 15.
CURRENT VS PLAN
Current VSM Future VSM Variance % (Current Vs Future Plans)
20.43% 12.55%
33.42 4375
42 5002.69
The planned future VSM can be monitored during the execution phase of the project, and process
metrics such as productivities can be actualized for completed activities to compare actual
performance to the baseline plan. This allows the project team to track performance and ensure
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73
Figure 15: VSM Case Study 1- Future "Planned" VSM
work is progressing as per plan. Moreover, the project plan can be optimized (if needed) based on
any unforeseen site conditions during the planning phase. Demonstration for an updated VSM is
shown in Figure 16. A template for the to monitor the future planned VSM is developed which can
be used to track progress, compare it to baseline plan and forecast future ones as shown in Figure
16.
The framework is applied for in an earthmoving pilot project. The project’s scope of work
comprises the excavation and hauling of unsuitable material and the placement of backfill material.
The excavated material needs to be hauled approximately 750 metres to an onsite stockpile, while
the backfill material (crushed gravel) needs to be hauled approximately 500 metres from another
onsite stockpile. The backfill material needs to be compacted to a 95% standard proctor density.
The project team developed a construction execution plan that has five crews: (1) an excavation
crew (EC) that has two dozers, (2) a loading crew (LC) with two excavators, (3) a hauling crew
(HC1) for excavated material, consisting of nine articulated trucks, (4) a backfill crew (PC) with
two dozers, one water truck, and two compactors, and (5) a hauling crew (HC2) of seven
The client requires the project to be completed at the lowest possible cost, on time, and according
to the project’s design drawings and specifications. Customer’s needs can be achieved by hauling
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Figure 16: VSM Case Study 1- Plan Vs Actual Vs Forecast VSM
excavated materials and placing the backfill materials as per estimated productivities to maintain
baseline project schedule as well as avoid cost overrun. The quality control team will monitor the
The activities and their sequences are identified by using the project’s schedule. The resources
(crews, their sizes, and manhours) are determined by using the construction execution plan and
discussions with the project team. Excavation and Hauling of unsuitable materials will be
completed first by EC, LC and HC1 crews; then the backfill materials will be placed by PC and
HC2 crews.
The process metrics chosen are the lead times, crew names and sizes, and manhours to monitor the
project’s schedule and progress, which reflect the client’s and contractor’s requirements. The lead
time show activities’ durations which can be summed to determine the overall work duration. On
the other hand, crew names and sizes as well as manhours show work execution and provide
VSM also tracks the process and wait times that can be used to identify the value-added time
The current VSM is developed as shown in Figure 17. Excavating, loading and hauling of
unsuitable material are considered to be phase one of the project; they have to be completed
concurrently, and before other tasks, otherwise, the extra movement will be needed for the
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excavated material, thereby increasing the wastes in the process. If excavated material is not loaded
directly, it needs to be stockpiled and loaded later, which is an unnecessary extra movement for
the materials. Similarly, loading, hauling, and installation of backfill materials are considered to
be phase two of the projects. We note that the hauling activity in phase one and loading in phase
two is on the project’s critical path, which is defined as the set of activities that determines the
project’s overall lead time, [188]. The total budgeted manhours are 15,494 hours, and the project
The current PVSM in Figure 17 shows that the major waste in the process is the various wait times,
which total 11,828 hours or 76% of the total manhours. The result is following other studies that
show that the waste in the construction industry ranges between 47% and 80%, [189]. The industry
has normalized the waste in its processes, so implementing VSM in the construction project
planning phase can expose the waste and allow the project team to eliminate it.
NVAT can be classified into two categories: essential NVAT that cannot be eliminated due to
resource or technology limitations (for example transportation and storage), and waste that can be
eliminated, [68]. Critical path activities can facilitate the classification of NVAT, i.e., wait time
for a critical path activity is a waste while the wait time for a noncritical path activity is essential
NVAT if the resources for this work cannot be utilized by other activities.
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78
Figure 17: VSM Case Study 2- Current Planned VSM
Step 7. Identify and Remove Constraints to Increase Workflow
The major constraints identified for the project are the ground disturbance permit, which is
required to start excavation and the geotechnical testing requirements for the backfill materials.
The ground disturbance permit ensures all underground utilities are identified and located by
surveyors, so the earthwork activities can be executed safely. On the other hand, the geotechnical
testing requires soil analysis for the backfill materials to determine its composition and the criteria
to meet the project quality standard by achieving 95% standard proctor density. These constraints
can interrupt the workflow as the associated crews cannot commence the work unless these
Using the classification of activities in Step 5, the future PVSM is developed as shown in Figure
18. The waste time, i.e., waiting time for critical path activities is minimized and the crews’
estimated productivity rates are increased by minimizing time and capacity buffers built within
them. This reduced the NVAT from 11,828 hours to 1,703 hours (an 86% reduction), and the total
budgeted manhours decreased from 15,494 hours to 5,368 hours (a 65% reduction).
Steps 9, 10 &11. Monitor future PVSM, Analyze Completed Activities and Create Forecast
Plan
The future PVSM is updated, and process metrics are actualized for completed activities and
compared to the baseline plan. This allows the project team to track performance and ensure work
is progressing as planned and to revise the plan, if needed, due to any unforeseen site conditions
during the planning phase. In our case, once the project team mobilized to the site, a topographical
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80
Figure 18: VSM Case Study 2- Future planned VSM
survey was completed which showed that the execution and backfill materials were less than what
was presented to the project team during the planning phase. The decrease of material quantities
shortened activities lead time and budgeted manhours, as shown in Figure 19. The process metrics
for completed activities were tracked and used for forecasting the remaining activities based on
The actual lead time for phase one is 5 days, and the forecasted lead time for phase two is 8 days
based on the revised quantities. The forecasted project lead time is thirteen days compared to thirty-
three days in the original plan. Also, the forecasted manhours are 2,564 hours compared to 5,368
hours in the plan. The updated VSM shows that the actual manhours for Phase One are 716 hours,
with 322 facilitates managing the project resources, i.e., planning to utilize crews on other
The future PVSM is updated for phase two, and process metrics for completed activities are
actualized, as shown in Figure 20. The actual project lead time is twelve days, with 2,333
manhours, and the NVAT is 669 hours, which is 29% of the total man-hours, a significant
reduction from the 76% originally estimated. Moreover, the hauling activity in phase two became
a part of the project’s critical path, which reduced the overall project lead time as it has the highest
The developed VSM framework was applied in our case study, and the summary results are shown
in Table 9, below. The results show that the method can be an efficient tool in planning
construction activities, eliminating waste, monitoring during the execution phase, and forecasting
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Figure 19: VSM Case Study 2- Plan Vs Actual Vs Forecast VSM
remaining activities. This methodology can be suitable for non-repetitive processes where it
Original
The developed framework is applied in a concrete placing case study. The project’s scope of work
comprises supplying materials, equipment and labourers to install two equipment foundations. It
includes the supply and install of surveying, void form, concrete steel embeds, anchor bolts, bond
The planning team developed an execution plan that has three crews: (1) carpenters crew (FC) to
install formwork, bond breakers and isolation joints, (2) masons and labourers crew (CC) to install
concrete and fill-concrete, and finally a crew to install reinforcing steel (RC). The sizes of the
crews will vary depending on the activities and workload. The execution plan shows the contractor
will scan the site to determine existing underground utilities and mark to avoid damaging them.
The scans will be followed by a topo survey to determine existing ground elevations as well as
locate the coordinates of the foundations. Formwork, reinforcing steel, and concrete crews will
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Figure 20: VSM Case Study 2- Final Plan Vs Actual VSM
execute the work. The lead times for foundations 1&2 are 23 and 33 days respectively as shown
in Figure 21.
The owner requires the project delivered with the lowest possible cost, on schedule, and as per
design drawings and specifications. Customer’s needs can be achieved by installing concrete
foundations as per estimated productivities to maintain baseline project schedule as well as avoid
cost overrun. The quality control team will monitor the backfill activities to ensure quality
The activities and their sequences are identified using the project’s schedule as shown in Figure
21. The resources i.e. equipment, materials and labourers are identified using the construction
execution plan.
The chosen process metrics are process time, lead time, crew, crew size and activity ratio. These
process metrics represent the project execution plan which allows the project team to measure
progress and process efficiency. The lead time show activities’ durations which can be summed to
determine the overall work duration. On the other hand, crew names and sizes as well as manhours
show work execution and provide metrics that can be compared to the original plan and estimate.
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The current state map for the plan is developed using the project estimate, schedule and execution
plan. Each foundation has its construction work package, estimate and execution plan.
Based on the productivities and activities estimated manhours, the total wait time for workers is
129.1 and 118.2 hours in foundations 1&2 respectively while the total process time to complete
the works are 1830.9 and 1421.8 hours for foundations 1&2 respectively. The activity ratio for the
processes to install the two foundations are 93.4% and 92.3%. respectively. The total working days
are 23 and 33 days for foundations 1&2 respectively. All activities are on the critical path i.e. they
have a finish-start relationship. The current VSM for the plan is shown in Figure 22.
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Steps 5&6. Classify Activities to identify & Remove Waste
The major waste in the process is the waiting time for the workers. The wastes are 6.5% and 7.7%
for foundations 1 & 2 respectively. The two foundations are estimated separately and since the
plan is not to execute the work simultaneously, most probably the workers who are performing the
work on foundation one will not be the same crews for foundations two as the workers may be
transferred to a different site or be hired by a different employer, so worker training costs are
carried in the two budgets. The extra training for new workers is considered waste as it adds no
value to the project. The foundations are close to each other, so the set-up time for foundation two
is waste as well as the movement of materials, equipment and labour is NVAT that should be
minimized.
The workflow would be improved significantly if the foundations can be installed consecutively
i.e. the crews can start working on foundation two after completing foundation one. This will
eliminate the extra training required for new workers who may be required to work in foundation
two; it also minimizes the extra time required to set up equipment and materials for foundation
two as the same set up can be used for both foundations. Furthermore, more work fronts will be
available for the workers i.e. workable backlog can reduce the waiting time for the workers and
enhance productivity.
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Figure 22: VSM Case Study 3- Current Planned VSM
The contractor can hire more workers to increase the capacity (if needed) so it can meet the
deadlines for the two foundations. Also, the two foundations can be poured on the same day as the
concrete supplier can supply 400 m3/hour. This also can reduce the equipment costs for placing
concrete. The concrete pump will have a better utilization in pouring the two foundations on the
same day as well as reduce the mobilization and demobilization costs. Furthermore, the overall
project lead time will be improved as the concrete for the two foundations will be cured during the
The future Planned Value Stream Map (PVSM) is created to eliminate waste and increase
workflow as identified in steps 5, 6 and 7. The plan shows the two foundations will be installed
consecutively. The processes to install the foundations are identical, so they are combined into one
process to facilitate planning and progress tracking. The plan is revised, and the extra time required
to train the new workers that were carried in the original budget is eliminated as well as the
equipment and labour required for separate concrete crews are eliminated. The gain in efficiency
due to creating a workable backlog cannot be quantified but it will be measured once the work is
The combined working days to complete the two foundations are 56 days while the revised plan
has 39 working days which is a 30% reduction in the project if the foundations were installed
consecutively. Moreover, the NVAT is reduced from 247.3 hours to 157.3 hours which is a 36.3%
reduction.
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Steps 9, 10, 11 &12. Monitor Future PVSM, Analyze Completed Activities and Create
The future PVSM is monitored during the execution phase of the project, and process metrics are
actualized for completed activities to compare actual to planned performance as shown in Figures
24 and 25. The actual project working days and process times are reduced by 28.6% and 28.2%
respectively compared to the original plan. However, the actual working days are 40 compared to
The NVAT is the original plan is 7.1% and is reduced to 4.6%, as shown in Figure 26, and the
activity ratio in the original plan is 95.2% and 95.8% in the future PVSM and actual one
The results show that the work was executed more efficiently than the average estimated
productivities. For estimating future similar projects, we recommend using this project actual
productivities which supports the concept of “lowering the river” i.e. reducing buffers, [189]. This
allows the project team to track performance and ensure work is progressing as per plan.
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Figure 23: VSM Framework- Current PVSM
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Figure 24: VSM Case Study 3- Monitoring PVSM
,
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Figure 25: VSM Case Study 3- Plan Vs Actual
7.1%
4.6%
4.1%
95.8%
95.2%
92.4%
The developed VSM framework is implemented in three case studies. The results show the
framework can enhance the construction execution plan by identifying and eliminating the waste
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before the execution phase which can ultimately reduce the project’s cost and lead time. The
framework can enhance the industry’s performance in terms of the cost, schedule and lead time at
the field level. Moreover, the framework can be used as a project management tool to plan, monitor
and control the processes as well as with other lean management tools such as the Last Planner
System (LPS) where the VSM framework can be implemented during the planning phase of the
project to eliminate wastes and then use it to monitor progress in the field. It’s a visual tool that
can support the communication and socialization of the execution plan among project partners
which supports the collaborative project delivery approaches. However, to facilitate the framework
standardized.
. The ontology approach is adopted in this study to structure and the VSM framework to facilitate
its application across enterprises as well as support its automation in the future. Making use of
existing ontologies, when possible, is the general principle for building ontologies. The study
utilized the BFO structure to develop the VSM ontology which supports interoperability and data
integration with other domain ontologies. The framework for building and utilizing existing
ontologies developed in manufacturing and design is followed, [137]. The roadmap for developing
▪ Identify relations
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▪ Design instances in the ontology
The principal criteria of top ontology are followed by applying the BFO structure. Protégé is used
to build the ontology. Protégé is an open-source ontology editor and framework developed at
The entities for the VSM model are arranged based on the Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) structure.
The model is based on four major entities which are customer requirements, processes, output
(VSM) and resources as shown in Figure 28. The customer needs and/or requirements initiates the
VSM process that uses resources and results in current and future VSMs.
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Following are the steps followed in developing the ontology:
The scope of the ontology is establishing a common understanding of the VSM framework by
structuring its knowledge to facilitate its application along with construction supply networks.
BFO describes concepts in terms of continuants and occurrents. Continuants are entities that exist
through time while occurrent are events or processes in which continuants participate, [190].
(i) Independent continuants which represent entities that can exist by themselves such as
objects. Material and immaterial entities are the two major subclasses for the independent
continuants. In VSM ontology, physical resources such as actors, materials, equipment, etc. are
represented as a subclass of the material entity while non-physical resources such as software,
(ii) Specifically dependent continuant which represents entities that depend on other entities to
exist such as colour, mass, etc. In VSM ontology, process and activities qualities such as process
metrics and wastes are represented as subclasses of specifically dependent continuant. These
qualities measure and describe activities and processes, and their existence is dependent on the
Generically dependent continuant (GDC) which are entities that cannot exist unless other entities
exist and can migrate from bearer to another such as pdf file. In VSM ontology, information is
represented as a subclass for the GDC. Information needs a bearer to exist, and they can migrate
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from bearer to another.
(iii) The second major entity for BFO is the occurrent which has two major entities, [120]:
(1) Processes which are entities that exist in time by occurring or happening.
In VSM ontology, activities and steps to develop current and future VSMs are represented
as subclasses of processes.
(2) Temporal region which are entities that are part of the time. In VSM ontology, the
timeframe for all entities are represented as a subclass for the temporal region.
(3) Generically dependent occurrents are represented in VSM ontology as changes or events
that occur and depend on the existence of other occurrences such as cost reduction, quality
This study represents one of the first attempts to develop an ontology for VSM.
Existing ontologies should be examined and should be used instead of developing new ones to
support the interoperability of ontologies. In this study, we used the BFO structure to structure the
VSM framework.
The representation of concepts in ontologies involves the representation of their relations which
defines how the entities are connected. There are three major relations: (1) universal-universal
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relation which represents “is_a” i.e. is a subtype of; (2) Universal-Particular relation which
represents instantiates relation e.g. John instantiates human being; (3) particular- particular relation
such as part of relation e.g. john’s arm is part of John, [116]. In VSM, major relations and object
properties are developed to describe the relationship among entities as shown in Table 10.
instances are developed for the ontology to provide guild lines for future users to develop their
own. For example, Visio Software is an instance for VSM software; Enterprise Resources Planning
(ERP) is an instance for Information Technology in-process metrics. VOWL is used to represent
the ontology as shown in Figure 29, [191]. VOWL is a well-specified visual language for ontology
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representation, [192]. VOWL representation shows the classes of the ontology and their
subclasses.
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5.6.2 VSM Ontology Evaluation
Ontology evaluation is described in two terms: validation and verification. VVerificationdeals with
building the ontology correctly, while validations refers to whether the ontology represents reality
or not, [193].
HermiT, a protégé built reasoner, is used to verify the consistency of the ontology as well as the
relationship between classes and subclasses. The ontology is processed in 3349 ms using Hermit
1.3.8.413. Oops is another ontology validation tool that is also used to validate it.
Construction processes require information and material flow across enterprises. Moreover, CSC
has multiple levels and a large number of partners which may hinder the implementation of VSM
along construction supply chain networks. Therefore, multilevel VSM can be a key to map
construction processes due to the large number of partners in the construction supply chain (CSC).
However, mapping processes across enterprises requires standardization for the VSM
methodology. The developed ontology can form a step towards a standardized VSM methodology
for the construction industry. VSM ontology can also support streamlining VSM processes and
data integration among project partners which can promote the multilevel VSM concept. The study
attempts to develop one of the representations for VSM ontologies in the construction industry
which can facilitate its application by structuring and establishing a common understanding for it.
VSM ontology was developed using BFO as an upper ontology to facilitate interoperability and
data integration with other domain ontologies. VOWL is used to represent the ontology. In the
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Chapter 6: Ontology Model to Structure Construction knowledge
The ontology concepts, object properties, and instances were developed through an iterative
process, using ISO 12006-2 recommendations and by conducting interviews with domain experts
who have intensive experience in the industry as shown in section (2) of Figure 30. The BFO
structure was reviewed with the experts; then the classes and their relationships of the developed
ontology were established based on their inputs. They provided the ontology classes, properties
and their relations. ISO 12006-2 is an international standard that provides a basis for classifying
construction systems. It also gives examples that explain the construction concepts, so
organizations can develop their classification systems. Following ISO 12006-2 recommendations
We used Protégé to build the ontology and WebVOWL to represent it as shown in section (3) of
Figure 30. Protégé is an open-source ontology editor and framework developed at Stanford
University. WebVOWL is an ontology visualization tool that aims to provide an intuitive and
comprehensive representation that can be understood by users less familiar with ontologies, [192].
The ontology is evaluated by using Protégé’s built-in reasoner that validate the consistency of the
ontology as well as the relationship between classes and competency questions answered by
industry experts.
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Figure 30: Construction Knowledge Ontology Developing methodology
The scope of the ontology is to structure construction knowledge from the project’s early phases
through to completion to streamline information flow and support data integration with other
domains. A summary of the ontology framework is shown in Figure 31. The origin of a
construction project is the need to build a construction entity to fulfil a requirement such as living,
producing, or manufacturing. The project should meet certain criteria such as financial,
jurisdictional, social, and engineering that may act as guidelines and constraints for the project.
The needs and requirements to build the entity initiate the processes, which include but are not
limited to pre-design, design, construction execution, operations, and disposal, as shown in Figure
31. The processes occur during a process life cycle which is the timeframe for the process and/or
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activity; the process uses resources such as construction aids, e.g., scaffolding and earth moving
equipment, which is equipment and/or materials that support the processes, but they do not form a
part of the construction entity. Actors such as engineers and construction professionals execute the
processes that result in a construction entity that fulfills the owner’s needs and requirements. The
construction entity, e.g., a building, plant, and bridge, has products such as materials and
equipment that form a part of it. It also has spaces and elements, which are a group of materials
Formal and upper ontologies facilitate communication among domain ontologies, which supports
the interoperability and integration of these ontologies. Therefore, following the BFO structure
supports the integration of the developed ontology with other domain ones. ISO 12006-2 (2015)
Six interviews with domain experts were conducted to have their inputs in developing the
ontology. The interviewees have worked for various organizations, and their current positions are
General Manager, Construction Manager, Safety Director, General Superintendent, Senior Project
Coordinator, and Project Coordinator. They were recruited via the researchers’ industry
relationships as well as referrals. The BFO was presented to the interviewees, so they understood
the structure and the purpose of the ontology. Then the interviewees were asked to develop the
classes and their relationships based on their experiences as well as asked to review the partially
developed ontology and provide recommendations, so the developed ontology reflects the
industry’s knowledge.
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Figure 31: Construction Knowledge Ontology Framework
BFO is based on fundamental distinct between continuants and occurrences. Continuants are
entities that exist through time while occurrences are events or processes in which continuants
participate, [190].
(i) Independent continuants represent entities that can exist by themselves, such as objects.
Material and immaterial entities are the two significant subclasses for the independent
continuants:
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▪ Material entities are independent continuants that have three dimensions and continue
through an interval of time. In the developed ontology, the material entity has three
significant subclasses. The first one is construction entities, which result from the
construction sectors. The second subclass of material entity is the construction resources,
which represent materials, equipment, tools and actors that participate in processes. The
third subclass is the object aggregate, which is a group of products that form a system.
Construction element entities such as walls and HVAC systems are the major subclasses
▪ Immaterial entities are independent continuants that have no material entities as parts.
Continuant flat boundary and spatial region are the main subclasses for the immaterial
entity. Continuant flat boundary represents the boundaries and zones for material entities
where the processes take place, which can change as materials move. However, the spatial
region is fixed and represents the location of entities such as countries and cities. Software
(ii) Specifically dependent continuant (SDC) entities depend on other entities to exist.
Examples include colour and mass. SDC has two main subclasses:
▪ A quality describes the internal and external properties for independent continuants, such
as mass and colour, respectively. The quality status is a subclass for the quality entity and
represents the conformance of material entities with design and standards. Relational
quality is another subclass for the quality entity and describes the relationship among
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▪ Realizable entities describe the functions and roles of independent continuants that are
realized through associated processes such as the function of a construction entity, can be
for storing materials (e.g. warehouses) or for living (e.g. houses), etc.
(iii) Generically dependent continuant (GDC) entities cannot exist unless another entity
exists and can migrate from one bearer to another. And example is a pdf file that needs a
place to be stored in (i.e., cannot exist by itself) but can be transferred to other places,
of GDC. The information entity has subclasses that represent general industry information
such as standards, codes, and project-specific information that result from the project’s
processes.
The second major class of entity for BFO is occurrences, which have four major entities, [120]:
▪ Processes are entities that exist in time. The processes for a construction project are
classified based on the project phases. Processes have sub-processes that can be broken
into activities:
▪ Project definition includes all activities and processes that occur before the design phase,
such as project shaping and business case development. Project sanction usually takes
▪ Design process includes engineering and architectural processes and results in design
in a construction entity.
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▪ Operation is the use phase of the construction entity, e.g., using it for living in a building
▪ Maintenance is the process that ensures the construction facility is operating as per the
▪ Decommissioning is the process that shuts down the construction entity from operational
status.
▪ Disposal is the process of removing the construction entity and then reinstating the zone
as required.
▪ Process boundaries depend on the existence of the process. They form the boundaries
that the process should operate within, such as customer requirements, functional needs,
▪ Spatiotemporal region is a part of spacetime, e.g. the spacetime for a process that has a
▪ The temporal region represents the timeframe for a process. The temporal region has
which a process occurs. The life cycles for processes are represented as subclasses of the
zero-dimensional region.
The WebVOWL is a graphical representation of the developed ontology. It shows the classes and
their subclasses, which facilitates the understanding of the ontology, [191]. This visual
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representation can be very useful for users who are less familiar with ontologies as they can follow
the structure of the, its concept and their relationships through an interactive tool, [194]. The
ontology classes and subclasses are represented using WebVOWL, refer to Appendix C.
Instances are the atomic or ground level of the ontology, and they provide specific individuals for
the concepts. For example, John is an instance of a Civil Engineer class. Ontology may have only
classes and no instances, [195]. Instances are created for the developed ontology to provide
examples that can facilitate understanding the ontology and further detailing in the future. For
Ontology evaluation is described in two terms: validation and verification. Validation refers to
whether the ontology represents reality or not, while verification deals with building the ontology
right, [193]. Verification ensures models are built correctly. Static and dynamic tests are common
verifications techniques. Static tests are mainly concerned with verifying the model via
walkthroughs and examining its structure. However, dynamic test ensures the model is working
properly through various techniques such as input-output relation tests and internal consistency
checks, [196]. Protégé is used to build the ontology. HermiT, a Protégé built reasoner, is used to
verify the consistency of the ontology as well as the relationship between classes and subclasses.
The ontology is processed in 3.349 seconds using Hermit 1.3.8.413. Various validation techniques
can be used to test models, such as degenerate tests, events and face validity tests. In face validity
tests, experts who are knowledgeable about the system are asked if it is reasonable or not, [196].
The aim of the developed ontology is to represent construction knowledge. Face validity is chosen
because it can test if the ontology represents reality or not through industry experts evaluation. The
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ontology is validated against its scope via interviews with experts. The interviewees have worked
for various organizations and their current positions are General Manager, Project Manager, Site
Manager, Safety Director, General Superintendent, Senior Project Coordinator, and Project
Coordinator. Few of the interviewees participated in developing the ontology, and they were asked
to evaluate it after many iterations that resulted in the final one. The interviewees are asked
competency questions, shown in Figure 32, to evaluate the ontology based on its aim, i.e.,
representing construction knowledge throughout various project phases and the ability of the
industry to use it to structure the domain knowledge, and further detail it. The participants are
asked to rate their comments on a 5-point scale where one represents strongly disagree, and five
strongly agree. The average answers if the ontology represents the architectural, engineering and
construction knowledge and if it is easy to understand and follow is 4.8 and 4.7, respectively.
However, the average answers for the ability to apply the ontology at work and use it to structure
knowledge and data is 4.6, as shown in Figure 32. The participants strongly agree that the
developed ontology is competent according to its scope. However, a more significant participant’s
SPARQL querry is completed within protégé and shown in Appendix C. The study focuses on
developing the ontology in terms of its concepts and properties and not on the building of a user
interface where information can be input into its knowledge base. This will be a future work once
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Comptency Questions Results
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
The developed ontology provides a framework to structure construction knowledge throughout the
project’s life cycle. Using a BFO format provides a philosophical foundation as well as an
automatic methodology for building a construction ontology. It also can support its integration
with other domain ontologies. The developed ontology can facilitate the information flow as well
as knowledge management for the construction industry, which can promote the implementation
of Construction 4.0. The study is limited in terms of the number of interviews as well as the level
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Chapter 7: Conclusion and Future Work
7.1 Conclusions
The thesis aims to determine currently used tools to exchange information in the construction
industry and evaluate the effectiveness of these tools, the extent of adoption of VSM, and develop
a framework for VSM in CSC. A survey was conducted to collect data from industry participants.
It was found that Alberta’s construction industry mainly relies on emails, meetings, phone calls,
and face to face discussions as a means of communication. The email has the highest frequency
use index of 91%, followed by meetings, phone calls, correspondence, and IMS, at 80%, 69%,
56%, and 31%, respectively. We also find that most of the information within an organization stays
at the individual employee level and is unlikely to be stored or shared formally with others. This
hinders the transfer of construction knowledge from tacit to explicit knowledge, which impacts
knowledge capitalization, innovation, and value creation. The construction industry in Alberta
hasn’t widely adopted VSM or other lean management techniques. Interviews with industry
experts are conducted to determine the methods used to improve construction processes efficiency.
It was found the industry hasn’t yet adopted tools to identify and eliminate wastes, including lean
To determine the effectiveness of VSM methodology in CSC, case studies in procurement and
tender phases are implemented. The results show that the traditional VSM is an effective tool to
improve repetitive processes at the nano and micro levels. However, an efficient information flow
system is required for an effective mapping methodology at the meso and macro levels. Taking
into consideration the unique characteristics of construction projects, the study proposes a
framework that introduces VSM to the planning phase of the projects to identify and eliminate
wastes before the execution phase; it also implements VSM during the execution phase to monitor
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and measure performance. In a case study, the results show project execution plan was improved
by reducing NVAT from 76.3% in the original plan to 29.5% in PVSM, and the actual one is
29.7%. An ontology is developed for the developed VSM framework using the BFO structure to
facilitate its automation and communication with other ontologies. Implementing VSM to identify
and eliminate wastes as well as monitor the progress of the future state map during installation can
support the Critical Path Method (CPM) and other project management tools, such as scheduling
and planning, that are being used to plan, monitor and control construction projects.
After completing the case studies, it was observed that the implementation of improvements in
future state VSM can be a challenge especially when technology or investment is required such as
purchasing or modifying ERP systems. Moreover, most processes’ stakeholders are not familiar
with the VSM and other lean tools. Lean education is needed, and it is recommended to assign
personnel who is familiar with VSM and the organization processes to manage its implementation.
The percentages of non-value-added activities were relatively high. It seems that the wastes are
normalized in the processes; mapping the processes and discussing the wastes provides a “lens”
for the process stakeholders to identify the wastes and understand the differences between value-
added and non-value-added activities. VSM can also support exposing the problems and the root
causes of the wastes which provides a lean “lens” for process stakeholders to eliminate wastes. An
efficient tool to implement VSM is needed and can facilitate the process.
An ontology for construction knowledge is developed to support structuring CSC data and
integrate it with other domain ontologies. In developing the ontology, BFO structure is followed,
which is a mature ontology widely used in many domains, ISO 12006-2 (2015) recommendations
are implemented, and domain experts are interviewed for the ontology development and
evaluation. The ontology establishes high-level concepts of construction knowledge. It does not
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cover all construction concepts, but it can form a framework to structure the construction data,
which supports the integration of the construction value chain by streamlining its information flow
VSM has been widely applied in many sectors since the latter half of the 20th century, but it is still
implemented improperly in many cases; for example, only the current state map is developed and
the future state map is ignored. Such inadequate application is due to the weakness of the
traditional VSM and lack of standardization which allows such improper implementation, [79].
Moreover, implementing traditional VSM in construction face many challenges due to the
future state map cannot be applied, and multiple partners are involved in a single process. The
study developed a framework that introduces VSM to the planning phase of the project and use it
as a monitoring tool during the execution phase. Information flow is key in VSM. Mapping
processes that involve multiple partners requires proper structuring of the information to facilitate
However, the construction industry lacks a standardized methodology for ontology development
as well as an ontology that covers all project phases. The study developed an upper construction
ontology using the BFO structure to support its integration with other domain ontologies. The
traditional VSM methodology can be applied for repetitive processes which are mainly related to
the administrative offsite activities while a developed framework can be implemented in non-
repetitive ones. The two VSM methodologies, i.e traditional and develop, can support mapping
the majority of the construction processes, and the construction ontology can structure projects
and processes data throughout all project phases. The VSM framework and construction ontology
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can support the development of a VSM framework which can be a step towards a standardized
VSM methodology.
▪ The survey response rate is low. A higher response rate will be required to generalize
the results.
▪ Interviews, regarding the use of lean management tools and ontology development,
geographical areas.
▪ More case studies should be completed for the VSM framework and in other
The research undertaken in this dissertation demonstrates an approach to integrate the construction
supply chain and enhance its performance by developing VSM and knowledge management
frameworks. The summary of the thesis and future works are shown in Figure 33. Following are
▪ The VSM framework should be implemented in more case studies to support its
generalization and then standardization. The case studies will be implemented in various
industrial, commercial and institutional projects throughout the project phases which
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include design, construction execution, procurement and commissioning. The case
▪ Artificial intelligence and machine learning can be utilized in the VSM framework to
support “proactive” planning by identifying and eliminating wastes during the planning
phase of the project. Also, VSM can be used to map and support other project management
▪ The developed ontology is a first step towards a detailed ontology that covers the majority
of the construction concepts. Future work will be focusing on further developing and
detailing the ontology through interviews with industry and academic experts. Also, the
▪ The construction developed ontology was built following the BFO structure. Future work
will focus on integrating it with other domain ontologies that have a similar structure. This
can facilitate the integration of the construction supply chain as well as information flow
across industries.
▪ The survey and interviews for information flow tools and efficiency improvement
techniques can be conducted in other geographical areas, and the results should be
▪ The industry has realized the need to integrate its supply chain, so many project delivery
models and approaches such as Integrated Project Delivery (IPD), Early Contractor
Involvement (ECI), and advanced Work Packaging (AWP) have been developed to
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the early phases of the project, i.e. planning and design phases. The developed ontology
and VSM framework can support the collaborative project delivery models and project
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execution. It develops deliverables, such as Construction Work Packages (CWP), Engineering
Work Packages (EWP), and Installation Work Packages (IWP), in a collaborative manner during
the early phases of the project, [200]. CWP carries construction information such as scope,
quantities, quality, the safety that will be needed by the construction contractor to execute the work
while the EWP carries the design and engineering information such as design drawings and
specifications. IWPs are packages that are used by front end crews to execute the work, [199].
Therefore, the main aspects of AWP are early planning that involves engineering and construction
contractors and breaking the project into packages that carry information to the downstream
information flow and managing the data that can be adequately packaged to implement the AWP
model. Moreover, the VSM framework can be implemented during the planning phase to eliminate
waste and communicate the plan efficiently with front end crews.
IPD includes the involvement of all key project partners such as owner, engineers, architect, and
construction contractor from the outset of the project in an integrated manner, i.e. working as one
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team. The team plans the project collaboratively, and every partner executes his work as planned,
[201]. IPD's main aspects are the collaborative work among project partners with trust, respect and
suitable work relationship to achieve a common goal. However, the main challenges for the model
are the inconsistency in structure organizations, various tools and techniques each partner brings
in, [202]. The developed ontology that structures the construction knowledge can provide a
consistent methodology to structure project data that can be used by all project partners. Moreover,
the VSM framework can be utilized by project partners during the planning phase to identify and
eliminate wastes and reduce project costs, which provide an incentive to all project partners as
ECI is defined as engaging the contractor from the early design phase of the project to influence
design by its construction knowledge. The major aspects of ECI are promoting knowledge
projects, [203]. The main advantage of ECI is early constructability input from the contactor can
promotes the collaboration between designers and contractors who are responsible for
construction, and reduce project cost by designing to suit best construction methods, [204].
However, implementing the ECI model faces many challenges, such as culture change,
inconsistent planning tools and data management systems among project partners, [204]. The VSM
framework can support the ECI model by providing a planning tool to eliminate waste, monitor
and control performance during the execution phase. Moreover, construction ontology can provide
119
The developed knowledge management and VSM frameworks can support the collaborative
models by structuring the project information and facilitate its retrieval and communication among
project partners. The VSM framework can be used as a collaborative tool to plan, monitor and
control the plan. In future work, the developed ontology and VSM can be implemented in
120
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Appendices
Value stream mapping for tendering case study is completed. The current state VSM is shown in
figure Appendix A- Figure 1. The process metrics are chosen processes and lead times, as well as
information flow tools. The current state map shows the processing time is 86.25 hours, while the
non-value-added time is 58.5 hours. The process has approximately 40% of the non-value-added
time. The future state map is developed for the process and the processing time is reduced to 66.25
hours while the non-value-added time is reduced 12.5 hours by combing combining activities as
well as applying Andon, i.e. estimators to ask questions once needed and eliminate the review
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Appendix A- Figure 1: Current State VSM
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Appendix A- Figure 2: Future State VSM
Appendix B: VSM Ontology Classes
The entities for the VSM model are arranged based on the Basic Formal Ontology (BFO)
structure. The model is based on four major entities, which are customer requirements,
processes, output (VSM) and resources, as shown in Appendix B- Figure 1. The customer needs
and/or requirements initiates the VSM process that uses resources and results in current and
future VSMs.The framework for developing and utilizing existing ontologies in manufacturing
and design has been followed in this study [137] . Following are the steps we followed in
The scope of the ontology is establishing a common understanding for VSM by structuring its
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Step 2: Categorize concepts and develop a class hierarchy
BFO describes concepts in terms of continuants and occurrents. Continuants are entities that exist
through time while occurrent is events or processes in which continuants participate [190].
Continuants have three major subclasses [113]:
(i) Independent continuants which represent entities that can exist by themselves such
as objects. Material and immaterial entities are the two major subclasses for the
equipment, etc. are represented as a subclass of the material entity, while non-physical
entity.
(ii) Specifically dependent continuant which represents entities that depends on other
entity to exist such as colour, mass, etc. In VSM ontology, process and activities qualities
such as process metrices and wastes are represented as subclasses of specifically dependent
continuant. These qualities measure and describe activities and processes, and their
(iii) Generically dependent continuant (GDC) which are entities that cannot exist unless
other entity exists and are able to migrate from bearer to another such as pdf file. In VSM
ontology, information is represented as a subclass for the GDC. Information needs a bearer
The second major entity for BFO is the occurrent which has two major entities [120]:
(1) Processes which are entities that exist in time by occurring or happening.
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In VSM ontology, activities and steps to develop current and future VSMs are represented
as subclasses of processes.
(2) Temporal region which are entities that are part of time. In VSM ontology, the timeframe
(3) Generically dependent occurrents are represented in VSM ontology as changes or events
that occur and depend on the existence of other occurrences such as cost reduction, quality
improvements, requirement and function entities. The ontology concepts are shown in
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Appendix B- Figure 2: VSM Ontology Concept (protégé) (1of 3)
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Appendix B- Figure 3: VSM Ontology Concept (protégé) (2 of 3)
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Appendix B- Figure 4: VSM Ontology Concept (protégé) (3 of 3)
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Appendix C: Construction Knowledge Ontology
The ontology is developed using Basic Formal Ontology as an upper ontology, incorporating ISO
12006-2 recommendations and conducting interviews with domain experts, as shown in figure 1.
Ontology’s entities are arranged based on BFO structure, which is a formal ontology framework
that was developed initially for natural sciences then extended to other domains [120]. BFO is a
mature upper ontology [139] that has been used in developing hundreds of ontologies in various
domains [133]. Therefore, developing construction ontology using the BFO structure can support
The developed framework follows ISO 12006-2 (2015) recommendations. ISO 12006-2 is an
international standard that provides a basis for classifying construction systems. It also gives
examples that explain the construction concepts so organizations can follow to develop their own
classification systems [138]. Following ISO 12006-2 recommendations can facilitate adapting and
The ontology concepts, relationships and properties are developed via interviews with industry
experts. Then Protégé is used to build the ontology and WebVOWL to represent it. Protégé is an
open-source ontology editor and framework developed at Stanford University [205]. WebVOWL
is an ontology visualization tool that aims to provide an intuitive and comprehensive representation
that can be understood by users less familiar with ontologies [192]. The ontology is evaluated by
using protege built in reasoner and competency questions answered by industry experts.
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Appendix C- Figure 1: Construction Ontology Development Methodology
Construction project starts from a need to build a construction entity to fulfil a requirement such
as living, producing, or manufacturing. The project should meet certain criteria such as financials,
jurisdictional, social, and engineering that may act as guidelines and constraints for the project.
The needs and requirements to build the entity initiate the processes, which include but not limited
to pre-design, design, construction execution, operations, and disposal. The processes occur during
a process life cycle which is the timeframe for the process and/or activity; the process uses
resources such as construction aids, e.g. scaffolding and earth moving equipment, which is
equipment and/or materials that support the processes, but they do not form a part of the
construction entity. Actors such as engineers and construction professionals execute the processes
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that result in a construction entity that fulfills the owner’s needs and requirements. The
construction entity, e.g. a building, plant, and bridge, has products such as materials and equipment
that form apart of it. It also has spaces and elements, which are a group of materials and/or
equipment that form a system such as a wall and HVAC systems. A summary of the ontology
construction knowledge from the early project’s phases to the final one to streamline information
Formal and upper ontologies facilitate communication among domain ontologies, which supports
the interoperability and integration of these ontologies. Therefore, following the BFO structure
supports the integration of the developed ontology with other domain ones. ISO 12006-2 (2015)
recommendations are followed, which promotes the standardization of the concepts. Six interviews
with domain experts are conducted to have their inputs in developing the ontology. The BFO is
presented to the interviewees, so they understand the structure and the purpose of the ontology.
Then the subclasses and their relationships are developed using their inputs.
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Appendix C- Figure 2: Construction Knowledge Ontology Framework
BFO is based on fundamental distinct between continuants and occurrences. Continuants are
entities that exist through time while occurrent is events or processes in which continuants
participate [190]. Continuants have three major subclasses [113]:
(iv) Independent Continuants represent entities that can exist by themselves, such as
objects. Material and immaterial entities are the two significant subclasses for the
independent continuants:
material entity has three significant subclasses. The first one is construction
entities, which result from the execution process such as buildings, plants,
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subclass of material entity is the construction resources, which represent
third subclass is the object aggregate, which is group of products that form
a system. Construction element entity such as wall and HVAC system is the
entities as parts. Continuant flat boundary and spatial region are the main
subclasses for the immaterial entity. Continuant flat boundary represents the
boundaries and zones for material entities where the processes take place,
which can change as materials move. However, the spatial region is fixed
and represents the location of entities such as countries and cities. Software
(v) Specifically, Dependent Continuant (SDC) represents entities that depend on other
entities to exist, such as colour, mass. SDC has two main subclasses:
status is a subclass for the quality entity which represents the conformance
subclass for the quality entity describes the relationship among entities
- Realizable Entity, which describes the functions and roles for the
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(vi) Generically Dependent Continuant (GDC) are entities that cannot exist unless another
entity exists and able to migrate from bearer to another such as pdf file. In construction
subclasses that represent general industry information such as standards, codes and
The second major entity for BFO is the occurrent which has four major entities [120]:
processes for a construction process are classified based on the project phases.
Processes have sub-processes that can be broken into activities. Following are
- Operation is the use phase of the construction entity, e.g. using it for living
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- Disposal is the process of removing the construction entity and then
ii- Process Boundaries are occurrents, and their existence depends on the existence
of the process. They form the boundaries that the process should operate within,
iii- Spatiotemporal region is a part of spacetime, e.g. the spacetime for a process
iv- The temporal region represents the temporal region of the spatiotemporal
region, i.e. the timeframe for a process. The temporal region has zero- and one-
time in which a process occurs. The life cycles for processes are represented as
The concepts of the developed ontology are shown in Figures Appendix C- 3 to 21:
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Appendix C- Figure 3: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (1 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 4: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (2 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 5: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (3 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 6: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (4 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 7: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (5 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 8: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (6 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 9: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (7 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 10: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (8 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 11: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (9 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 12: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (10 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 13: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (11 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 14: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (12 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 15: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (13 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 16: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (14 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 17: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (15 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 18: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (16 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 19: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (17 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 20: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (18 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 21: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (19 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 22: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (20 of 21)
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Appendix C- Figure 23: Construction Ontology Concepts (protégé) (21 of 21)
The ontology classes and subclasses are represented using WebVOWLas shown in Figures
Appendix C- Figure 24. Figures Appendix C- 25, and 26 are section views of Figure Appendix C-
Figure 24. The WebVOWL is a graphical representation of the developed ontology. It shows the
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classes and their subclasses, which facilitates the understanding of the ontology, [191]. This visual
representation can be very useful for users who are less familiar with ontologies as they can follow
the structure of the, its concept and their relationships through an interactive tool, [194]
Section 1
Section 2
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Appendix C- Figure 25: WebVOWL representation for Ontology Classes- Section 1
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Appendix C- Figure 26: WebVOWL representation for Ontology Classes-Section 2
Appendix C- Figure 27: SPARQL protégé
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Appendix C- Figure 28: SPARQL protégé
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Appendix C- Figure 29: SPARQL protégé
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Appendix D: Survey Questions
The survey questions are sent to all workers in the construction industry
to have the largest possible participation. The questions are designed to
be simple and multiple-choice answers to make it easier for participants
to answer the questions.
Question
How long have you been working or worked in the construction
industry?
0-5 years
5-10 years
0A More than 10 years
How would you classify the company you work for?
Owner, General contractor, supplier, subcontractor, engineering,
0B consultant
Which construction sector you are working or worked in?
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Do you file your phone calls and face to face discussion notes, so
9. project team and other stakeholders have access to them?
Always – Often – Sometimes – Seldom – Never
10. How often do you use your email to exchange information?
Always – Often – Sometimes – Seldom – Never
Do you file and share information you received or sent by email
11. with the project team?
Answer: Always – Often – Sometimes – Seldom – Never
Are you satisfied with email response time? i.e. how often do you
receive the information you need in timely fashion to make decision?
12.
- Fast response and no delays on decision making
- Sometimes people response late which impacts and may delay my
decisions
- People always late and have significant impacts on my decisions
Do you use an information management system to exchange
13. information with interior or exterior stakeholders?
Yes, no
If yes, please list_______________
14 Do you use hard copies such as printed reports, mail, etc to exchange
. information?
Yes, no
If yes, do you receive the information in timely manner? i.e. are you
satisfied with hard copy as an effective tool to exchange
information?
Yes, no
In material purchasing process, does your company use hard copy
15. purchase orders?
Answer: Yes, no if no what kind of system do you use?
16. During tender phase, how do you receive the tender package?
Answer: hard copy, email, through information management system, all
of the above, others
How do you communicate with owners, subcontractor/suppliers
17. during tender stage?
Answer: emails, phone calls, hard copies, all of the above, others
How does your company communicate with
suppliers/subcontractors to request quote for material, equipment,
18. etc?
Answer: emails, phone calls, hard copies, all of the above, others
When do you usually order the materials that you need in your
19. construction project?
Answer: Just in time to be installed, i.e. minimal or no storage time
At the start of the project and store it onsite
Randomly i.e. no set plan for when the materials should be purchased
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Following questions are related to KPIs, to determine what are the most
important KPIs in the industry. Questions 19 and 20 to determine if the
industry currently implementing these KPIs?
1
-
N
o
t
i 2- 4-
Select the Key Performance Indicators (Business objectives/goals) m less Very
3-important
important to your organization and rate the importance level? p impo impo
o rtant rtant
r
t
a
n
20. t
Safety Performance ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Information management ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Overall cost reduction ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Performance improvement ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Waste Reduction (Physical and non-value-added activities) ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Quality improvement ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Productivity improvement ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Customer service satisfaction ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Schedule ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Other_________________ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Y
Does Your company use quantifiable indicator to measure following Key
e No KPI example
21. performance indicators? s
such as Rif,
Safety Performance ☐ ☐
TRIF
availability of
Information management ☐ ☐
information
labor cost,
Overall cost reduction ☐ ☐ material and
equipment
Performance improvement ☐ ☐
Lead time,
Waste Reduction (Physical and non-value added activities) ☐ ☐
process time
no. of defects
Quality improvement ☐ ☐
per manhour
productivity
Productivity improvement ☐ ☐
rates target
formal
customer
Customer service satisfaction ☐ ☐
feedback in
regular basis
rate of
completing
Schedule ☐ ☐
projects on
time
Other_________________
Other_________________
Other_________________
Other_________________
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Do you select you contractor/ subcontractor,
supplier based on defined criteria or kPIs?
Cost Only
Defined Criteria and shared with all
stakeholders
Defined criteria but not shared with all
stakeholders
22. No defined criteria i.e. project based
24. Yes, no
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Appendix E: Interview Questions
The interview questions were directed to professionals who have management and leader roles.
The objective of the interview is to determine the current tools and techniques the managers use
to improve the work processes and efficiencies. The answers are used to determine if the
b. Are you familiar with lean management tools and techniques? If yes can you,
c. Are you familiar with different types of wastes a process can have?
project?
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f. How do you find the root causes of a problem you have in your project or
company?
g. how do you measure the “value” of the product or service your company offer to
customers?
processes, and also sort out possible non-value-added activities. Have you used
value stream map in projects or company before? How do you set the value
The interview questions will be directed to professionals who have management and leader roles
within the industry. The objective of the interview will be to have an expert opinion and share
their experiences in the industry to develop an information flow system. The answers will also be
used to develop the framework as well as the concepts and relations for an Ontology.
a. Can you please introduce your current position, types of projects you work on,
b. The experts will be asked to review the developed ontology and comment on the
concepts, attributes and the relation between these concepts to ensure current
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Following is the Ontology that the participants will be asked to review:
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Appendix G: Interview Questions- Ontology Evaluation
The construction ontology was evaluated through a competency questions asked for experts. Following
I- Does the Ontology represent the Architectural, Engineering and Construction Concepts?
IV- Can you use it as framework to structure the data at your organization?
V- Do you think the Construction industry may adapt the framework or concept?
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